m.sc. environment science assignment

7/30/2019 M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE assignment

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ASSIGNMENT

SUBJECT: MSc. Environmental Science.

THE GLOBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY.

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Paper-1Introduction to ecology and environment

.

Environmental science is the science of the interactions between the

physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment, but with

particular attention to the effects of humans on the natural environment.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates

physical and biological sciences (includingphysics,chemistry, biology, soil

science, geology, and geography) to the study of the environment, and thesolution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an

integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of

environmental system.

Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmentalengineering. Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences

for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the

environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technologyfor improving environmental quality.

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth

processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and

mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects ofglobal climatechange. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of

physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring

a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Keyelements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate

space and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.

Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific

investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the

arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental

protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a needfor action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this

development included the publication of Rachael Carson's landmark

environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues

becoming very public, such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and theCuyahoga River of Cleveland, Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and

helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new

field of study.

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its interrelation to other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies

of meteorology, greenhouse gas phenomena, atmospheric dispersion

modeling of airborne contaminants,sound propagation phenomena related tonoise pollution, and even light pollution.

Taking the example of the global warming phenomena, physicists createcomputer models of atmospheric circulation and infra-red radiation

transmission, chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric chemicals andtheir reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to

carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists and

oceanographers add additional breadth in understanding the atmosphericdynamics.

Ecology. An interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is

being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related

environmental science fields. For example, one might examine an estuarine

setting where a proposed industrial development could impact certainspecies by waterand air pollution. For this study,biologists would describe

the flora and fauna, chemists would analyze the transport of water pollutantsto the marsh, physicists would calculate air pollution emissions and

geologists would assist in understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.

Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the

environment. Principal areas of study include soil contamination and waterpollution. The topics of analysis include chemical degradation in the

environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation

of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and

chemical effects upon biota.

As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has

entered the habitat soil of an endangered species of amphibian. As a method

to resolve or understand the extent of soil contamination and subsurfacetransport of solvent, a computer model would be implemented. Chemists

would then characterize the molecular bonding of the solvent to the specific

soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soil arthropods,plants, and ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the

endangered amphibian.

Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental soil science,

volcanic phenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In someclassification systems this can also include hydrology, including

oceanography.

As an example study of soils erosion, calculations would be made ofsurface

runoff by soil scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist inexamining sediment transport in overland flow. Physicists would contribute

by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving waters.

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Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna

from increases in water turbidity.

In the U.S. theNational Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 set forthrequirements for analysis of major projects in terms of specific

environmental criteria. Numerous state laws have echoed these mandates,applying the principles to local-scale actions. The upshot has been an

explosion of documentation and study of environmental consequencesbefore the fact of development actions.

One can examine the specifics of environmental science by reading

examples ofEnvironmental Impact Statements prepared under NEPA suchas: Wastewater treatment expansion options discharging into the SanDiego/Tijuana Estuary, Expansion of the San Francisco International

Airport, Development of the Houston, Metro Transportation system,

Expansion of the metropolitan Boston MBTA transit system, and

Construction ofInterstate 66throughArlington, Virginia.

In England and Wales the Environment Agency (EA), formed in 1996, is a

public body for protecting and improving the environment and enforces the

regulations listed on the communities and local government site. (formerlythe office of the deputy prime minister). The agency was set up under the

Environment Act 1995 as an independent body and works closely with UK

Government to enforce the regulations.

Terminology

In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often usedinterchangeably, but technically, ecology refers only to the study of

organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment.Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental science, which also

could involve purely chemical or public health issues (for example)

ecologists would be unlikely to study. In practice, there is considerable

overlap between the work of ecologists and other environmental scientists.

The National Center for Education Statistics in the United States defines an

academic program in environmental science as follows:

A program that focuses on the application of biological, chemical, andphysical principles to the study of the physical environment and the solutionof environmental problems, including subjects such as abating or controlling

environmental pollution and degradation; the interaction between human

society and the natural environment; and natural resources management.Includes instruction in biology, chemistry, physics, geosciences,

climatology, statistics, and mathematical modeling.

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Environmental issues

This is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activities.

