motivation(main part)

8/18/2019 Motivation(Main Part)

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Introduction

The most difficult job that faces a supervisor is learning how to effectively motivate and keep

his/her employees motivated . The average person when asked how to motivate someone will

tell you what motivates him or her. Unfortunately, everyone is different and what motivates

one employee may only make another employee angry. The method we use to motivate each

employee must be tailored to the individual employee. We must offer them something that

value as an incentive to work towards a goal. One sie does not fit all when it comes to

motivation.

!overnment employees too are not immune towards this need to be motivated. They want to

be recognied to ascertain their value for e"istence. #otivation, or rather the lack of it, is nota problem peculiar to the public sector. $owever, as government employees are highly

visible, our motivational problems are often in the spotlight.

%n the following sections of this booklet, we will be discussing ways of tackling motivational

problems and provide suggestions on ways you can take to turn lethargy into energy and

apathy into commitment with your employees.

Organisational Culture

&taff motivation is the cornerstone of open, fle"ible and caring management culture, which

the !overnment aims to establish through $'#.

To put it into practice, "open" means not only to listen to staff suggestions and opinions, but

also to empower staff, accept their constructive criticisms and use their suggestions. To be

"flexible", we may need to change the traditional ways of doing things. (s far as staff

motivation is concerned, the biggest challenge perhaps is to stop focusing on problems and

the guilty party )police behavior* and start looking for those responsible for things gone right

)coach behavior*.

"Caring" calls for a human leader who would give emotional support to individuals, and at

the same time attend to the overall emotional needs of team members + which includes

treating them all in a fair and impartial manner.

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%nstrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received

i.e. if % do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as0

1. 4lear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes 5 e.g. the

rules of the reward 6game7

2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome

3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

alence is the importance that the individual places upon the e"pected outcome. 8or e"ample,

if % am mainly motivated by money, % might not value offers of additional time off.

$aving e"amined these links, the idea is that the individual then changes their level of effort

according to the value they place on the outcomes they receive from the process and on their

perception of the strength of the links between effort and outcome.

&o, if % perceive that any one of these is true0

1. #y increased effort will not increase my performance

2. #y increased performance will not increase my rewards

3. % don7t value the rewards on offer

9.

...then room7s e"pectancy theory suggests that this individual will not be motivated. This

means that even if an organisation achieves two out of three, that employees would still not

be motivated, all three are re:uired for positive motivation.

$ere there is also a useful link to the :uity theory of motivation0 namely that people will

also compare outcomes for themselves with others. :uity theory suggests that people will

alter the level of effort they put in to make it fair compared to others according to their

perceptions. &o if we got the same raise this year, but % think you put in a lot less effort, this

theory suggests that % would scale back the effort % put in.

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4rucially, "pectancy theory works on perceptions 5 so even if an employer thinks they have

provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in

that organisation it doesn7t mean that someone won7t perceive that it doesn7t work for them.

(t first glance this theory would seem most applicable to a traditional+attitude work situation

where how motivated the employee is depends on whether they want the reward on offer for

doing a good job and whether they believe more effort will lead to that reward.

$owever, it could e:ually apply to any situation where someone does something because

they e"pect a certain outcome. 8or e"ample, % recycle paper because % think its important to

conserve resources and take a stand on environmental issues )valence*; % think that the more

effort % put into recycling the more paper % will recycle )e"pectancy*; and % think that themore paper % recycle then less resources will be used )instrumentality*

Thus, this theory of motivation is not about self+interest in rewards but about the associations

people make towards e"pected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make

towards those outcomes.

Other theories, in my opinion, do not allow for the same degree of individuality between

people. This model takes into account individual perceptions and thus personal histories,

allowing a richness of response not obvious in #aslow or #c4lelland, who assume that

people are essentially all the same.

"pectancy theory could also be overlaid over another theory )e.g. #aslow*. #aslow could

be used to describe which outcomes people are motivated by and room to describe whether

they will act based upon their e"perience and e"pectations.

