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Musculoskeletal Musculoskeletal System Assessment & System Assessment &
DisordersDisorders
Dr Ibraheem Bashayreh, RN, PhD
Skeletal SystemSkeletal SystemBone typesBone structureBone functionBone growth and metabolism
affected by calcium and phosphorous, calcitonin, vitamin D, parathyroid, growth hormone, glucocorticoids, estrogens and androgens, thyroxine, and insulin.
BonesBones
Human skeleton has 206 bonesProvide structure and support for soft
tissueProtect vital organs
Figure 41-1 Bones of the human skeleton.Figure 41-1 Bones of the human skeleton.
Figure 41-2 Classification of bones by shape.Figure 41-2 Classification of bones by shape.
BonesBonesCompact bone
◦Smooth and dense◦Forms shaft of long bones and
outside layer of other bonesSpongy bone
◦Contains spaces◦Spongy sections contain bone
marrow
Bone MarrowBone MarrowRed bone marrow
◦Found in flat bones of sternum, ribs, and ileum
◦Produces blood cells and hemoglobinYellow bone marrow
◦Found in shaft of long bones◦Contains fat and connective tissue
Joints (Articulations)Joints (Articulations)Area where two or more bones
meetHolds skeleton together while
allowing body to move
JointsJointsSynarthrosis
◦Immovable (e.g., skull)Amphiarthrosis
◦Slightly movable (e.g., vertebral joints)
Diarthrosis or synovial◦Freely movable (e.g., shoulders,
hips)
Synovial JointsSynovial JointsFound at all limb articulationsSurface covered with cartilageJoint cavity covered with tough
fibrous capsuleCavity lined with synovial
membrane and filled with synovial fluid
LigamentsLigamentsBands of connective tissue that
connect bone to boneEither limit or enhance
movementProvide joint stabilityEnhance joint strength
TendonsTendonsFibrous connective tissue bands
that connect bone to musclesEnable bones to move when
muscles contract
MusclesMusclesSkeletal (voluntary)
◦Allows voluntary movementSmooth (involuntary)
◦Muscle movement controlled by internal mechanism
◦e.g., muscles in bladder wall and GI system
Cardiac (involuntary)◦Found in heart
Skeletal MuscleSkeletal Muscle600 skeletal musclesMade up of thick bundles of
parallel fibersEach muscle fiber made up of
smaller structure myofibrilsMyofibrils are strands of
repeating units called sarcomeres
Skeletal MuscleSkeletal MuscleSkeletal muscle contracts with
the release of acetylcholineThe more fibers that contract,
the stronger the muscle contraction
Changes in Older AdultChanges in Older AdultMusculoskeletal changes can be
due to:◦Aging process◦Decreased activity◦Lifestyle factors
Changes in Older AdultChanges in Older AdultLoss of bone mass in older
womenJoint and disk cartilage
dehydrates causing loss of flexibility contributes to degenerative joint disease (osteoarthritis); joints stiffen, lose range of motion
Changes in Older AdultChanges in Older AdultCause stooped posture, changing
center of gravityElderly at greater risk for fallsEndocrine changes cause skeletal
muscle atrophyMuscle tone decreases
AssessmentAssessmentHealth historyChief complaintOnset of problemEffect on ADLsPrecipitating events, e.g., trauma
AssessmentAssessmentExamine complaints of pain for
location, duration, radiation character (sharp dull), aggravating, or alleviating factors
Inquire about fever, fatigue, weight changes, rash, or swelling
Physical ExaminationPhysical ExaminationPostureGaitAbility to walk with or without
assistive devicesAbility to feed, toilet, and dress
selfMuscle mass and symmetry
Physical ExaminationPhysical ExaminationInspect and palpate bone, joints
for visible deformities, tenderness or pain, swelling, warmth, and ROM
Assess and compare corresponding joints
Palpate joints knees and shoulder for crepitus
Physical ExaminationPhysical ExaminationNever attempt to move a joint
past normal ROM or past point where patient experiences pain
Bulge sign and ballottement sign used to assess for fluid in the knee joint
Thomas test performed when hip flexion contracture suspected
Figure 41-4 Checking for the bulge sign.Figure 41-4 Checking for the bulge sign.
Figure 41-5 Checking for ballottement.Figure 41-5 Checking for ballottement.
