motivation at work chapter 8. definition of motivation motivation – the process of arousing and...
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Motivation at WorkMotivation at Work
Chapter 8Chapter 8
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Definition of MotivationDefinition of Motivation
MotivationMotivation –– the process of the process of arousing and sustaining arousing and sustaining goal-directed behaviorgoal-directed behavior
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3 Groups of 3 Groups of Motivational TheoriesMotivational Theories
InternalInternal Suggest that variables within the individual Suggest that variables within the individual
give rise to motivation and behaviorgive rise to motivation and behavior Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theoryExample: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
ProcessProcess Emphasize the nature of the interaction Emphasize the nature of the interaction
between the individual and the environmentbetween the individual and the environment Example: Expectancy theoryExample: Expectancy theory
ExternalExternal Focus on environmental elements to explain Focus on environmental elements to explain
behaviorbehavior Example: Two-factor theoryExample: Two-factor theory
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Early Philosophers of Early Philosophers of Motivational TheoriesMotivational Theories
Max WeberMax Weberwork contributes to salvation work contributes to salvation
Protestant work ethicProtestant work ethic
Sigmund FreudSigmund Freuddelve into the unconscious mind to better delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needsunderstand a person’s motives and needs
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Early Philosophers of Early Philosophers of Motivational TheoriesMotivational TheoriesAdam SmithAdam Smith
““enlightened” self-interest; that which enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other peoplethe individual and to other people
Frederick TaylorFrederick Taylorfounder of scientific management; founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge management and labor to enlarge company profitscompany profits
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety and Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Low
est t
o hi
ghes
t ord
er
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Motivational Theories X and YMotivational Theories X and Y
Theory XTheory XA set of assumptions of how to A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needsmotivated by lower order needs
Theory YTheory YA set of assumptions of how to A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needsmotivated by higher order needs
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Theories Applied to Theories Applied to Needs HierarchyNeeds Hierarchy
Physiological
Safety and Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA Theory Y – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs
Theory X – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs
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McGregor’s Assumptions McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based About People Based on Theory Xon Theory X Naturally indolentNaturally indolent Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, Lack ambition, dislike responsibility,
and prefer to be ledand prefer to be led Inherently self-centered and Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needsindifferent to organizational needs Naturally resistant to changeNaturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupesGullible, not bright, ready dupes
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
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McGregor’s Assumptions McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based About People Based on Theory Yon Theory Y
Passive and resistant behaviors not Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational inherent; result of organizational experience experience
People possessPeople possess Motivation Motivation Development potential Development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward Readiness to direct behavior toward
organizational goalsorganizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
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McGregor’s Assumptions McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based About People Based on Theory Yon Theory Y
Management’s taskManagement’s task——arrange conditions and arrange conditions and operational methods so operational methods so people can achieve their people can achieve their own goals by directing own goals by directing efforts to organizational efforts to organizational goalsgoals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
OrganizationGoals
Individual Goals
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Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
Physiological
Safety and Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
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McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement
Need for Achievement Need for Achievement –– a a manifest (easilymanifest (easily perceived) perceived) need that concerns need that concerns individuals’ issues of individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, excellence, competition, challenging goals, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming persistence, and overcoming difficultiesdifficulties
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McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for PowerNeed for Power
Need for Power Need for Power –– a manifest a manifest (easily perceived) need that (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on need to make an impact on others, influence others, others, influence others, change people or events, and change people or events, and make a difference in lifemake a difference in life
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McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation
Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation –– a manifest a manifest (easily (easily perceived) need perceived) need that concerns an that concerns an individual’s need individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships close, intimate relationships with other peoplewith other people
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Self-actualization
3 Motivational Need Theories3 Motivational Need TheoriesMaslow Alderfer McClelland
HigherOrderNeeds
LowerOrderNeeds
Esteem selfinterpersonal
Safety and Security interpersonal
physical
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Relatedness Need for Affiliation
Existence
Growth
Belongingness(social and love)
Physiological
McGregor
Theory Y
Theory X
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryTheory
Hygiene FactorHygiene Factor – – work condition work condition related to dissatisfaction related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or paincaused by discomfort or pain maintenance factormaintenance factor contributes to employee’s contributes to employee’s
feeling not dissatisfiedfeeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of contributes to absence of
complaintscomplaints
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryTheory
Motivation FactorMotivation Factor – – work condition work condition related to the satisfaction of related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological the need for psychological growthgrowth job enrichmentjob enrichment leads to superior performance & leads to superior performance &
efforteffort
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MotivationMotivation––HygieneHygiene Theory of Motivation Theory of Motivation
Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction
• Company policy and administration
• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth
• Salary?