These articles relate to the anthropogenic effects on the natural environment.

Anoxic waters Anoxic event Hypoxia Ocean deoxygenation Dead zone

Climate changeGlobal warming Global dimming Fossil fuels

Sea level rise Greenhouse gas Ocean acidification Shutdown of

thermohaline circulation

Conservation Species extinction Pollinator decline Coral

bleaching Holocene extinction Invasive species Poaching Endangered

species

EnergyEnergy conservation Renewable energy Efficient energyuse Renewable energy commercialization

Environmental degradationEutrophication Habitat destruction

Invasive species

Environmental health Air quality Asthma Electromagnetic

fields Electromagnetic radiation and health Indoor air quality Leadpoisoning Sick Building Syndrome

Genetic engineeringGenetic pollution Genetically modified food

controversies

Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture Environmental effects of meat production Slash and burn Pesticide drift

Plasticulture

Land degradationLand pollution Desertification

Soil Soil conservation Soil erosion Soil contamination Soilsalination

Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitatdestruction

NanotechnologyNanotoxicology Nanopollution

Nuclear issues Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown Nuclearpower Radioactive waste .

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_watershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_risehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator_declinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma#Environmentalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_Building_Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overgrazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_meat_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_and_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_drifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticulturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_contaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_fragmentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotoxicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implications_of_nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_watershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_risehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator_declinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma#Environmentalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_Building_Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overgrazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_meat_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_and_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_drifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticulturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_contaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_fragmentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotoxicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implications_of_nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_waste


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Overpopulation Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in

companion animals Tragedy of the commons

Ozone depletionCFC

Pollution Light pollution Noise pollution Visual pollution Nonpoint source pollution Point source pollution

Water pollution Acid rain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean

dumping Oil spills Thermal pollution Urban runoff Water crisis

Marine debris Ocean acidification Ship pollution Wastewater Fish kill Algal bloom Mercury in fish

Air pollution Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatile

organic compound Particulate matter Sulphur oxide

ReservoirsEnvironmental impacts of reservoirs

Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources

Overdrafting

Consumerism Consumer capitalism Planned obsolescence Over-

consumption

Fishing Blast fishing Bottom trawling Cyanide fishing Ghost nets

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Overfishing Shark finning

Whaling

Logging Clearcutting Deforestation Illegal logging

Mining Acid mine drainage Mountaintop removal mining Slurry

impoundments

ToxinsChlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Herbicides Pesticides Toxic waste PCB

Bioaccumulation Biomagnification

WasteE-waste Litter Waste disposal incidents Marine debris

Medical waste Landfill Leachate Recycling Incineration GreatPacific Garbage Patch

Environmentalism

Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and social movement regardingconcerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the state of

the environment. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often

represented by the color green.

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://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_dumpinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_dumpinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_killhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_in_fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_reservoirshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraftinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_finninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearcuttinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_impoundmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_impoundmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_DDThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_disruptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Waste_disposal_incidentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leachatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incinerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)


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Environmentalism as a social movement

Environmentalism can also be defined as a social movement that seeks to

influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in orderto protect natural resources and ecosystems. In recognition ofhumanity as a

participant in ecosystems, the environmental movement is centered onecology, health, and human rights.

An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our naturalenvironment and the sustainable management of its resources through

changes in public policy or individual behavior by supporting practices such

as not being wasteful. In various ways (for example, grassroots activism andprotests), environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give

the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.

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Paper no-2State of India environment

Environmental degradation .

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment

through depletion of resources such as air, waterand soil; the destruction of

ecosystems and the extinction ofwildlife.

Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned bythe High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The World Resources

Institute (WRI), UNEP (the United Nations Environment Programme),

UNDP (the United Nations Development Programme) and the World Bank

have made public an important report on health and the environmentworldwide on May 1, 1998.

The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines

environmental degradation as The reduction of the capacity of the

environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs.

Environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are

destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degraded.