Diagnostic TestsDiagnostic TestsBlood testsArthrocentesisX-raysBone density scanCT scanMRIUltrasoundBone scan
Diagnostic EvaluationDiagnostic EvaluationImaging Procedures – CT, Bone Scan, MRINuclear Studies - radioisotope bone density, Endoscopic Studies –arthrocentesis,
arthroscopyOther Studies –biopsy, synovial fluid,
Arthrogram, venogram, ElectromyographyMyelography*Laboratory Studies
MusculoskeletalMusculoskeletalAssessment – Diagnostic TestAssessment – Diagnostic TestLaboratory
◦ Urine Tests 24 hour creatine-
creatinine ratio Urine Uric acid –24
hr specimen Urine
deoxypyridino-line
Laboratory◦ Blood Tests
Serum muscle enzymes
Rheumatoid Factor LE Prep/Antinuclear
Antibodies(ANA) Erythrocyte
Sedimentation Rate Calcium,
Phosphorous, Alkaline phosphatase
MuscoluloskeletalMuscoluloskeletalAssessment – DiagnosticAssessment – Diagnostic
Blood Tests◦ CBC – Hgb, Hct◦ Acid phosphatase◦ Metabolic/
Endocrine◦ Enzymes
Increase creatine kinase, serum increase glutamin-oxaloacetic due to muscle damage, aldolase, SGOT
Musculoskeletal - Musculoskeletal - RadiographicRadiographic
Standard radiography, tomography and xeroradiography, myelography, arthrography and CT
Other diagnostic tests: bone and muscle biopsy
ArthroscopyArthroscopyFiberoptic tube is inserted into a
joint for direct visualization.Client must be able to flex the
knee; exercises are prescribed for ROM.
Evaluate the neurovascular status of the affected limb frequently.
Analgesics are prescribed.Monitor for complications.
Bone ScanBone ScanNuclear medicine procedure in
which amount of radioactive isotope taken up by bones is evaluated
Abnormal bone scans show hot spots due to malignancies or infection
Cold spot uptakes show areas of bone that are ischemic
ArthroscopyArthroscopyFlexible fiberoptic endoscope
used to view joint structures and tissues
Used to identify:◦Torn tendon and ligaments◦Injured meniscus◦Inflammatory joint changes◦Damaged cartilage
Interventions for Clients Interventions for Clients with Musculoskeletal with Musculoskeletal TraumaTrauma
Musculoskeletal TraumaMusculoskeletal TraumaTissue is subjected to more force
than it can absorbSeverity depends on:
◦Amount of force◦Location of impact
Musculoskeletal TraumaMusculoskeletal TraumaMild to severeSoft tissueFractures
◦Affect function of muscle, tendons, and ligaments
Complete amputation
Preventing TraumaPreventing TraumaTeach importance of using safety
equipment◦Seat belts◦Bicycle helmets◦Football pads◦Proper footwear◦Protective eyewear◦Hard hats
Soft Tissue TraumaSoft Tissue TraumaContusion
◦Bleeding into soft tissue◦Significant bleeding can cause a
hematoma◦Swelling and discoloration (bruise)
Soft Tissue Trauma - SprainSoft Tissue Trauma - Sprain
Ligament injury (Excessive stretching of a ligament)
Twisting motionOverstretching or tear
◦Grade I—mild bleeding and inflammation◦Grade II—severe stretching and some
tearing and inflammation and hematoma◦Grade III—complete tearing of ligament◦Grade IV—bony attachment of ligament
broken away
SprainsSprains Treatment of sprains:
◦first-degree: rest, ice for 24 to 48 hr, compression bandage, and elevation
◦second-degree: immobilization, partial weight bearing as tear heals
◦third-degree: immobilization for 4 to 6 weeks, possible surgery
Soft Tissue Trauma - StrainSoft Tissue Trauma - StrainMicroscopic tear in the muscleMay cause bleeding“Pulled muscle”Inappropriate lifting or sudden
acceleration-deceleration
Soft Tissue TraumaSoft Tissue TraumaTo decrease swelling and pain,
and encourage rest◦Ice for first 48 hours◦Splint to support extremities and
limit movement◦Compression dressing◦Elevation to increase venous return
and decrease swelling◦NSAIDs
Soft Tissue TraumaSoft Tissue TraumaDiagnosis
◦X-ray to rule out fracture◦MRI
FracturesFracturesBreak in the continuity of bone
◦Direct blow◦Crushing force (compression)◦Sudden twisting motions (torsion)◦Severe muscle contraction◦Disease (pathologic fracture)
FracturesFracturesClassification of FracturesClassification of Fractures
Closed or simpleOpen or compoundComplete or incompleteStable or unstableDirection of the fracture line
◦Oblique◦Spiral◦Lengthwise plane (greenstick)
Stages of Bone HealingStages of Bone HealingHematoma formation within 48
to 72 hr after injuryHematoma to granulation tissueCallus formationOsteoblastic proliferationBone remodelingBone healing completed within