Motivation factors increase job satisfaction
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MotivationMotivation––Hygiene Hygiene CombinationsCombinations
High M Low M
High H high motivation few complaints
low motivation few complaints
Low H high motivation many complaints
low motivation many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
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Questions on Herzberg’s Questions on Herzberg’s TheoryTheory
Is salary a hygiene or a Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?motivational factor?
What role do individual What role do individual differences (age, sex, social differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?status, education) play?
What role do intrinsic job What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) factors (work flow process) play?play?
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New Ideas in Human Motivation: New Ideas in Human Motivation: Eustress, Strength, HopeEustress, Strength, Hope
EustressEustress – – healthy, normal stress healthy, normal stress
Opportunities
Challenges
Energy
Obstacles
Barriers
Frustration
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New Ideas in Human Motivation: New Ideas in Human Motivation: Positive Energy and Positive Energy and Full EngagementFull Engagement
Management of Management of EnergyEnergy
Expend Energy
Build Positive Energy
Renewal and
Recovery
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Social Exchange Social Exchange & Equity Theory& Equity Theory Equity theory focuses on Equity theory focuses on
individualindividual––environment interactionenvironment interaction Concerned with social processesConcerned with social processes Etzioni—calculated working Etzioni—calculated working
relationshipsrelationships Both parties have demandsBoth parties have demands Both parties make contributionsBoth parties make contributions Expect fair, equitable, ethical Expect fair, equitable, ethical
treatmenttreatment
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IndividualIndividual––Organizational Organizational Exchange RelationshipExchange Relationship
Organizational goalsOrganizational goals Departmental objectivesDepartmental objectives Job tasksJob tasks
Physiological needsPhysiological needs Security needsSecurity needs Physical needsPhysical needs
Company statusCompany status BenefitsBenefits IncomeIncome
Developmental potentialDevelopmental potential Employee knowledgeEmployee knowledge Employee skills and abilitiesEmployee skills and abilities
IndividualOrganization
Dem
ands
Con
trib
utio
ns
SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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Adam’s Theory of InequityAdam’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity Inequity –– the situation in which a the situation in which a person perceives he or she is person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he giving, or is giving less than he or she is receivingor she is receiving
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Positive Outcomes > OutcomesEquity Inputs Inputs
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < OutcomesEquity Inputs Inputs
Person Comparison other
Equity and Inequity at WorkEquity and Inequity at Work
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Strategies for Strategies for Resolution of InequityResolution of Inequity
Alter the person’s outcomesAlter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputsAlter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputsAlter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputsAlter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison Change who is used as a comparison
otherother Rationalize the inequityRationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situationLeave the organizational situation
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New Perspectives New Perspectives on Equity Theoryon Equity Theory
Equity SensitiveEquity Sensitive
I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other
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New Perspectives New Perspectives on Equity Theoryon Equity Theory
BenevolentBenevolent
I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other
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New Perspectives New Perspectives on Equity Theoryon Equity Theory
EntitledEntitled
I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other
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Expectancy Theory of Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key ConstructsMotivation: Key Constructs
Valence Valence –– value or importance placed value or importance placed on a particular rewardon a particular reward
Expectancy Expectancy –– belief that effort leads to belief that effort leads to performanceperformance
Instrumentality Instrumentality –– belief that belief that performance is related to rewardsperformance is related to rewards
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Expectancy Model Expectancy Model of Motivationof Motivation
Performance RewardEffortEffort
Perceived effort –performance probability
Perceived effort –performance probability
Perceived value of reward
Perceived performance – reward probability
“What are my chances of getting the job done if I put forth the necessary effort?”
“What are my chances of getting the rewards I value if I satisfactorily complete the job?”
“What rewardsdo I value?”
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3 Causes of 3 Causes of Motivational ProblemsMotivational Problems
Belief that effort will not result Belief that effort will not result in performancein performance
Belief that performance will not Belief that performance will not result in rewardsresult in rewards
The value a person places on, The value a person places on, or the preference a person has or the preference a person has for, certain rewardsfor, certain rewards
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Moral MaturityMoral MaturityMoral Maturity –Moral Maturity – the measure of a person’s the measure of a person’s
cognitive moral developmentcognitive moral development
Morally mature people behave and
act based on universal ethical
principles.
Morally immature people behave and
act based on egocentric
motivations.
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Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences Motivational theories Motivational theories
are culturally boundare culturally bound Research results Research results
differ among culturesdiffer among cultures
U.S. Results
Other Cultural Results
=
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Ways to Motivate PeopleWays to Motivate People
TrainingTraining CoachingCoaching Task assignmentsTask assignments Rewards contingent on good Rewards contingent on good
performanceperformance Valued rewards availableValued rewards available