motivation - purduekip/120/lecturemotivationspr09.pdf · motivation is a need or desire that...
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Motivation
Chapter 12Psy12000.003Spring, 2009
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What Motivates You To Get UpTo Come To Class?
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Announcement
• Next study session will be on next Tuesdayevening (not Wednesday). Time and placewill be announced at Tuesday’s lecture, oron my website if we know sooner.
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MotivationMotivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior
and directs it towards a goal.
What’s the difference between a need and a desire?
Extrinsic motivation is something outside the personthat energizes behavior.
Money, fame, powerIntrinsic motivation is something within the person that
energizes behavior.Interest, curiosity, personal challenge and
improvement
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Case Study:Do Rats Have a Protestant Work
Ethic?
• The earned vs.free foodphenomenon
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Perspectives on MotivationPerspectives to explain motivation include the
following:
Instinct Theory Drive-Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives Cognitive based theory:
Self-efficacy
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Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology
Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixedpatterns throughout different species and are not
learned (Tinbergen, 1951).
Where the woman builds different kinds of housesthe bird builds only one kind of nest.
© A
riel Skelley/ Masterfile
Tony Brandenburg/ B
ruce Colem
an, Inc.
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Drive-Reduction Theory
When the instinct theory of motivation failed toexplain most human motivation, it was replacedby the drive-reduction theory. A physiologicalneed creates an aroused tension state (a drive)that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
(Hull, 1951).
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Question• What need would
explain why we seekthrills, excitement?
• Why do we like scarymovies?
• What drives are beingreduced by going on aroller coaster orparachuting?
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Drive Reduction
Food DriveReduction
Organism
The physiological aim of drive reduction ishomeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal
state (e.g., maintenance of steady bodytemperature).
Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)
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Incentive
Where our needs push, incentives (positive ornegative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.
Henry Murray called these needs and presses.
A food-deprived person (n Hunger) who smells baking bread(incentive) (p Food) feels a strong hunger drive.
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Optimum ArousalHuman motivation aims to seek optimum levelsof arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys
and children are known to explore theenvironment in the absence of a need-based
drive.
Harlow
Primate Laboratory, U
niversity of Wisconsin
Randy Faris/ Corbis
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Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1970)suggested that certain
needs have priority overothers. Physiologicalneeds like breathing,
thirst, and hunger comebefore psychological
needs such asachievement, self-
esteem, and the need forrecognition.
(1908-1970)14
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Hurricane Survivors
Menahem
Kahana/ A
FP/ Getty Im
agesM
ario Tama/ G
etty Images
David P
ortnoy/ Getty Im
ages for SternJoe Skipper/ R
euters/ Corbis
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Self-Efficacy
• A belief (cognitive component of theory) inone’s abilities to succeed
• A sense of control over one’s environment(social, work, etc.)
• Video (Bandura on efficacy)
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Classic Positions on Motivation
• Freud– Id– Ego– Superego
• Skinner– Reinforcement
• Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers)– Self-actualization
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Social Motivation• Others’ opinions and evaluations
of self is a strong motivatingsystem
• Self-monitoring• Fame
– Being known, recognized maysupercede being liked
• Jerry Springer?
• Conformity– Fitting in = Being liked– Avoiding rejection/exclusion
• Social motivation to eat, tosmoke, to take drugs, to have sex
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Control Motivation• Reactance
– When you feel that your freedom is being restricted, youwill act in such a way to regain that freedom
• Learned Helplessness– Upon repeated noncontingencies between one’s behaviors
and one’s outcomes (and after initial reactance), learnedhelplessness occurs
• Uncontrolled negative outcomes more likely to cause LH thanuncontrolled positive outcomes
– But see Self-handicapping• Giving up• Pessimism• Depression• Learned Helplessness Tutorial
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Hunger
When are we hungry?
When do we eat?
When there is no food in our stomach.
When we are hungry.