about 6 weeks; up to 6 months in the older person
Fractures – Emergency CareFractures – Emergency CareImmobilize before moving clientJoint above and belowCheck pulse, color, movement,
sensation before splintingSterile dressing for open wounds
Fractures – Emergency CareFractures – Emergency CareFracture reduction
◦Closed—external manipulation◦Open—surgery
Acute Compartment SyndromeAcute Compartment Syndrome Serious condition in which increased pressure within one or more compartments causes massive compromise of circulation to the area
Prevention of pressure buildup of blood or fluid accumulation
Pathophysiologic changes sometimes referred to as ischemia-edema cycle
Emergency Care - Acute Emergency Care - Acute Compartment SyndromeCompartment Syndrome
Within 4 to 6 hr after the onset of acute compartment syndrome, neuromuscular damage is irreversible; the limb can become useless within 24 to 48 hr.
Monitor compartment pressures.
(Continued)
Emergency Care Emergency Care (Continued)(Continued)
Fasciotomy may be performed to relieve pressure.
Pack and dress the wound after fasciotomy.
Possible Results of Acute Compartment Possible Results of Acute Compartment SyndromeSyndrome
InfectionMotor weaknessVolkmann’s contractures: (a
deformity of the hand, fingers, and wrist caused by a lack of blood flow (ischemia) to the muscles of the forearm)
Other Complications of FracturesOther Complications of Fractures
ShockFat embolism syndrome: serious
complication resulting from a fracture; fat globules are released from yellow bone marrow into bloodstream
Venous thromboembolism(Continued)
Other Complications of Fractures Other Complications of Fractures (Continued)(Continued)
InfectionIschemic necrosisFracture blisters, delayed union, nonunion, and malunion
MusculoskeletalMusculoskeletalComplicationsComplications (continued)(continued)
Muscle Atrophy, loss of muscle strength range of motion, pressure ulcers, and other problems associated with immobility
Embolism/Pneumonia/ARDS◦ TREATMENT – hydration, albumin,
corticosteroidsConstipation/AnorexiaUTIDVT
Musculoskeletal Assessment - Musculoskeletal Assessment - FractureFracture
Change in bone alignmentAlteration in length of extremity
Change in shape of bonePain upon movementDecreased ROMCrepitationEcchymotic skin
(Continued)
Musculoskeletal AssessmentMusculoskeletal Assessment – Fracture – Fracture (Continued)(Continued)
Subcutaneous emphysema with bubbles under the skin
Swelling at the fracture site
Special Assessment ConsiderationsSpecial Assessment Considerations
For fractures of the shoulder and upper arm, assess client in sitting or standing position.
Support the affected arm to promote comfort.
For distal areas of the arm, assess client in a supine position.
For fracture of lower extremities and pelvis, client is in supine position.
CAST CAST CASTCAST
CastsCasts Rigid device that immobilizes the affected body part while allowing other body parts to move
Cast materials: plaster, fiberglass, polyester-cotton
Types of casts for various parts of the body: arm, leg, brace, body
(Continued)
Casts Casts (Continued)(Continued)
Cast care and client educationCast complications: infection,
circulation impairment, peripheral nerve damage, complications of immobility
Managing Care of the Patient in a CastManaging Care of the Patient in a Cast
Casting MaterialsRelieving PainImproving MobilityPromoting HealingNeurovascular FunctionPotential Complications
Cast, Splint, Braces, and Traction Cast, Splint, Braces, and Traction Management ConsiderationsManagement Considerations
Arm CastsLeg CastsBody or Spica CastsSplints and BracesExternal FixatorTraction
POLYESTER/POLYESTER/FIBERGLASSFIBERGLASS
UPPER EXTREMITY CASTUPPER EXTREMITY CAST
LOWER EXTREMITY CASTLOWER EXTREMITY CAST
MusculoskeletalMusculoskeletalNursing Care - CastsNursing Care - Casts
◦ Neurovascular Check
color/capillary refill
Temperature Pulse Movement Sensation
Traction Nursing Care ◦ Pin Site care◦ Skin and
neurovascular check
Cast Care Cast Care (continued)(continued)
Elevate ExtremityExercises – to unaffected side; isometric
exercises to affected extremityKeep heel off mattressHandle with palms of hands if cast wetTurn every two hours till dryNotify MD at once of wound drainageDo not place items under cast.