Theory X

%n this theory, management assumes employees are inherently lay and will avoid work if

they can. They inherently dislike work.


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Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employees interest in the job is money.

They will blame the person first in most situations, without :uestioning whether it may be the

system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. ( Theory = manager believes that

his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility

and that it is the managers job to structure the work and energie the employee. One major

flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to cause >iseconomies of &cale in

large businesses.

Theory Y

%n this theory management assumes employees may be ambitious, self+motivated, and

e"ercise self+control. %t is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work

duties. ( Theory ? manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want

to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong

motivation. #any people interpret Theory ? as a positive set of beliefs about workers. (

close reading of The $uman &ide of nterprise reveals that #c!regor simply argues for

managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this creates.

Theory X and Theory Y combined

8or #c!regor, Theory = and ? are not different ends of the same continuum. 'ather they are

two different continua in themselves. Thus, if a manager needs to apply Theory ? principles,

that does not preclude him from being a part of Theory = @ ?.

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McGregor and Maslows hierarchy

#c!regors work was based on #aslows hierarchy of needs. $e grouped #aslows hierarchy

into -lower order- )Theory =* needs and -higher order- )Theory ?* needs. $e suggested that

management could use either set of needs to motivate employees.

4riticisms

Today the theories are seldom used e"plicitly, largely because the insights they provided have

influenced and been incorporated by further generations of management theorists and

practitioners. #ore commonly, workplaces are described as -hard- versus -soft.- Taken too

literally any such dichotomy including Theory = and ? seem to represent unrealistic

e"tremes. #ost employees )and managers* fall somewhere in between these poles. Aaturally,

#c!regor was well aware of the heuristic as opposed to literal way in which such

distinctions are useful. Theory = and Theory ? are still important terms in the field of

management and motivation. 'ecent studies have :uestioned the rigidity of the model, but

#c!regors =+? Theory remains a guiding principle of positive approaches to management,

to organiational development, and to improving organiational culture.

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There are a number of different views as to what motivates workers. The most commonly

held views or theories are discussed below and have been developed over the last 1BB years

or so. Unfortunately these theories do not all reach the same conclusionsC

Taylor

8rederick Winslow Taylor )1DEF 5 1G1H* put forward the idea that workers are motivated

mainly by pay. $is Theory of &cientific #anagement argued the following0

Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control

Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks

Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as efficiently as

possible on one set task.

Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time+

piece+rate pay.

(s a result workers are encouraged to work hard and ma"imise their productivity.

Taylor7s methods were widely adopted as businesses saw the benefits of increased

productivity levels and lower unit costs. The most notably advocate was $enry 8ord who

used them to design the first ever production line, making 8ord cars. This was the start of the

era of mass production.

Taylor7s approach has close links with the concept of an autocratic management style

)managers take all the decisions and simply give orders to those below them* and

#acgregor7s Theory = approach to workers )workers are viewed as lay and wish to avoid

responsibility*.

$owever workers soon came to dislike Taylor7s approach as they were only given boring,

repetitive tasks to carry out and were being treated little better than human machines. 8irms

could also afford to lay off workers as productivity levels increased. This led to an increase in

strikes and other forms of industrial action by dis+satisfied workers.

Mayo

lton #ayo )1DDB 5 1G9G* believed that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work )something that Taylor

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ignored*. $e introduced the $uman 'elation &chool of thought, which focused on managers

taking more of an interest in the workers, treating them as people who have worthwhile

opinions and realising that workers enjoy interacting together.

#ayo conducted a series of e"periments at the $awthorne factory of the Western lectric

4ompany in 4hicago

$e isolated two groups of women workers and studied the effect on their productivity levels

of changing factors such as lighting and working conditions.

$e e"pected to see productivity levels decline as lighting or other conditions became

progressively worse

What he actually discovered surprised him0 whatever the change in lighting or working

conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or remained the same.

