Mitigating Environmental Impact of Petroleum Lubricants

Ignatio Madanhire · Charles Mbohwa

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Mitigating Environmental Impact of Petroleum Lubricants

Ignatio MadanhireDepartment of Engineering Management University of Johannesburg JohannesburgSouth Africa

ISBN 978-3-319-31357-3 ISBN 978-3-319-31358-0 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31358-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016939921

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland

Charles MbohwaFaculty of Engineering and the Built

Environment University of Johannesburg JohannesburgSouth Africa

We sincerely dedicate this book to our families and friends. Special mention goes to colleagues at both the University of Johannesburg and the University of Zimbabwe for their support and inspiration. Also to teams we worked with in the oil industry in Zimbabwe over the years.

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Preface

This work reviews effective environmental impact mitigation for petroleum-based lubricants to reduce their negative persistence during usage and upon end-of-life disposal. The book explores the basic tribology of lubricants as well as initiatives that may enhance the environmental and economic effectiveness of lubricating oils from the composition design perspective. Reference is made to mineral base oil processing, blending, application and disposal of petroleum lubricants, and the book presents and extends current best practices that minimize or eliminate adverse environmental impact throughout the product’s life cycle. The book also presents some in-depth insight into base oil/additive substitution, use of biolu-bricants in total loss application which are biodegradable, consideration of syn-thetic lubricants to extend drainage interval, use of quality bases in Group III and Group IV to achieve fuel economy and reduce emissions, rerefining of used oils, as well as recommending environmentally friendly disposal of used lubricating oils. Some effort was made to equip readers with technical understanding of lubricating oils’ chemical and physical properties in terms of their potential hazardous nature to humans, acquatic species, water bodies and soil properties, where mitigatory initiatives were equally presented from base oil selection, additive development especially for total loss use. The book ends with a review of solid lubricants in severe space operations as the way forward to minimze environmental impact. Issues highlited are of benefit in terms of achieving both environmental legal compliance and eco-labelling business competitiveness—all the while preserving the environment for sustainability. It is in this regard that the book is therefore of interest to both manufacturers and consumers in the lubricants industry.

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Acknowledgements

We wish to thank our colleagues at the University of Johannesburg in the School of Engineering Management for sponsoring conference travels for presenting the papers on related topics which later on inspired the authors to come up with this book. We are also grateful to Cuthbert Chidamba and Tineyi Mhundwa for the dil-igent and focused reviewing the material during the manuscript generation. Their interrogation that was supported by wide experience on the subject matter was just intense to nourish the progress of material compilation and rearranging.

Thank you all. Ignatio MadanhireCharles Mbohwa

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Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Mineral Base Oil Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Lubricants Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 Lubricants Types and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.5 Impact on Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.6 Lubricants Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.7 Disposal and Harmful Ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.8 Biodegradability and Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.9 Lubricant Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Lubricant Additive Impacts on Human Health and the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.2 Environmental Effects of Used Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.3 Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.4 Effect of Used Oil on Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.5 Future Development of Eco-friendly Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232.6 Chemistry of Lubricant Additives and Their Toxicology

to Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232.7 Lubricant Additives and Their Hazards to the Environment . . . . 272.8 Ultimate Fate of Lubricant Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302.9 Biodegradation of Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.10 Bio-concentration of Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.11 The Future of Additive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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3 The Environment and Lubricant Related Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.2 Extended Drain Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.3 Fuel Economy Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.4 Emissions Reduction Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.5 Contribution of Lubricant Properties to Diesel

Exhaust Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.6 Lubricant Additives on Particulate Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4 Green Lubricant Design and Practice Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.2 Vegetable Bio-lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484.3 Environmental Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.4 Lubricants for High Temperature Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 524.5 Synthetic Lubricants and Long Drainage Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . 524.6 Additives to Match High Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534.7 Lube Deposit Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534.8 Hot Metal Surface Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544.9 Environmentally Considerate Lubricants (ECL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.10 Recycling and Reclamation of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.11 Extended Condition-Based Drainage Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.12 Leakage Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.13 Future of Green Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5 Synthetic Lubricants and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595.2 Synthetic Versus Mineral Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.3 Synthetic Base Oil Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.4 Demand for Thermal-Oxidative Oils for High-Temperature