Environmental Change and Human Health, a special section of World

Resources 1998-99 in this report describes how preventable illnesses andpremature deaths are still occurring in very large numbers. If vast

improvements are made in human health, millions of people will be living

longer, healthier lives than ever before. In these poorest regions of the worldan estimated 11 million children, or about one in five, will not live to see

their fifth birthday, primarily because of environment-related diseases. Child

mortality is larger than the combined populations of Norway andSwitzerland, and mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or

diarrhea illnesses that are largely preventable

Types of issues

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Major current environmental issues may include climate change, pollution,

environmental degradation, and resource depletion etc. The conservation

movement lobbies for protection of endangered species and protection ofany ecologically valuable natural areas.

Scientific grounding

The level of understanding ofEarth has increased markedly in recent times

through science especially with the application of the scientific method.Environmental science is now a multi-disciplinary academic study taught

and researched at many universities. This is used as a basis for addressing

environmental issues.

Large amounts of data has been gathered and these are collated into reports,of which a common type is the State of the Environment publications. A

recent major report was the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, with input

from 1200 scientists and released in 2005, which showed the high level ofimpact that humans are having on ecosystem services.

Environmental organizations

Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, nation or international

level by government organisations.

The largest international agency, set up in 1972, is the United NationsEnvironment Programme. The International Union for Conservation of

Nature brings together 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766 Non-

governmental organizations and 81 international organizations and about10,000 experts and scientists from countries around the world. Internationalnon-governmental organizations include Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth

and World Wide Fund for Nature. Governments enact environmental policy

and enforce environmental law and this is done to differing degrees aroundthe world.

Solving environmental issues

Sustainability is the key to preventing or reducing the effect of

environmental issues. There is now clear scientific evidence that humanity is

living unsustainably, and that an unprecedented collective effort is needed toreturn human use of natural resources to within sustainable limits. For

humans to live sustainably, the Earth's resources must be used at a rate at

which they can be replenished.

Concerns for the environment has prompted the formation ofGreen parties,

political parties that seek to address environmental issues. Initially these

formed in Australia, New Zealand and Germany but are now present inmany other countries.

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Film and television

: Environmental issues in film and television

There are an increasing number of films being produced on environmental

issues, especially on climate change and global warming. Al Gore's 2006film An Inconvenient Truth gained commercial success and a high media

profile. FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992) is an animated film about

rainforest destruction.

Issues

List of environmental issues

List of conservation issues

Specific issues

Environmental issues with agriculture

Aviation and the environment

Environmental issues with computers

Environmental impacts of dams

Environmental issues with energy Environmental effects of fishing

Environmental impact of irrigation

Environmental issues with mining

Environmental issues with paint Environmental issues with paper

Environmental effects of pesticides

Environmental implications of nanotechnology

Environmental issues with shipping

Environmental issues with war

Issues

Climate change

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of whichtake place on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant

impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature,precipitation and glacial run-off. These conditions determine the carrying

capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population

and domesticated animals. Rising carbon dioxide levels would also have

effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields. The overall effect ofclimate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects.

Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might

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help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural

production.

At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce significant effectson climate change, primarily through the production and release of

greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, butalso by altering the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb

or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radiative forcing. Land usechange such as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil

fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide; agriculture

itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxideconcentrations in earth's atmosphere.

Deforestation

One of the causes of deforestation is to clear land for pasture or crops.

According to British environmentalist Norman Myers, 5% of deforestationis due to cattle ranching, 19% due to over-heavy logging, 22% due to the

growing sector ofpalm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash-and-burn

farming.

In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) foundthat "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from

decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a

combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social andtechnological conditions."

.

Intensive farming

Intensive farming alters the environment in many ways. Some of the

disadvantages of this method of farming include:

Limits or destroys the natural habitat of most wildlife, and leads to soilerosion

Use offertilizers can alter the biology of rivers and lakes.