8rom this #ayo concluded that workers are best motivated by0


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(ll of the needs are structured into a hierarchy )see below* and only once a lower level of

need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the ne"t

need up in the hierarchy satisfied. 8or e"ample a person who is dying of hunger will be

motivated to achieve a basic wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure

job contract or the respect of others.

( business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill

each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy )see below*. #anagers should also recognise

that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the

same pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker

to worker.

!erberg

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8rederick $erberg )1G23+* had close links with #aslow and believed in a two+factor theory

of motivation. $e argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that

would directly motivate employees to work harder )#otivators*. $owever there were also

factors that would de+motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves

actually motivate employees to work harder )$ygienefactors*

#otivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. 8or instance how interesting the

work is and how much opportunity it gives for e"tra responsibility, recognition and

promotion. $ygiene factors are factors which 6surround the job7 rather than the job itself. 8or

e"ample a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of

pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job

once he is there. %mportantly $erberg viewed pay as a hygiene factor which is in direct

contrast to Taylor who viewed pay, and piece+rate in particular

$erberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic

approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through

certain methods. &ome of the methods managers could use to achieve this are0

Iob enlargement 5 workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform )not necessarily

more challenging* which should make the work more interesting.

Iob enrichment + involves workers being given a wider range of more comple", interesting

and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense

of achievement.

mpowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over

areas of their working life.

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#esigning $obs that Motivate and Challenge %mployees

&ernie %rven

#epartment of 'gricultural( %nvironmental and #evelopment %conomics

)hio *tate +niversity

Introduction

#anagers have the opportunity to influence the motivation of employees through design of

their jobs. Well+designed jobs help accomplish two important goals0 getting the necessary

work done in a timely and competent manner, and motivating and challenging employees.


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managers defaulting job design to employees. Iob design starts with determining the duties,

tasks and activities for each job.

The process of determining the content of jobs is called job analysis. Iob analysis is

sometimes considered the foundation of human resource management. The content of jobs,

job descriptions, hiring, orientation and training are all built on what is learned from job

analysis. %n this paper, we will consider four keys to the design of jobs that motivate and

challenge employees0 job analysis, job design, characteristics of desirable jobs and fine

tuning of jobs through job enrichment and adjusted work schedules to further increase their

capacity to motivate and challenge employees.

$ob 'nalysis

Iob analysis is a process of obtaining the information necessary for job design. Iob analysis

re:uires efficient collection of data about e"isting jobs and needs that new jobs are to address.

( manager has several important sources of data about job needs. %n most businesses, the

people now doing a job understand it best. Their e"periences and insights are critical to

understanding what the job is, the e"tent to which it is meeting the needs of the business and

opportunities for an improved design. ( cautionary note to keep in mind is that employees

may fail to understand that job analysis is a process of gathering data about the job not an

evaluation of the person doing the job. #anagers need to e"plain carefully to employees that

the goal is to improve their jobs not find a substitute

for annual performance reviews. &upervisors can add additional understanding of a job. %n

many farm and ranch businesses, managers and supervisors have often done many of the jobs

in the business. Therefore, their e"periences in the job are a valuable source of information.

Iob analysis should generate data about tasks, duties and responsibilities of the person in the

job. 8or a milker, the tasks, duties and responsibilities might include0 with one other person,

prepare and milk 3BB cows; e"amine cows for health problems; clean milking e:uipment and

milking parlor after milking; and perform preventive maintenance on the milking e:uipment.

The e:uipment that will be operated and tools used are also included in job analysis. 8or an

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officer manager, the list of e:uipment and tools might include a computer, copy machine, fa"

machine, paper shredder and telephone. The job analysis also shows the knowledge, skills,

abilities, e"perience and licenses

necessary for the job and the performance standards for the person doing the job. 8or a truck

driver, this list might include at least two years of e"perience in over+the+road driving, valid

commercial license and no moving violations during the last two years. The performance

standards might be safe operation of the truck, no moving violations and timely delivery and

pick ups as assigned. >etermination of physical demands is also important for some jobs,

e.g., be able to lift a EB+pound bo" to a height of 9D inches and carry the bo" 2B yards. %t is

difficult to illustrate the importance of job analysis with a few simplistic e"amples. Jerhaps a

set of :uestions can give an added sense of the importance of job analysis. Aote that all of the

:uestions are trying to clarify what is or is not a part of the

job being analyed.