Diesel Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625.5 Lubricants Based on Synthesized Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635.6 Hydrocarbons Build-up from Mineral Oil-Based

Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635.7 Health Impact on Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.7.1 Toxicity of Unused Lubricating Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645.7.2 Toxicity of Used Lubricating Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.7.3 Effect of Extended Drainage Interval

on Used Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.8 Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.9 Advantages of Synthetic Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.9.1 Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675.9.2 Extended Drainage/Reduced Oil Disposal . . . . . . . . . . 67

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5.9.3 Particulate Emissions Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685.9.4 High Temperature Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685.9.5 Bio-degradability of Synthetic Lubricating Oils . . . . . 69

5.10 Impact of Recycling Used Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705.11 Synthetic Lubricants and the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

6 Eco-friendly Base Oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736.2 Bio-based Base Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746.3 Lubricant Base Stocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756.4 Eco-labeling of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756.5 Features of Good Bio-lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766.6 Base Stocks from Vegetable Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766.7 Bio Lubricants Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786.8 Make-up of Vegetable Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786.9 Additive Reformulation for Bio Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796.10 Chemical Modification of Base Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796.11 Synthetic Base Oil Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826.12 Bio-degradable Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

7 Development of Biodegradable Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857.2 Drive for Environmental Compatible Lubricating Fluids . . . . . . 867.3 Application of Bio-lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877.4 Vegetable-Based Bio-lubricants and the Environment . . . . . . . . . 907.5 Biodegradable Base Stocks and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 927.6 Basic Eco-toxicological Properties of Bio-lubricants . . . . . . . . . 947.7 Development of High-Performance Industrial Bio-lubricants . . . 957.8 Development of Bio-lubricants Technical Properties . . . . . . . . . . 957.9 Bio-lubricant Limitation: Additives and Modification

Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967.10 Bio-degradable Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987.11 Bio-lubricants Potential for Long-Term Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987.12 Biodegradation Accelerants for Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997.13 Bio-based Lubricants Market and Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

8 Lubricant Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038.2 Petroleum Mineral Base Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048.3 Synthetic Ester Base Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

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8.4 Vegetable Base Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058.5 LCA for Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058.6 Mineral Base Lubricant LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058.7 Synthetic Ester Lubricant LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078.8 Rapeseed Base Oil LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088.9 Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

9 Environment and the Economics of Long Drain Intervals . . . . . . . . . 1159.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159.2 Lubricant Consumption Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169.3 Extended Drain Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179.4 Technology to Enhance Bio-lubricants for Extended Drain . . . . 1199.5 Bio-lubricant Base Oil Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219.6 Transformer Insulating Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229.7 Elevator Hydraulic Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229.8 Other Hydraulic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239.9 Metal Working Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239.10 Chain Cutter Bar Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239.11 Wire Rope Grease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249.12 Railroad Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249.13 Lubricant Condition Monitoring and Extended Drain . . . . . . . . . 1249.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

10 Recycling of Used Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12710.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12710.2 Used Oil Disposal Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12910.3 Waste Oil Recycling Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13010.4 Acid-Clay Re-refining Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13210.5 Hylube Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13310.6 Mineralöl Raffinerie Dollbergen (MRD) Solvent

Extraction Process Using N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone . . . . . . . . . . . 13510.7 Vaxon Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13710.8 CEP Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13810.9 Cyclon Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14010.10 Snamprogetti Process/IFP Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14010.11 Revivoil Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14110.12 Latest Used Oil Re-refining Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14210.13 Recycling of Waste Engine Oils Using Acetic Acids . . . . . . . . . . 14510.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

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11 Environment and the Economics of Long Drain Interval . . . . . . . . . . 14911.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14911.2 Environmental Protection Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15211.3 Application of Environmentally Friendly Lubricants . . . . . . . . . 15311.4 Improved Lubricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15611.5 Need for Improved Oxidation Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15611.6 Viscosity-Temperature Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15711.7 Evaporation Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15811.8 Bio-lubricant Cost Aspect Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15811.9 Current EAL Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15811.10 Bio-based Eco-friendly Lubricants of Recent Times . . . . . . . . . . 15911.11 Inadequacies of Current Bio-based Eco-friendly Lubricants . . . . 16011.12 Future Bio-based Eco-friendly Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16011.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

