Money, Sex and PowerMoney, Sex and Power

Gendered Power and Gendered Power and Postcommunist Postcommunist

Transformation: The Rise Transformation: The Rise of Masculinism?of Masculinism?

Week 7Week 7

2011-122011-12

Lecture outlineLecture outline

►Gender and the state-socialist subject – Gender and the state-socialist subject – what it was like for women under what it was like for women under communismcommunism

►How the transformations that are How the transformations that are happening in post-communist societies happening in post-communist societies can be understood in terms of gendercan be understood in terms of gender

►The implications for women of the The implications for women of the nation-building and marketisation nation-building and marketisation projects going on in post-communist projects going on in post-communist societiessocieties

What is post-communist What is post-communist transition?transition?

►Move from totalitarian states to western Move from totalitarian states to western free-market liberal-democratic modelfree-market liberal-democratic model

►Symbolised by fall of Berlin wall,1989Symbolised by fall of Berlin wall,1989►Marketisation and democratisationMarketisation and democratisation►Want to join the Western European clubWant to join the Western European club►Contrasts with 1945-89 when Eastern Contrasts with 1945-89 when Eastern

bloc under control of Soviet Unionbloc under control of Soviet Union

Changes to Eastern BlocChanges to Eastern Bloc

► Poland joined NATO in 1999 Poland joined NATO in 1999 ► 1st May 2004 - accession of Poland; Hungary; 1st May 2004 - accession of Poland; Hungary;

Czech Republic; Slovakia; Estonia; Latvia; Czech Republic; Slovakia; Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania and Slovenia to the EU Lithuania and Slovenia to the EU

► 1st January 2007, Bulgaria & Romania joined EU 1st January 2007, Bulgaria & Romania joined EU ► Candidate countries include Croatia; Turkey & Candidate countries include Croatia; Turkey &

Macedonia whilst ‘potential candidates’ include Macedonia whilst ‘potential candidates’ include Albania; Bosnia/Herzegovina; Montenegro & Albania; Bosnia/Herzegovina; Montenegro & Serbia. (i.e. includes south east Europe/Balkans)Serbia. (i.e. includes south east Europe/Balkans)

Implications of changeImplications of change

►Now? Almost total rejection of state Now? Almost total rejection of state socialism, and its legacies, for the socialism, and its legacies, for the creation of the new post-communist order creation of the new post-communist order

►The aspiration? To set up free market The aspiration? To set up free market liberal democracies along the lines of liberal democracies along the lines of their (successful) western European their (successful) western European counterpartscounterparts

►Societies seen as being in transition from Societies seen as being in transition from state socialism to free market, liberal state socialism to free market, liberal economies economies

Critique of transitionCritique of transition

►Some prefer to talk about Some prefer to talk about ‘transformation’ rather than ‘transition’. ‘transformation’ rather than ‘transition’. Why? Why? transitions emphasise transitions emphasise destinationsdestinations transformations stress actual transformations stress actual processes processes of of

change change

►Everything undergoing process of Everything undergoing process of redefinition redefinition

What was it like for women What was it like for women under communism?under communism?

► women expected to be workers, mothers and women expected to be workers, mothers and to participate in political activity - quotasto participate in political activity - quotas

► high levels of women’s employment facilitated high levels of women’s employment facilitated by state provision of childcare servicesby state provision of childcare services

► reproductive rights reproductive rights ► but no challenge to domestic divisions of but no challenge to domestic divisions of

labourlabour► rhetoric of state socialism – emancipation for rhetoric of state socialism – emancipation for

womenwomen► but unequal access to status and resourcesbut unequal access to status and resources

Socialist paternalismSocialist paternalism

► ‘‘implicated gender by seeking to eradicate implicated gender by seeking to eradicate male-female differences to an unprecedented male-female differences to an unprecedented degree, casting onto the state certain tasks degree, casting onto the state certain tasks associated with household gender roles’ associated with household gender roles’ (Verdery, 1994:228-9)(Verdery, 1994:228-9)