K >oes the officer manager need to know how to design a computeried payroll system or will

the person in the position simply be doing payroll with a system already in placeL

K %s the truck driver responsible for routine maintenance of the truckL

K %s the head milker responsible for annual performance evaluations of milkers or are these to

be done by the herdspersonL

K >oes the crop manager help plan the year7s cropping plan or just carry out the plan

developed by the farm managerL

K %s the cow manager responsible for decisions about which cows to cull or is this the

responsibility of the herdspersonL

K Who is authoried to buy parts for machinery repairL

K Who is authoried to answer :uestions raised by a newspaper reporter who makes an

unannounced visit to the ranch or farmL

One can easily see from this short list of :uestions that the importance of job analysis grows

as a business grows, becomes more comple", and involves more employees. (t some point in

sie and comple"ity of a business, managers must either take a more systematic approach to job design or deal with the many problems of inconsistency across employees, supervisors

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and crews. Iob analysis also paves the way for determination of policies, procedures and rules

to guide employee decisions. Iob analysis and the resulting job design do not provide all the

guidelines for employee behavior. Jolicies, procedures and rules complement job design.

$ob #esign

(fter the job analysis has provided the necessary job data, managers are ready to design jobs.

The job analysis provides an important reminder to keep employees in mind as jobs are

designed. Iob design is the structuring of jobs to improve the efficiency of the business and

improve employee satisfaction. Uninteresting or boring jobs will cause problems. mployers

can capitalie on employees7 interests and the advantages they see in farm work. To illustrate,

people who love animals are motivated by the opportunity to work with animals. Iobs

emphasiing animals attract such people. &ome people like machinery much more than

animals. Others enjoy repairing machinery more than operating it. &ome people like office

work; others want to be outdoors. Iob design provides guidelines to help get appropriate fit

between employees and their jobs. The results of the job analysis make it possible to design

jobs while taking into consideration the tasks that must be accomplished for the business to

succeed. #anagers can add consideration of what individuals want in their jobs. &ometimes

minor changes in job design can dramatically improve a job in the employee7s view, e.g.,

changing a calf feeder7s job to include, or no longer include, e"planation of calf care to farm

visitors. (nother e"ample is asking the employee to work closely with the veterinarian to

improve calf health instead of simply reporting problems to a supervisor who in turn talks

with the veterinarian.

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Iob design cannot overcome the fact that no job is perfect. 8arm jobs have some

disadvantages managers need to address when designing jobs. ach of the following job

:ualities responds to often stated disadvantages of farm work0 reasonable number of work

hours per day and per week, proper e:uipment in good repair, well lighted and ventilated

work areas, training, some fle"ibility in scheduling work hours and regular communication

with the supervisor. Jaying little attention to these common concerns about farm jobs makes

it almost certain that employees will not be satisfied with the jobs.

#efinition, Iob nlargement is the horiontal e"pansion of a job. %t involves the addition of

tasks at the same level of skill and responsibility. %t is done to keep workers from getting

bored. %t is different than job enrichment )see sidebar*.

%xamples, &mall companies may not have as many opportunities for promotions, so they try

to motivate employees through job enlargement.

$ob Characteristics

(nticipating what job characteristics will help motivate employees is important in job design.

#anagers can do their best to give each job the following five key characteristics.

8irst, design jobs whenever possible to encourage employees to use a variety of skills.

'emind yourself of the reasons that assembly line jobs are boring. &tanding in one place

using only one or two skills doing the same thing repeatedly is not satisfying for most people.

One reason that many workers like varied work is that they get to use a variety of skills.