12 Environmentally Adapted Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16512.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16512.2 New Lubricant Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16712.3 Base Oil Fluids for Environmentally Adapted

Lubricants (EALs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16712.3.1 Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16812.3.2 Synthetic Esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16912.3.3 Polyalkylene Glycols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16912.3.4 Biodegradability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17012.3.5 Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17012.3.6 Bio-accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

12.4 Expectation on Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17312.5 Toxicity Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

12.5.1 Acceptable Bio-degradability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17412.6 Bio-accumulation of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17512.7 Eco-labeling Schemes and Regulatory Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . 17512.8 The Future of Environmentally Friendly Lubricants (EFLs) . . . . 17612.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

13 Proper Lubricants Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17913.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17913.2 Drive for Proper Oil Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18113.3 Possible Contamination in Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18113.4 Over Fill Protection and Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18213.5 Used Oil Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18313.6 Spill Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18413.7 Waste Oil Recommended Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18413.8 Environmental Fate of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Contentsxvi

13.9 Lubricant Handling Recommendations at Operational Sites . . . . 18613.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

14 Lubricating Grease Handling and Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . 18914.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18914.2 Lubricating Grease Structure Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19014.3 Applications of Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19014.4 Grease Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19114.5 Environmental Compatibility of Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19114.6 Biodegradability of Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19214.7 Green Lubricating Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19314.8 Base Oils for Lubricating Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19414.9 Vegetable or Natural Base Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19514.10 Chemically Modified Natural Base Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19514.11 Biodegradable Synthetic Base Oils (Esters) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19614.12 Thickening Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

14.12.1 Biodegradable Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19614.12.2 Non Biodegradable Environmentally Friendly

Clay Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19814.12.3 Synthetic Polymeric Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

14.13 Additives in Lubricating Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20014.14 Lubricating Grease Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20014.15 Used or Waste Lubricating Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20114.16 Impact on Human Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20214.17 Impact on Aquatic Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20214.18 Economic Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20314.19 Waste Lubricating Grease Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

14.19.1 Collection and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20314.19.2 Transportation and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20414.19.3 Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20414.19.4 Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14.20 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

15 Beyond Lubricating Oil and Grease Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20715.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20715.2 Lubrication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20815.3 Lubrication Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20915.4 Surface-Active Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20915.5 Practical Lubricant Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21015.6 Lubricant Constituent Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21115.7 Operation of Solid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21215.8 Anti-seize Pastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21315.9 Anti-Friction Coatings (AFCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Contents xvii

15.10 Advantages and Limitations of Using AFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21615.11 Typical Applications of AFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21615.12 Drive for Solid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21715.13 Nano-materials and Limitations in Lubricant Application . . . . . . 22015.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

16 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22516.1 Future Lubricant Technology Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22516.2 Synthetic Engine Oil Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22516.3 Fate of Lubricant Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22616.4 Environmental Friendly Lubricants Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22816.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

xix

About the Authors

Ignatio Madanhire is a Ph.D. student with the School of Engineering Management at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He is holder of B.Sc. (Hon) in Mechanical Engineering and M.Sc. in Manufacturing Systems and Operations Research from the University of Zimbabwe. He has research interests in cleaner production, industrial optimization, production facility redesign, product life cycle assessment and operations management. The author has 20 peer-reviewed articles in international journals and conference proceedings, and Ignatio Madanhire has a quest for contributing to the industrial and engineering body of knowledge in the area of sustainable development. Ignatio Madanhire has served as a Mechanical Engineer for Government of Zimbabwe. He has also served as a Lubrication Engi-neer with Mobil Oil International and Lubricants Business Development Manager with Castrol International. He is currently a lecturer in Mechanical Engineering Department at the University of Zimbabwe. In addition, he is a consultant in industrial lubrication and manufacturing systems. He is a member of the Zimbabwe Institute of Engineers (ZIE).