► defined women as subject-citizens who defined women as subject-citizens who enjoyed a privileged relationship to the state enjoyed a privileged relationship to the state

► gender difference, as well as any other gender difference, as well as any other difference, had no substantive meaning under difference, had no substantive meaning under state socialism since state socialism since everybody everybody was deprived was deprived of their political rights and citizenship of their political rights and citizenship

Reaction within post-communist Reaction within post-communist societiessocieties

► differencedifference being re-institutionalised as an being re-institutionalised as an organising principleorganising principle

► gender difference is absolutely essential in gender difference is absolutely essential in this this

► The ‘regaining of a traditionally prescribed The ‘regaining of a traditionally prescribed gender identity is an important aspect of the gender identity is an important aspect of the nostalgia for “normality” which has so often nostalgia for “normality” which has so often been expressed as what people most hope been expressed as what people most hope for from change in Eastern Europe’ (Watson, for from change in Eastern Europe’ (Watson, 1993, p.473).1993, p.473).

Debate and disagreementDebate and disagreement

►Eva Fodor rejects assertion that state Eva Fodor rejects assertion that state subjugation resulted in gender subjugation resulted in gender homogenisationhomogenisation

►But the end of state socialist project of But the end of state socialist project of gender equality seen as return to gender equality seen as return to ‘normal’‘normal’

►Rejecting worker-mother-citizen role, Rejecting worker-mother-citizen role, reversion to traditional gender identity reversion to traditional gender identity one way to move beyond Soviet influenceone way to move beyond Soviet influence

How transformations in E Central How transformations in E Central Europe can be understood in terms Europe can be understood in terms

of genderof gender

►Two aspects: how its affected women Two aspects: how its affected women and how it’s talked about.and how it’s talked about.

►Effect on women:Effect on women:►Women’s ‘losses’ greater than their Women’s ‘losses’ greater than their

‘gains’‘gains’►Overt discriminationOvert discrimination►Unemployment Unemployment ►Feminisation of povertyFeminisation of poverty►Drop in political participationDrop in political participation

Democracy with a male faceDemocracy with a male face

► The failure of “socialism with a human face” The failure of “socialism with a human face” has ultimately yielded to the partial success has ultimately yielded to the partial success of “Democracy with a male face”. The shift of “Democracy with a male face”. The shift from paternalist régimes to patriarchally from paternalist régimes to patriarchally based socio-political systems that seemingly based socio-political systems that seemingly privilege the interests of men more than privilege the interests of men more than those of women may be the most those of women may be the most characteristic shared feature of the characteristic shared feature of the “transition”. (Kligman, 1996, p.69)“transition”. (Kligman, 1996, p.69)

► The term ‘masculine democracies’ was first The term ‘masculine democracies’ was first coined by a member of the Belgrade coined by a member of the Belgrade Women’s Lobby, Sonja Licht, in 1989 and Women’s Lobby, Sonja Licht, in 1989 and has been used widely since.has been used widely since.

What does this mean for What does this mean for women?women?

► A ‘return’ to the family A ‘return’ to the family ► Women no longer expected to be involved in Women no longer expected to be involved in

public spherepublic sphere► Wage labour was compulsory and family was Wage labour was compulsory and family was

escape from diktats of stateescape from diktats of state► Family was the site where opposition could be Family was the site where opposition could be

voiced, where ‘real life’ happenedvoiced, where ‘real life’ happened► Maintained national identityMaintained national identity► Resisted occupation and state Resisted occupation and state

authoritarianismauthoritarianism

How is the transformation being How is the transformation being achieved through discourses which achieved through discourses which

are gendered?are gendered?► Post-communist transformation gendered in Post-communist transformation gendered in

its effectits effect► But change also being brought about But change also being brought about

through debates about gender relationsthrough debates about gender relations► As Gal and Kligman put it: ‘not only do state As Gal and Kligman put it: ‘not only do state

policies constrain gender relations, but ideas policies constrain gender relations, but ideas about the differences between men and about the differences between men and women shape the ways in which states are women shape the ways in which states are imagined, constituted, and legitimated’ (Gal imagined, constituted, and legitimated’ (Gal and Kligman, 2000b p.4). and Kligman, 2000b p.4).