TractionTraction Application of a pulling force to the body to provide reduction, alignment, and rest at that site
Types of traction: skin, skeletal, plaster, brace, circumferential
(Continued)
Traction Traction (Continued)(Continued)
Traction care: ◦Maintain correct balance between traction pull and counter traction force
◦Care of weights◦Skin inspection◦Pin care◦Assessment of neurovascular status
Musculoskeletal – FracturesMusculoskeletal – FracturesTreatmentTreatment
Primary Goal – reduce fracture-◦ Realign and immobilize
Medications◦ Analgesics, antibiotics, tetanus toxoid
Closed Reduction – Manual and Cast; External Fixation Device
Traction; Splints; BracesSurgery
◦ Open reduction with internal fixation◦ Reconstructive surgery◦ Endoprosthetic replacement
Figure 42-5 In external fixation, pins placed through the bone above and below the fracture are attached to external Figure 42-5 In external fixation, pins placed through the bone above and below the fracture are attached to external fixation rods that hold the pins and bone in place.fixation rods that hold the pins and bone in place.
Nursing ManagementNursing ManagementPositioning
Strengthening Exercises
Potential Complications
Musculoskeletal Musculoskeletal Nursing CareNursing Care
Promote comfortAssess infectionPromote mobilityTeach safetyVital SignsFlotation, sheep
skinNutritionVital SignsMonitor
elimination
Elevate extremity to decrease swelling/ ice pack
Teach skin care, cast care, diet, complications
Operative ProceduresOperative Procedures
Open reduction with internal fixation
External fixationPostoperative care: similar to that for any surgery; certain complications specific to fractures and musculoskeletal surgery include fat embolism and venous thromboembolism
Managing the Patient Undergoing Managing the Patient Undergoing Orthopedic SurgeryOrthopedic Surgery
Joint ReplacementTotal Hip ReplacementTotal Knee Replacement
Risk for InfectionRisk for Infection
Interventions include:◦Apply strict aseptic technique for dressing changes and wound irrigations.
◦Assess for local inflammation◦Report purulent drainage immediately to health care provider.
(Continued)
Risk for Infection Risk for Infection (Continued)(Continued)
◦Assess for pneumonia and urinary tract infection.
◦Administer broad-spectrum antibiotics prophylactically.
Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body RequirementsRequirements
Interventions include:◦Diet high in protein, calories, and calcium, supplemental vitamins B and C
◦Frequent small feedings and supplements of high-protein liquids
◦Intake of foods high in iron
Upper Extremity FracturesUpper Extremity Fractures
Fractures include those of the:◦Clavicle◦Scapula◦Humerus◦Olecranon◦Radius and ulna◦Wrist and hand
Lower Extremity FracturesLower Extremity Fractures
Fractures include those of the:◦Femur◦Patella◦Tibia and fibula◦Ankle and foot
Fractures of the HipFractures of the HipIntracapsular or extracapsular Treatment of choice: surgical
repair, when possible, to allow the older client to get out of bed
Open reduction with internal fixation
Intramedullary rod, pins, a prosthesis, or a fixed sliding plate
Prosthetic device
Fractures of the PelvisFractures of the Pelvis Associated internal damage the chief concern in fracture management of pelvic fractures
Non–weight-bearing fracture of the pelvis
Weight-bearing fracture of the pelvis
Compression Fractures of the SpineCompression Fractures of the Spine
Most are associated with osteoporosis rather than acute spinal injury.
Multiple hairline fractures result when bone mass diminishes.
(Continued)
Compression Fractures of the Spine Compression Fractures of the Spine (Continued)(Continued)
Nonsurgical management includes bedrest, analgesics, and physical therapy.
Minimally invasive surgeries are vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty, in which bone cement is injected.