How do we know when our stomach is empty?Our stomach growls. These are also called
hunger pangs.20
The Physiology of Hunger
Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals tothe brain making us aware of our hunger.
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Stomachs Removed
Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected theesophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still
felt hungry (and ate food).
In other words, nohunger pangs werepossible… 22
Glucose: C6H12O6
Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, makingus feel hungry.
Glucose Molecule
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Glucose & the Brain
Levels of glucose inthe blood aremonitored by
receptors (neurons) inthe stomach, liver, andintestines. They send
signals to thehypothalamus in the
brain. Rat Hypothalamus
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Hypothalamic Centers
The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger(stimulation).
Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest ineating.
The reduction of blood glucose leads rats to eatravenously.
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Hypothalamic Centers
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the VMH,
and the animal eats excessively.
Richard H
oward
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Hypothalamus & Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.
ResponseTissueHormone
Digestive tract
Fat cells
Pancreas
Stomach
Hypothalamus
IncreaseshungerInsulin increase
DecreaseshungerPPY increase
DecreaseshungerLeptin increase
Increaseshunger
Ghrelinincrease
IncreaseshungerOrexin increase
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Set-Point Theory
Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedialhypothalamus alters the body’s “weight
thermostat.”
If weight is lost, food intake increases and energyexpenditure decreases. If weight is gained, the opposite
takes place.
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Video
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The Psychology of Hunger
Memory plays an important role in hunger.
When did I eat last?
Due to difficulties with retention, amnesiapatients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et
al., 1998).
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Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?
Body chemistry and environmental factorsinfluence not only when we feel hunger but what
we feel hungry for!
Richard O
lsenius/ Black Star
Victor E
nglebert
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Hot Cultures like Hot Spices
Countries with hot climates use more bacteria-inhibiting spices in meat dishes.
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Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which anormal-weight person (usually an adolescent
woman) continuously loses weight but still feelsoverweight.
Reprinted by perm
ission of The New
England Journal of M
edicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617.
Lisa O’C
onnor/ Zuma/ C
orbis
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Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa: Adisorder
characterized byepisodes of
overeating, usuallyhigh-calorie foods,
followed byvomiting, using
laxatives, fasting, orexcessive exercise.
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Obesity
http://ww
w.cyberdiet.com
A disorder characterized by being excessivelyoverweight. Obesity increases the risk for health
issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes,hypertension, arthritis, and back problems.
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Reasons for Eating Disorders
Sexual Abuse Myth: Childhood sexual abusedoes not cause eating disorders.
Family: Younger generations develop eatingdisorders when raised in families in whichweight is an excessive concern.
Genetics: Twin studies show that eatingdisorders are more likely to occur inidentical twins rather than fraternal twins.
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Body Image (Women)Western culture tends to place more emphasison a thin body image in comparison to other
cultures.
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Summary
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Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way ofmaking people procreate, enabling our species
to survive.
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The Physiology of Sex
Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the humansexual response to consist of four phases:
Physiological ResponsePhase
Engorged genital release blood. Male goesthrough refractory phase. Women resolve slower.Resolution
Contractions all over the body. Increase inbreathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.Orgasm
Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse andblood pressure.Plateau
Genitals become engorged with blood. Vaginaexpands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.Excitement
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Sexual Problems
Men generally suffer from two kinds of sexualproblems: premature ejaculation and erectiledisorder. Women may suffer from orgasmic
disorders.
These problems are not due to personality disordersand can be treated through behavior therapy and drugs
such as Viagra.
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Hormones and Sexual Behavior
Sex hormones effect the development of sexualcharacteristics and (especially in animals)
activate sexual behavior.
OvariesAdrenals
Testes
Estrogen(Small amounts oftestosterone)Female
Testosterone(Small amounts ofestrogen)Male
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Testosterone
Levels of testosterone remain constant in males,so it is difficult to manipulate and activatesexual behavior. Castration, which reducestestosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.