&econd, design jobs whenever possible so that an employee does a total job, e.g., all aspects

of calf raising as contrasted with just feeding or a milker position that includes more

responsibilities than just milking. ven such a simple task as repairing gates may be more

satisfying if one person has the responsibility to do everything including determining what

parts are needed, buying parts, taking the gate apart, replacing parts, reassembling and testing

to be sure everything is in order.

Third, design jobs so that the employee understands the significance of his or her job to the

farm. Why is power washing importantL Why is calf raising importantL What contribution is

the person making by doing a good job with dry cowsL What problems are caused later on if

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pigs are not given proper careL The employee should have answers to these kinds of basic

:uestions.

8ourth, design jobs so that each employee has responsibility, challenge, freedom and the

opportunity to be creative. This re:uires the supervisor or owner/operator of the farm to

delegate some authority. >elegation can be a powerful tool for improving a job. M?ou can do

the job however you want as long as you get results.N &uch powerful words, such effective

de3

legation and such important responsibility are likely to have positive impacts on employees.

8inally, make feedback a part of job design. Well+designed jobs anticipate the need for

communication. #ost employees want to know what is e"pected of them in the job, how they

are doing, how they can improve, what latitude they have in changing how they do their

tasks, what should be discussed with a supervisor and when the discussion should occur.

mployees rarely complain about too much communication with their supervisor. They often

want more communication.

%rgonomics

The tradition in farm and ranch work is to e"pect the person to adjust to the tool. ( Mone siefits allN mentality is common. The sie may refer to an operator7s seat, chairs for a staff

meeting, volume of music in the milking parlor or length of handle on a tool. The message is,

M?ou need to adjust.N

rgonomics turns the Mone sie fits allN mentality on its head. rgonomics asks how the

machine can be made to fit the person rather than how the person can fit the machine.

"amples include adjustable operator seats, fle"ible lighting, variable temperature controls,

padded floors, safety e:uipment, work areas adjustable to appropriate heights and angles and

comfortable yet durable work clothes.

(n increasingly diverse work force has made ergonomics more important. #en and women

may use the same e:uipment. ( FE+year+old man E feet F inches tall may take a turn operating

a machine usually operated by a 2B+year+old man F feet F inches tall. 4learly, it makes no

sense to e"pect all employees to adjust to an unadjustable machine. Iob design can contribute

to employee motivation by taking advantage of the many advances that have been made

through ergonomics.

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$ob %nrichment

&ometimes employees want more from their jobs than is now possible. Iob enrichment is a

response to employees ready for more responsibility, variety and challenge. Wanting more is

only part of what is re:uired to make job enrichment a success. mployees must be able to

handle the enriched jobs that are being developed for them. #anagers need to consider

carefully each employee7s physical capabilities, mental skills, organiational competence and

capacity for learning before inviting an employee to take on an enriched job. 8orcing more on

employees than they are capable of handling

will likely hurt the business and frustrate the employees. The usual dimensions of job

enrichment in the farm and ranch setting include thefollowing0

K #ake a job more challenging by making it more difficult. The job may be made more

difficult, for e"ample, by including more problem+solving, increasing the number of people

with whom cooperation is necessary, increasing the comple"ity of tasks included in the job

and providing less specific directions and rules.

K (ssign challenging new tasks that the employee must learn to do through selfstudy, off+site

training, on+the+job training, e"perimentation and/or contact with others who have the

necessary e"pertise.

K >elegate responsibility and authority to an employee. &ome e"amples include delegated

responsibility and authority to0 improve a part of the business such as pig mortality, resolve a

specific problem such as employee turnover or gather the necessary information for

determining the best alternative for replacing a major piece of machinery.

K (sk the employee to become the farm7s e"pert in an area of interest to him or her, e.g., corn

varieties.

K Jrovide the employee with performance reports about enterprises or major cost categories

and ask that he or she provide analysis and suggestion on how to improve performance.