(Continued)
AmputationsAmputations
Surgical amputationTraumatic amputationLevels of amputationComplications of amputations: hemorrhage, infection, phantom limb pain, problems associated with immobility, neuroma (a growth or tumour of nerve tissue), flexion contracture
AmputationAmputation
Nursing Management◦relieving pain◦minimizing altered sensory perception
◦promoting wound healing◦enhancing body image◦self-care
Phantom Limb PainPhantom Limb Pain
Phantom limb pain is a frequent complication of amputation.
Client complains of pain at the site of the removed body part, most often shortly after surgery.
Pain is intense burning feeling, crushing sensation or cramping.
Some clients feel that the removed body part is in a distorted position.
Management of Phantom PainManagement of Phantom Pain
Phantom limb pain must be distinguished from stump pain because they are managed differently.
Recognize that this pain is real and interferes with the amputee’s activities of daily living.
(Continued)
Management of Phantom PainManagement of Phantom Pain (Continued)(Continued)
Some studies have shown that opioids are not as effective for phantom limb pain as they are for residual limb pain.
Other drugs include intravenous infusion calcitonin, beta blockers, anticonvulsants, and antispasmodics.
Exercise After AmputationExercise After Amputation ROM to prevent flexion contractures, particularly of the hip and knee
Trapeze and overhead frameFirm mattressProne position every 3 to 4 hours
Elevation of lower-leg residual limb controversial
ProsthesesProstheses Devices to help shape and shrink the residual limb and help client readapt
Wrapping of elastic bandagesIndividual fitting of the prosthesis; special care
Crush SyndromeCrush SyndromeCan occur when leg or arm injury
includes multiple compartmentsCharacterized by acute
compartment syndrome, hypovolemia, hyperkalemia, rhabdomyolysis, and acute tubular necrosis
Treatment: adequate intravenous fluids, low-dose dopamine, sodium bicarbonate, kayexalate, and hemodialysis
Metabolic Bone DisordersMetabolic Bone Disorders
OsteoporosisOsteomalciaPaget’s Disease
OsteoporosisOsteoporosis
A disease in which loss of bone exceeds rate of bone formation; usually increase in older women, white race, nulliparity.
Clinical Manifestations – bone pain, decrease movement.
Treatment – Calcium, Vit. D, estrogen replacement, Calcitonin, fluoride, estrogen with progestin, SERM (Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulator) with anti-estrogens, exercise.
Pathologic fracture-safety.
Classification of Classification of OsteoporosisOsteoporosis
Generalized osteoporosis occurs most commonly in postmenopausal women and men in their 60s and 70s.
Secondary osteoporosis results from an associated medical condition such as hyperparathyroidism, long-term drug therapy, long-term immobility.
Regional osteoporosis occurs when a limb is immobilized.
Health Promotion/Illness Health Promotion/Illness Prevention - OsteoporosisPrevention - Osteoporosis
Ensure adequate calcium intake.
Avoid sedentary life style (a type of lifestyle with a lack of physical exercise) .
Continue program of weight-bearing exercises.
Osteoporosis - AssessmentOsteoporosis - Assessment Physical assessmentPsychosocial assessmentLaboratory assessmentRadiographic assessment
OsOsteoprosis
Osteoprorsis
Drug TherapyDrug TherapyOsteoporosisOsteoporosis
Hormone replacement therapyParathyroid hormoneCalcium and vitamin DBisphosphonatesSelective estrogen receptor modulators
CalcitoninOther agents used with varying results
Diet Therapy - OsteoporosisDiet Therapy - Osteoporosis
ProteinMagnesiumVitamin KTrace mineralsCalcium and vitamin D Avoid alcohol and caffeine
Fall Prevention - Fall Prevention - OsteoporosisOsteoporosis
Hazard-free environmentHigh-risk assessment through programs such as Falling Star protocol
Hip protectors that prevent hip fracture in case of a fall
Others - OsteoporosisOthers - Osteoporosis
ExercisePain managementOrthotic devices
OsteomalaciaOsteomalacia Softening of the bone tissue
characterized by inadequate mineralization of osteoid
Vitamin D deficiency, lack of sunlight exposure
Similar, but not the same as osteoporosis
Major treatment: vitamin D from exposure to sun and certain foods
Paget’s Disease of the BonePaget’s Disease of the Bone Metabolic disorder of bone
remodeling, or turnover; increased resorption (the process by which osteoclasts break down bone and release the minerals, resulting in a transfer of calcium from bone fluid to the blood) of loss results in bone deposits that are weak, enlarged, and disorganized
Nonsurgical management: calcitonin, selected bisphosphonates, mithramycin
Surgical management: tibial osteotomy or partial or total joint replacement
Paget’s DiseasePaget’s DiseaseAn imbalance of increase
osteoblast and osteoclast cells; thickening and hypertrophy.