Pesticides generally kill useful insects as well as those that destroy

crops Generally not sustainable - often results in desertification or, in a worst

case scenario, land that is so poisonous and eroded that nothing else will

grow Requires large amounts of energy input to produce, transport, and

apply chemical fertilizers/pesticides

Use of chemicals on fields creates run-off, excess runs off into riversand lakes causing pollution

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Use of pesticides have numerous negative health effects in workers

who apply them, people that live nearby the area of application or

downstream/downwind from it, and consumers who eat the pesticides whichremain on their food

Irrigation

Irrigation can lead to a number of problems:

Depletion of underground aquifers through overdrafting

Ground subsidence

Underirrigation gives poor soil salinity control which leads to

increased soil salinity with consequent build up of toxic salts on soil surface

in areas with high evaporation. This requires eitherleaching to remove thesesalts and a method ofdrainage to carry the salts away

Overirrigation because of poordistribution uniformity ormanagement

wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables

which in some instances will lead to problems of irrigation salinity

Irrigation with saline orhigh-sodium water may damage soil structure

Pollutants

A wide range ofagricultural chemicals are used and some becomepollutantsthrough misuse or ignorance.

Spray drift

Pesticides, especially those based on organochloride Pesticide residue in foods

Soil degradation

Main article: Soil degradation

Waste

Plasticulture, the use of plastic materials in agriculture, raises problems

around how to carry out the recycling of agricultural plastics.

Issues by region

Hedgerow removal in the United Kingdom.

Soil salinisation, especially in Australia.

Methane emissions from livestock in New Zealand. See Climate

change in New Zealand.

Some environmentalists attribute the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of

Mexico as being encouraged by nitrogen fertilization of the algae bloom.

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Mitigation

The exponential population increase in recent decades has increased the

demand for food which in turn has increased the effects on the environment.The global population is not increasing as rapidly as in previous years and is

expected to eventually stabilise.

Organic agriculture is a farming practice that can have a lower impact on the

environment although some critics doubt that it can be used to support theglobal population due to its lower yields. Other methods include

permaculture andbiodynamic agriculture, the latter being a form of organic

farming but incorporating a spiritual element.

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Paper no-3

Environmental educationEnvironmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about

how natural environments function and, particularly, how human beings canmanage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. The term

is often used to imply education within the school system, from primary to

post-secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include allefforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials,

websites, media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor

education and experiential education.

Environmental education is a learning process that increases people'sknowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges,

develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and

fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisionsand take responsible action

Focus of EE

EE focuses on:

Awareness and sentivity about the environment and environmental

challenges Knowledge and understanding about the environment and

environmental challenges

Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintainenvironmental quality

Skills to mitigate the environmental problems

Participation for exercising existing knowledge and environmental

related programmes.

History

The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early as the 18thcentury when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an

education that focuses on the environment in Emile: or, On Education.Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a Swiss-born naturalist, echoed

Rousseaus philosophy as he encouraged students to Study nature, not

books.[1] These two influential scholars helped lay the foundation for aconcrete environmental education program, known as Nature study, which

took place in the late 19th century and early 20th century.

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The nature study movement used fables and moral lessons to help students

develop an appreciation of nature and embrace the natural world.[2] Anna

Botsford Comstock, the head of the Department of Nature Study at CornellUniversity, was a prominent figure in the nature study movement and wrote

the Handbook for Nature Study in 1911, which used nature to educate

children on cultural values.[3]

Cornstock and the other leaders of themovement, such as Liberty Hyde Bailey, helped Nature Study garner

tremendous amounts of support from community leaders, teachers, and

scientists and change the science curriculum for children across the UnitedStates.

A new type of environmental education, Conservation Education, emerged

as a result of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl during the 1920s and

1930s. Conservation Education dealt with the natural world in a drasticallydifferent way from Nature Study because it focused on rigorous scientific

training rather than natural history.[4] Conservation Education was a major

scientific management and planning tool that helped solve social, economic,and environmental problems during this time period.

The modern environmental education movement, which gained significant

momentum in the late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from Nature Study and

Conservation Education. During this time period, many events such asCivil Rights, the Vietnam War, and the Cold War placed Americans at

odds with one another and the U.S. government. However, as more people

began to fear the fallout from radiation, the chemical pesticides mentioned

in Rachel Carsons Silent Spring, and the significant amounts of airpollution and waste, the publics concern for their health and the health of

their natural environment led to a unifying phenomenon known asenvironmentalism. Ultimately, the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970 anational teach-in about environmental problems paved the way for the

modern environmental education movement. Later that same year, President

Nixon passed the National Environmental Education Act, which wasintended to incorporate environmental education into K-12 schools.[5] Then,

in 1971, the National Association for Environmental Education (now known

as the North American Association for Environmental Education) wascreated to improve environmental literacy by providing resources to teachers

and promoting environmental education programs.