Iob enrichment is a tool for improving employee motivation through satisfying a need for

more challenge. Iob enrichment pays more attention to employee needs than to needs of the

business. %n particular, job enrichment responds to employee need for achievement, self+

esteem and self+fulfillment. Iob enrichment is likely to be counterproductive when employeesdo not have these higher level needs. &uch employees are likely to see job enrichment as little

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more than employers trying to take advantage of them and frustrating them unnecessarily. Iob

enrichment has compensation implications. One would e"pect that an employee who takes on

an enriched job with no loss in work :uality would realie some financial benefit. $owever,

the impetus for job enrichment is increased motivation through more challenging work rather

than higher pay through more responsibility. Iob enrichment recognies that non+monetary

rewards are important to job satisfaction. 8urthermore, to have a sense of progress in their

careers, many employees need more

than gradually increasing compensation. Iob enrichment meets the need for nonmonetary

progress by providing a steady increase in challenges and professional development.

-or. *chedules

The eight+hour work day/9B hours per week is the standard for most of the country7s labor

force. 8or several reasons, this has never been the standard for farm and ranch work. The 8air

abor &tandards (ct e"empts farm and ranch work from overtime pay re:uirements when the

workweek e"ceeds 9B hours. Thus, a farm or ranch employer can have a standard workweek

of si", ten+hour days and have the same hourly pay rate for all FB hours. The work ethic

common to farming and ranching also contributes to acceptance of long workweeks. The

seasonal nature of agriculture re:uires an all out

effort during some weeks of the year. 4onse:uently, work schedules have been dictated more

by how to get the work done than by seeking ways to increase employee motivation. &ome

employers outside agriculture have made adjustments to traditional work schedules. #ost

common are fle"ible beginning and ending times, a compressed workweek and job sharing.

These adjustments remain uncommon in agriculture. Aevertheless, farm and ranch managers

sometimes have the option of changing traditional work schedules. 8le"ible beginning and

ending times, usually called fle"time, eliminate common beginning and ending times for

employees doing the same job. %nstead, employers permit employees to choose daily startingand :uitting times. To illustrate, a manager with five employees might have two beginning

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fourth person if necessary. "perience is so limited with job sharing in agriculture that an

employer would benefit from finding a nonfarm employer and employee with job sharing

e"perience to gain their insights about the pros and cons.

Concluding Comment

Iob design is a tool for helping to motivate and challenge employees. ike all other

motivational tools, it fails to provide a magical answer for all employees in all situations.

Aevertheless, inattention to job analysis, job design, job enrichment and work scheduling

means that motivation problems will be created that need not be created. mployees are

likely to appreciate an employer7s efforts to make their jobs as motivational and challenging

as feasible. #any employees will welcome the opportunity to help improve their jobs. They

will see the benefits for themselves and for the business. Traditional jobs can be changed. (n

employer7s imagination and creativity applied to job design have the potential to yield

impressive results.

Case *tudy

The %ffectiveness of /on Monetary 0ecognition 1rograms ,

(lthough the concept of positive reinforcement and the related principle that you get what

you reward are well+founded in the psychology literature, the effective use of positive

reinforcement by practicing managers is uneven and often totally lacking in day+to+day

business operations. This article e"plores the conditions that enable or inhibit the use by

managers of non+monetary recognition )A#'*.

The *tudy

8or each of 39 organiations, data from a set of managers who were identified as fre:uent

users of non+monetary recognition were matched against a set of managers who were

infre:uent users of the behavior, using three forms of validation to confirm accurate category

placement. $igh+use )$U* and low+use )U* managers were initially identified by an

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organiational sponsor and then confirmed by a managers self+report and reports by at least

three employees who reported to each manager.

( broad+based national survey was conducted of all managers in the sample, based on

variables drawn primarily from three domains of the motivation literature. &urvey :uestions

e"plored the motivation for the use of non+monetary recognition, ranging from past

e"perience with the behavior )social learning theory*, to present reinforcement of the

behavior )reinforcement theory*, to future e"pectations from the behavior )e"pectancy

theory*.

&ibliography

-ebsites

http0//www.google.co.in

http0//www.recognitionrewards.com

http0//www.business+magaines.com

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