Bone pain most common symptom; bony enlargement and deformities usually bilateral, kyphosis, long bone.
Analgesics, meds bisphosphonates and calcitonin, NSAID, assistance devices, and hot/cold treatment.
OsteomyelitisOsteomyelitis A condition caused by the invasion by one or more pathogenic microorganisms that stimulates the inflammatory response in bone tissue
Exogenous, endogenous, hematogenous, contiguous
OsteomyelitisOsteomyelitis Infection of bone; causative agent – Staph/Strept Typical signs and symptoms : Acute
osteomyelitis include: Fever that may be abrupt Irritability or lethargy in young children Pain in the area of the infection Swelling, warmth and redness over the area of
the infection Chronic osteomyelitis include: Warmth, swelling and redness over the area of
the infection Pain or tenderness in the affected area Chronic fatigue Drainage from an open wound near the area of
the infection Fever, sometimes Treatment – IV antibiotic; long term for 4-6
months
Surgical ManagementSurgical Management Osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis
Sequestrectomy (Surgical removal of a sequestrum), a detached piece of necrotic bone that often migrates to a wound, abscess, etc.
Bone graftsBone segment transfersMuscle flapsAmputation
Bone TumorsBone Tumors
Benign Bone TumorsMalignant Bone TumorsMetastatic Bone Disease
Bone TumorsBone Tumors Benign bone tumors
(noncancerous):◦Chrondrogenic tumors: osteochondroma, chondroma
◦Osteogenic tumors: osteoid osteoma, osteoblastoma, giant cell tumor
◦Fibrogenic tumors
Interventions Interventions Nondrug pain relief measuresDrug therapy: analgesics, NSAIDs
Surgical therapy: curettage (simple excision of the tumor tissue), joint replacement, or arthrodesis
Malignant Bone TumorsMalignant Bone Tumors Primary tumors, those tumors that originate in the bone ◦Osteosarcoma◦Ewing’s sarcoma◦Chondrosarcoma◦Fibrosarcoma◦Metastatic bone disease
OsteosarcomaOsteosarcomaCancer of the bone – metastasis to
the lung is common. Most in long bones.
Clinical manifestations – dull pain, swelling, intermittent but increases per time; night pain common.
Treatment – radiation, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, surgical excision with prosthetics, assistance devices, palliative measures.
Treatment Cancer of BoneTreatment Cancer of BoneInterventions include:
◦Treatment aimed at reducing the size or removing the tumor
◦Drug therapy; chemotherapy◦Radiation therapy◦Surgical management◦Promotion of physical mobility with ROM exercises
Cancer of Bone Cancer of Bone Anticipatory GrievingAnticipatory Grieving
Interventions include:◦Active listening◦Encouraging client and family to verbalize feelings
◦Making appropriate referrals◦Helping client and others to cope with the loss and grieving
◦Promoting the physician-client relationship
Cancer of BoneCancer of Bone Disturbed Body Image Disturbed Body Image
Interventions include:◦Recognize and accept the client’s view of body image alteration.
◦Establish and maintain a trusting nurse-client relationship.
◦Emphasize the client’s strengths and remaining capabilities.
◦Establish realistic mutual goals.
Potential for FracturesPotential for FracturesBone CancerBone Cancer
Interventions◦Nonsurgical management: radiation therapy and strengthening exercises.
◦Surgical management: replace as much of the defective bone as possible, avoid a second procedure, and return client to a functioning state with a minimum of hospitalization and immobilization.
Carpal Tunnel SyndromeCarpal Tunnel Syndrome Common condition; the median
nerve in the wrist becomes compressed, causing pain and numbness
Common repetitive strain injury via occupational or sports motions
Nonsurgical management: drug therapy and immobilization
Possible surgical management
ScoliosisScoliosis
Abnormal spinal curvature of various degrees or severity involving shortening of muscles and ligaments.
Milwaukee brace (a back brace used in the treatment of spinal curvatures) , internal fixative devices.
Scoliosis Scoliosis Changes in muscles and ligaments on the concave side of the spinal column
Congenital, neuromuscular, or idiopathic in type
Assessment: complete history, pain assessment, observation of posture
Interventions: exercise, weight reduction, bracing, casting, surgery