Internationally, environmental education gained recognition when the UN

Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden, in1972, declared environmental education must be used as a tool to address

global environmental problems. The United Nations Education Scientific

and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and United Nations Environment

Program (UNEP) created three major declarations that have guided thecourse of environmental education.

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Stockholm Declaration

June 516, 1972 - The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the

Human Environment. The document was made up of 7 proclamations and26 principles "to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the

preservation and enhancement of the human environment.

The Belgrade Charter

October 1322, 1975 - The Belgrade Charter was the outcome of the

International Workshop on Environmental Education held in Belgrade,Yugoslavia. The Belgrade Charter was built upon the Stockholm

Declaration and adds goals, objectives, and guiding principles of

environmental education programs. It defines an audience for environmentaleducation, which includes the general public.

The Tbilisi Declaration

October 1426, 1977 - The Tbilisi Declaration "noted the unanimous accord

in the important role of environmental education in the preservation andimprovement of the world's environment, as well as in the sound and

balanced development of the world's communities." The Tbilisi Declaration

updated and clarified The Stockholm Declaration and The Belgrade Charter

by including new goals, objectives, characteristics, and guiding principles ofenvironmental education.

Later that decade, in 1977, the Intergovernmental Conference on

Environmental Education in Tbilisi, Georgia emphasized the role ofEnvironmental Education in preserving and improving the globalenvironment and sought to provide the framework and guidelines for

environmental education. The Conference laid out the role, objectives, and

characteristics of environmental education, and provided several goals andprinciples for environmental education.

Modern environmental education in the United States

Following the 1970s, non-governmental organizations that focused on

environmental education continued to form and grow, the number of

teachers implementing environmental education in their classroomsincreased, and the movement gained stronger political backing. A critical

move forward came when the United States Congress passed the National

Environmental Education Act of 1990, which placed the Office ofEnvironmental Education in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and

allowed the EPA to create environmental education initiatives at the federal

level

Antecedents in the United States

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In the United States some of the antecedents of Environmental Education

were Nature Studies, Conservation Education and School Camping. Nature

studies integrated academic approach with outdoor exploration (Roth,1978). Conservation Education brought awareness to the misuse of natural

resources. George Perkins Marsh discoursed on humanitys integral part of

the natural world. The governmental agencies like the U.S. Forest Serviceand the EPA were also pushing a conservation agenda. Conservation ideals

still guide environmental education today. School Camping was exposure to

the environment and use of resources outside of the classroom foreducational purposes. The legacies of these antecedents are still present in

the evolving arena of environmental education.

About

Environmental education has been considered an additional or elective

subject in much of traditional K-12 curriculum. At the elementary school

level, environmental education can take the form of science enrichmentcurriculum, natural history field trips, community service projects, and

participation in outdoor science schools. EE policies assist schools andorganizations in developing and improving environmental education

programs that provide citizens with an in-depth understanding of the

environment. School related EE policies focus on three main components:curricula, green facilities, and training.

Schools can integrate environmental education into their curricula with

sufficient funding from EE policies. This approach known as using the

environment as an integrating context for learning inserts environmental

education into the core subjects and thus environmental education does nottake time away from other important subjects, such as art, gym, or music In

addition to funding environmental curricula in the classroom, environmentaleducation policies allot the financial resources for hands-on, outdoor

learning. These activities and lessons help address and mitigate "nature

deficit disorder", as well as encourage healthier lifestyles.

Green schools, or green facility promotion, are another main component ofenvironmental education policies. Greening school facilities cost, on

average, a little less than 2 percent more than creating a traditional school,

but payback from these energy efficient buildings occur within only a few

years. Environmental education policies help reduce the relatively smallburden of the initial start-up costs for green schools. Green school policies

also provide grants for modernization, renovation, or repair of older school

facilities. Additionally, healthy food options are also a central aspect ofgreen schools. These policies specifically focus on bringing freshly prepared

food, made from high-quality, locally grown ingredients into schools.