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Estrogen
Female animals “in heat” express peak levels ofestrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened
with estrogen injections.
Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans thanon animals. Women are more likely to have sex whenclose to ovulation (increased testosterone), and menshow increased testosterone levels when socializing
with women.
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The Psychology of Sex
Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, wedie. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we
do not have sex, we do not die.
A need for aspecies?
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What is motivating about sex?
• The physiological pleasure derivedfrom orgasm?– If that’s it, why not be satisfied with
masturbation?
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External Stimuli
It is common knowledge that men becomesexually aroused when browsing through eroticmaterial. However, women experience similar
heightened arousal under controlled conditions.
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Imagined Stimuli
Our imagination in our brain can influencesexual arousal and desire. People with spinalcord injuries and no genital sensation can still
feel sexual desire.
Soto
grap
hs/T
he G
amm
a-Li
aiso
n N
etw
ork/
Get
ty Im
ages
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Dreams
Dreams, another form of imagination, are alsoassociated with sexual arousal. Genital arousal is
associated with all kinds of dreams. Nearly allmen and 40% of women who dream of sexualimagery end up with an orgasm (Wells, 1986).
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Adolescent Sexuality
When individuals reach adolescence, theirsexual behavior develops. However, there are
cultural differences.
Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is muchgreater than in Arab countries and other Asian
countries.
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Contraception
Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have theright ideas about birth control methods.
Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reducessexual activity, but it also reduces the use ofcontraceptives.
Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feeluncomfortable about discussing contraceptives.
Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex areless likely to use contraceptives.
Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafeextramarital sex decreases the use ofcontraceptives.
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Sexually Transmitted Infections
High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligenceare likely to delay sex.
Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reservesex for a marital commitment.
Father Presence: A father’s absence from home cancontribute to higher teen sexual activity.
Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutorin programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancyare less likely to engage in unsafe sex.
Correlational studies reveal factors thatreduce sexual activity in teens.
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Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preferencefor emotional and sexual relationships withindividuals of the same sex, the other sex,
and/or either sex.
Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual
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Sexual Orientation Statistics
In Europe and America, based on many nationalsurveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4% and in
women is 1-2%.
As members of a minority, homosexuals often strugglewith their sexual orientation.
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Origins of Sexual Orientation
Homosexuality is more likely based onbiological factors like differing brain centers,
genetics, and parental hormone exposure ratherthan environmental factors.
Homosexual parents
Cynthia Johnson/ Tim
e magazine
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Animal Homosexuality
A number of animalspecies are devoted to
same-sex partners,suggesting that
homosexuality existsin the animal world.
Wendell and Cass
David H
ecker/ AFP/ G
etty Images
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The Brain
In homosexual men, the size of the anteriorhypothalamus is smaller (LeVay, 1991) and theanterior commissure is larger (Allen & Gorski,
1992). Again, this is correlational.
AnteriorHypothalamus
AnteriorCommissure
http
://w
ww
.msu
.edu
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Genes & Sexual Orientation
A number of reasons suggest thathomosexuality may be due to genetic factors.
Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in
identical twins than fraternal twins. However,there are mixed results.
Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can geneticallymanipulate females to act like males duringcourtship and males to act like females.
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Hormones & Sexual Orientation
Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientationduring critical periods of fetal development.
Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone resultsin females (sheep) exhibiting homosexual behavior.
Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus tofemale hormones results in an attraction to males.
Heterosexualmale
Homosexual Heterosexualfemale
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Sexual Orientation: Biology
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Changing Attitudes
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Sex and Human Values
“Promiscuous recreational sex poses certainpsychological, social, health, and moral
problems that must be faced realistically”(Baumrind, 1982).
Andreanna Seym
ore/ Getty Im
ages
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The Need to Belong
“[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle).Separation from others increases our need to
belong.
“Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffersfrom social starvation.
20th C
entury Fox/ Dream
works/ The K
obal Collection
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Aiding Survival
Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survivalrates. These bonds led to the following:
Protecting against predators, especially for the young. Procuring food. Reproducing the next offspring.