Charles Mbohwa is the Vice Dean of Postgraduate Studies, Research and Innovation, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. As an established researcher and professor in sustainability engineering and operations management, his specializations include renewable energy systems, bio-fuel feasibility and sustainability, life cycle assessment and healthcare opera-tions management. He has presented at numerous conferences and published more than 150 papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences, 6 book chapters and one book. Upon graduating with a B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering from the Uni-versity of Zimbabwe in 1986, he served as a Mechanical Engineer at the National Railways of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe. He holds an M.Sc. in Operations Management and Manufacturing Systems from the University of Nottingham, UK and completed his doctoral studies at Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Technology, Japan. Professor Mbohwa was a Fulbright Scholar visiting the Supply Chain and Logistics Institute at the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology. He has been a collaborator with the United Nations Environment Programme and

About the Authorsxx

a Visiting Exchange Professor at Universidade Tecnologica Federal do Parana. He has also visited many countries on research and training engagements including the UK, Japan, Germany, France, USA, Brazil, Sweden, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mauritius, Austria, the Netherlands, Uganda, Namibia and Australia. He is a fellow of the Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers and a registered Engineer with the Engineering Council of Zimbabwe.

xxi

Abbreviations

ABT Acute bacterial toxicityADO Automotive diesel oilAFC Anti-friction coatingAFT Acute fish toxicityAOMT Acute oral mammalian toxicityAPI American Petroleum InstituteART Auto-restoration technologyATF Automatic transmission fluidBCF Bio-concentration factorEAL Environmentally adapted lubricantEC Ethyl celluloseECL Environmentally considerate lubricantsEFL Environmentally friendly lubricantEGR Exhaust gas recirculationEHL Elastohydrodynamic viscosity indexEP Extreme pressureEVA Ethylene-vinyl acetateFTIR Fourier transform infraredGHG Greenhouse gasesHD Heavy dutyHDPE High-density polyethyleneHMW High molecular weightHOB High over baseHOSO High-oleic sunflower oilHOVO High-oleic vegetable oilHVI High viscosity indexIL Ionic liquidLCA Life cycle assessmentLDPE Low-density polyethyleneLMW Low molecular weightLOB Low over base

Abbreviationsxxii

LPG Liquefied petroleum gasLTV Limited threshold valueMEK Methyl ethyl ketoneMSDS Material safety data sheetMWF Metal working fluidNMP N-methyl-2-pyrrolidoneNPG Neopentyl glycolOEM Original equipment manufacturerOSHA Occupational safety and hazard assessmentPAG Polyalkylene glycolPAH Polyaromatic hydrocarbonPAO PolyalphaolefinsPCB Polychlorinated biphenylsPCMO Passenger car motor oilsPE PentaerythritolPEPE PerfluoropolyesterpH AcidityPLC Product life cyclePM Particulate matterPP Polypropyleneppm Parts per millionSAE Society of Automotive EngineersSAP Sulphated ash and phosphorusSAPS Sulphated ash, phosphorus and sulphurTAN Total acid numberTDA Thermal de-asphaltingTFE Thin film evaporationTMP Trime thylol propaneVHVI Very high viscosity indexVOC Volatile organic compoundsWEN Water endangering numberZDTP Zinc dialkyldithio phosphates

xxiii

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Typical hydrocarbon configuration. Source Wills (2005) . . . . . 2Figure 1.2 Crude processing fractional distillation products . . . . . . . . . . . 3Figure 1.3 Lubes oil processing activities. Source Madanhire

and Mugwindiri (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Figure 1.4 Typical blending yard product flow. Source Madanhire

and Mugwindiri (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Figure 1.5 Small pack filling line. Source Madanhire and

Mugwindiri (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Figure 1.6 Drum filling line. Source Madanhire and

Mugwindiri (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Figure 1.7 Stribeck lubrication diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Figure 1.8 Worldwide consumption of lubricants