Reproductive politicsReproductive politics

► Particularly important here are ‘discourses Particularly important here are ‘discourses about women, family, and reproduction…. about women, family, and reproduction…. [which are] crucial in the legitimation of [which are] crucial in the legitimation of politics’ both in postsocialist Europe and in the politics’ both in postsocialist Europe and in the West (Gal & Kligman, 2000:9)West (Gal & Kligman, 2000:9)

► Ideas about women’s place in society Ideas about women’s place in society encapsulated in debates about reproductive encapsulated in debates about reproductive politics politics

► reproductionreproduction has become a key issue has become a key issue through which political identities are through which political identities are constructed and political authority legitimated constructed and political authority legitimated

Gender, citizenship and nation in Gender, citizenship and nation in

East Central EuropeEast Central Europe

►Men enjoy full citizenship rights as Men enjoy full citizenship rights as political and economic actors political and economic actors

►Women are consigned to the private Women are consigned to the private spheresphere

►Men=individualism, women= Men=individualism, women= collectivismcollectivism

►Women have to reproduce for the Women have to reproduce for the collectivecollective

►Restriction of abortionRestriction of abortion

Women as symbolsWomen as symbols

►Responsible for biological and socio-Responsible for biological and socio-cultural reproduction of nationcultural reproduction of nation

►Symbolic role as guardians of tradition Symbolic role as guardians of tradition and authenticity precludes full and authenticity precludes full involvement in citizenshipinvolvement in citizenship

►Men’s symbolic role is modern face of Men’s symbolic role is modern face of nation, full citizenship rightsnation, full citizenship rights

►Women are blamed for low birth rates Women are blamed for low birth rates and ‘death of the nation’and ‘death of the nation’

Women as mothers of the Women as mothers of the nationnation

►Women have the ‘sacred duty’ of Women have the ‘sacred duty’ of bearing children for the nation bearing children for the nation

►Bringing up children in a way which Bringing up children in a way which ensures the future of the nation ensures the future of the nation

►Roles that confine women to child-Roles that confine women to child-bearing and child-rearing also valorise bearing and child-rearing also valorise women’s maternal rolewomen’s maternal role

►Women gain status and power from Women gain status and power from the family and homethe family and home

Subordination of womenSubordination of women

►Emphasis on women’s traditional roles Emphasis on women’s traditional roles allows subordination of women to allows subordination of women to collective interests – nation or familycollective interests – nation or family

►Those who do not fit with the concept Those who do not fit with the concept of the Polish Mother excluded and of the Polish Mother excluded and punished for not being feminine punished for not being feminine

►Alternative discourses such as feminism Alternative discourses such as feminism or lesbianism are constituted as a or lesbianism are constituted as a threat threat

Women’s emancipationWomen’s emancipation

►Women’s emancipation rhetoric of Women’s emancipation rhetoric of state socialism equated with an state socialism equated with an emasculation of the Polish nationemasculation of the Polish nation

►Need to reinstate separate spheres Need to reinstate separate spheres ►So gender difference is absolutely So gender difference is absolutely

essential to the reconstruction of East essential to the reconstruction of East Central European societiesCentral European societies

►Private sphere being re-feminised and Private sphere being re-feminised and public sphere masculinisedpublic sphere masculinised

ConclusionsConclusions

►Gender is crucially implicated in nation-Gender is crucially implicated in nation-building projects underway in East Central building projects underway in East Central EuropeEurope

► Reproductive politics particularly importantReproductive politics particularly important►Women become symbolic markers as Women become symbolic markers as

guardians of the nation in their capacity as guardians of the nation in their capacity as biological reproducersbiological reproducers

► Post-communist transformation involves Post-communist transformation involves eradication of the gender equality project of eradication of the gender equality project of state socialism, this has an effect on state socialism, this has an effect on women’s claims to equal citizenship rights women’s claims to equal citizenship rights