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Belongingness
Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors ourthinking and emotions.
Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging withothers increases our self-esteem. Social segregationdecreases it.
Maintaining Relationships: We resist breakingsocial bonds, even bad ones.
Ostracism: Social exclusion leads todemoralization, depression, and at times nastybehavior.
Fortifying Health: People who tend to have closefriends are happier and healthier.
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Motivation at Work
The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filledby love and work.
Culver Pictures
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Attitudes Towards Work
Job: Necessary way to make money. Career: Opportunity to advance from one position
to another. Calling: Fulfilling a socially useful activity.
People have different attitudes toward work.Some take it as a:
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Flow & Rewards
Flow is the experience between no work and alot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s
work.
People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers,composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards(money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic
rewards.
(Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)
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Work and Satisfaction
In industrialized countries work and satisfactiongo hand-in-hand.
What are some otherreasons for thissupposed causalrelationship?
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Industrial-Organizational (I/O)Psychology
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles ofselecting and evaluating workers.
Organizational Psychology: Studies how workenvironments and management styles influenceworker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
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Personnel Psychology
Personnel psychologists assist organizations atvarious stages of selecting and assessing
employees.
Henri Matisse
© CN
AC/ M
NA
M/ D
ist. Rèunion des M
usées Nationaux/ A
rt Resource, NY
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Harnessing Strengths
Identifying people’s strengths (analytical,disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching
them to a particular area of work is the first steptoward workplace effectiveness.
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Interviews & Performance
Interviewers are confident in their ability topredict long-term job performance. However,informal interviews are less informative than
standardized tests.
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The Interviewer Illusion
Interviewers often overrate their discernment.
Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but long-lasting habits matter even more.
Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likelyto talk about those employees that turned outsuccessful.
Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewerspresume (wrongly) that what we see (candidate) iswhat we get.
Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledgeabout the candidate may affect her judgment.
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Structured Interview
A formal and disciplined way of gatheringinformation from the interviewee. Structured
interviews pinpoint strengths (attitudes,behaviors, knowledge, and skills). The
personnel psychologist may do the following:
Analyze the job. Script questions. Train the interviewer.
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Personnel Psychologist’s Tasks
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Appraising Performance
Appraising performance results in two things:1) employee retention, and 2) the
encouragement of better performance.
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Organizational Psychology:Motivating Achievement
Achievement motivation is defined as a desire forsignificant accomplishment.
Skinner devised a daily discipline schedulethat led him to become the 20th century’s most
influential psychologist.
Ken H
eyman/ W
oodfin Cam
p & A
ssociates
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Satisfaction & EngagementHarter et al., (2002) observed that employee
engagement means that the worker:1. Knows what is expected
of him.2. Feels the need to work.3. Feels fulfilled at work.4. Has opportunities to do
his best.5. Thinks himself to be a
part of somethingsignificant.
6. Has opportunities tolearn and develop.
Engaged workers are more productivethan non-engaged workers at different stores
of the same chain.
Capital-Journal/ D
avid Eulitt/ A
P/ Wide W
orld Photos
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Managing Well
Every leader dreams of managing in ways thatenhance people’s satisfaction, engagement, and
productivity in his or her organization.
Larry Brown offers 4-5 positive comments for every negativecomment.
Ezra Shaw/ G
etty Images
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Job-Relevant StrengthsEffective leaders need to select the right people,determine their employees’ talents, adjust their
work roles to their talents, and develop theirtalents and strengths.
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Challenging Goals
Specific challenging goals motivate people toreach higher achievement levels, especially if
there is feedback such as progress reports.
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Leadership Style
Different organizational demands need differentkinds of leaders. Leadership varies from a boss-
focused style to a democratic style.
Task Leadership: Involves setting standards,organizing work, and focusing on goals.
Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts andbuilding high achieving teams.