In secondary school, environmental curriculum can be a focused subject

within the sciences or is a part of student interest groups or clubs. At the

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undergraduate and graduate level, it can be considered its own field within

education, environmental studies, environmental science and policy,

ecology, or human/cultural ecology programs.

Environmental education is not restricted to in-class lesson plans. There are

numerous ways children can learn about the environment in which they live.From experiential lessons in the school yard and field trips to national parks

to after-school green clubs and school wide sustainability projects, theenvironment is a topic which is readily and easily accessible. Furthermore,

celebration of Earth Day or participation in EE week (run through the

National Environmental Education Foundation) is a great way to dedicateyour lessons to environmental education. To be most effective, promote a

holistic approach and lead by example, using sustainable practices in the

classroom and school grounds and encouraging students and parents to bringenvironmental education into their home.

The final aspect of environmental education policies, but certainly not leastimportant, is training individuals to thrive in a sustainable society. In

addition to building a strong relationship with nature, American citizensmust have the skills and knowledge to succeed in a 21st century workforce.

Thus, environmental education policies fund both teacher training and

worker training initiatives. Teachers must be trained to effectively teach andincorporate environmental studies in their curricula. On the other hand, the

current workforce must be trained or re-trained so that they can adapt to the

new green economy. Environmental education policies that fund training

programs are critical in educating citizens to prosper in a sustainablesociety.

Related disciplines

Environmental education has crossover with the disciplines of outdoor

education and experiential education. Both disciplines complementenvironmental education yet have unique philosophies.

Outdoor education means learning "in" and "for" the outdoors. It is a

means of curriculum extension and enrichment through outdoor experiences

Environmental education is often taught or enhanced through outdoorexperiences. The out of doors experience, while not strictly environmental

in nature, often contain elements of teaching about the environment.

Experiential education is a process through which a learner constructsknowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences Experiential education

can be viewed as both a process and method to deliver the ideas and skills

associated with environmental education.

While each of these disciplines have their own objectives, there are pointswhere both disciplines overlap with the intentions and philosophy of

environmental education.

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Trends

One of the current trends within environmental education seeks to move

from an approach of ideology and activism to one that allows students tomake informed decisions and take action based on experience as well as

data. Within this process, environmental curricula have progressively beenintegrated into governmental education standards. Some environmental

educators find this movement distressing and a move away from the originalpolitical and activist approach to environmental education while others find

this approach more valid and accessible.

Movement

There is a movement that has progressed since the relatively recent founding(1960s) of the idea of environmental education in industrial societies, which

has transported the participant from nature appreciation and awareness to

education for an ecologically sustainable future. This trend may be viewedas a microcosm of how many environmental education programs seek to

first engage with participants through developing a sense of nature

appreciation which is then translated into actions that affect conservation

and sustainability.

Programs range from New York to California, including Life Lab at

University of California, Santa Cruz, as well as Cornell University .

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Paper no-4

Population and community ecology

UMass Extension Natural Resources and EnvironmentalConservation is involved in a number of projects in the

following topic areas.

watersheds-water-quality:

Watersheds & Water Quality

The NREC program addresses watershed and water quality

issues and needs by providing information, technical

assistance and training programs on:

the relationship between watershed health and quality

of life

impacts of land use practices on watershed resources

community-based watershed protection

watershed assessment, modeling and monitoring

technical issues related to watershed and water resource

protection

best management practices for watershed protection

household hazardous waste

protecting watershed resources via land use planning

involving schools in watershed-based community

projects

WET LAND:

To address education, training and technical needs in the

area of wetlands protection and conservation, the NREC

program:

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Facilitates cooperative needs assessment, prioritization

and program planning among agencies and organizations

engaged in wetlands education

Provides educational programs and materials on

wetland conservation, functions and values, regulations, and

best management practices

Develops wetlands assessment methodologies and

provides training and technical assistance in their use

Provides technical assistance to agencies, municipalities and natural

resource professionals

FISH WILD LIFE AND BIODIVERSITY

NREC addresses needs and issues in fish, wildlife and

biodiversity conservation by:

Providing educational programs and materials on

biodiversity conservation, ecology and natural history of fish

& wildlife, habitat management, and conservation biology

Developing approaches for natural resource inventory,

natural communitymapping, and biodiversity assessment

Developing wetlands assessment methodologies andproviding training and technical assistance in their use

Coordinating amphibian monitoring efforts in

Massachusetts

Providing education materials, training, and technical assistance in the

area of marine aquaculture

FOREST CONSERVATION

Despite many people's impressions of Massachusetts, it is a

heavily forested state. In fact, at 62% forest cover, it is the8th most forested state in the country. Our forests provide

tremendous public benefits, including: clean water, wildlifehabitat, carbon sequestration, scenic backdrops, recreational

opportunities, and wood products. The health of ourcommonwealth is intimately linked to the health of our

forests.

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You might be surprised to learn that 70% of forests in

Massachusetts are Family Forests, owned by private

individuals and families. In fact there are over 47,000 family

forest owners who own 10 or more acres of land in

Massachusetts. The future well being of our forests and the

many benefits they provide is dependant on the many

independent decisions that these tens of thousands of

landowners make.

The intent of the UMass Extension Forest Conservation

program is to inform the decisions of these landowners and

to conserve the many benefits this land provides.

Visit MassWoods.net, the Forest Conservation programs

main website to find: Land trusts in your town

State service and private foresters in your town

Neighbors with training and experience in forestry and

land protection

Your options for passing on your land

Stories of families who have conserved their land

Timber Harvesting Information

Southern New England Stumpage Prices Landowner programs, including Ch. 61, 61A and 61B

Land Use

The knowledge base and skills required of volunteer town

land-use boards has changed dramatically in the 1990s.

They face increasingly complex legal and environmental

decisions that have broad and sometimes unanticipated

ramifications. At the same time, lifestyle changes and

workplace demands have reduced the number of volunteers

and the time they have available for "keeping up", let alone

for planning ahead. Professional staff has taken up part of

the slack in larger municipalities, but Massachusetts

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predominant town meeting style of government - and strong

devotion to home rule - keeps the volunteer boards on the

front lines of policy making, long range planning, resource

protection and, ultimately, grass-roots decision making.

The NREC program in Land Use Management and Planning

uses applied research and extension programs addressing

needs:

By providing education and training to local officials,

planners, policy-makers, and community leaders

As an outreach and education provider to those who

train or educate local officials: circuit riders,

Board/Commission staff, consultants, etc.

As a facilitator of collaborative pilot approaches among

groups of training providers

By developing innovative growth planning tools and

approaches

Land Protection

NRECs Land Protection program provides tools and

approaches, education programs and information to

facilitate effective and strategic land conservation programs

in Massachusetts. Elements include:

Assessment and prioritization of land for conservation

Outreach to forest landowners

Education, information and technical assistance to

municipalities, land trusts and other conservation

organizations .

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PAPER NO.5

NATURAL RESOURCES CONSER VATION

This is a glossary of environmental science.

Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical,chemical, and biological components of the environment. Environmental

science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach

to the study of environmental systems.

: Environmental science

Contents: 09AB CD EFG HI JKLMNO P QRST UVW XYZSee also

0-9

1-in-100 flood a flood with 1 in 100 chance of occurring in anygiven year (used as a safety requirement for the construction industry.)

20/30/10 standard - 20 mg/l Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD),

30 mg/l Suspended Solids (SS), 10 units of E. coli: the water quality

standard for greywater use in toilets, laundry and surface irrigation.

5Rs - (sustainability) reduce, remanufacture, reuse, recycle, recover.

A

abiotic - non-living chemical and physical factors of the environment

(see alsobiotic).

absorption pit (soakaway) a hole dug in permeable ground and

filled with broken stones or granular material and usually covered with earth

allowing collected water to soak into the ground.

absorption - one substance taking in another, either physically or

chemically.

acclimation - the process of an organism adjusting to chronic change

in its environment. acid mine drainage - the outflow ofacidic water from metalmines or

coal mines.

acid rain - rain or other forms of precipitation that is unusually acidic.

adaptation - a characteristic of an organism that has been favoured by

natural selection.

adaptive radiation - closely related species that look very different, asa result of having adapted to widely different ecological niches.

adsorption - one substance

m.sc. environment science assignment

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