(Salimon et al. 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Figure 1.9 Overview of the environmental impacts of regeneration

versus the primary production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Figure 1.10 Lubricants product life cycle. Source Madanhire

and Mugwindiri (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Figure 2.1 Ashless succinimide dispersants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Figure 2.2 Calcium sulphonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Figure 2.3 Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Figure 2.4 Ashless inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Figure 2.5 Development of lubricant additives (ATC 2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Figure 2.6 Component additive package formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Figure 2.7 Flow diagram on fate of lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Figure 2.8 Fate of lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Figure 3.1 Contribution HD diesel emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Figure 3.2 Potential reduction of sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Figure 3.3 Noack volatilities of different base oil types versus

specification limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Figure 3.4 Fuel economy benefits obtained from VHVI

group III base oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

List of Figuresxxiv

Figure 3.5 Typical truck particulate emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Figure 3.6 Composition of current commercial lubricants versus

the assumed future limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Figure 3.7 Specific emissions of the mineral and synthetic engine oils . . . . 43Figure 4.1 Life cycle of polymeric material based on vegetable oils

(adapted from Samarth et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Figure 4.2 Thermal stability of additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Figure 4.3 Typical PDSC 2-peak deposit method thermo-gram . . . . . . . . . 54Figure 5.1 Viscosity grade/base stocks on fuel economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Figure 5.2 A generalized lubricant degradation diagram

(Li et al. 2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62Figure 5.3 Poly alphaolefin reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Figure 7.1 Some benefits of bio lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Figure 8.1 Life cycle of mineral-based hydraulic fluid in a total

loss application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Figure 8.2 Material flows for the production of a synthetic

ester-based hydraulic fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Figure 8.3 Formation of a typical synthetic ester, trimethylol

propane trioleate (TMP trioleate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Figure 8.4 Material flows for the production of rapeseed

oil-based hydraulic fluid in a total loss application . . . . . . . . . . 109Figure 8.5 The global warming potential contribution for

the base fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Figure 8.6 The relative contribution to global warming

potential of CO2, CH4 and N2O for the base fluids . . . . . . . . . . 111Figure 8.7 Global warming potential saved when 3 % less

diesel is used for the base fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Figure 8.8 The total acidification potential of the base fluids . . . . . . . . . . . 112Figure 9.1 Stress on passenger car lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117Figure 9.2 Typical lubricant degradation pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118Figure 9.3 Lubricant degradation with additive dose replenishment . . . . . 118Figure 9.4 Hydraulic oil—synthetic and mineral oil comparison . . . . . . . . 119Figure 10.1 Flow diagram of the typical used oil re-refining process . . . . . . 131Figure 10.2 Block flow diagram of the acid-clay re-refining process . . . . . . 133Figure 10.3 Block flow diagram of the Hylube process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Figure 10.4 Block flow diagram of the MRD Solvent extraction

process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Figure 10.5 Vaxon process block flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138Figure 10.6 Block flow diagram of the CEP process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Figure 10.7 Flow diagram of the Cyclon process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Figure 10.8 Snamprogetti process block flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141Figure 10.9 Block flow diagram of the Revivoil process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142Figure 10.10 A block flow diagram for solvent extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Figure 10.11 Flow diagram of hydro-finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Figure 10.12 Worldwide lubricating oils consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

List of Figures xxv

Figure 11.1 Diesel particulate emissions in relation to evaporation losses of oils (European 13-stage test, CEC R 49, Fuchs Steyr project) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Figure 11.2 Friction coefficients of base fluids—two disc test ρH = 1000 N/mm2; vƩ = 8 m/s; θoil = 60 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Figure 11.3 Oxidative stability of biodegradable fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Figure 11.4 Viscosity-temperature behavior of base fluids

(arrows indicate the differences of application temperature between an oil with VI = 100 and an ester based lubricant with VI = 200) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Figure 11.5 Evaporation loss of base fluids—IS0 VG 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158Figure 11.6 Atomic structure of an ionic liquid (IL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162Figure 13.1 Application and disposal flow chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180Figure 13.2 Lubricant spill containment set up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183Figure 15.1 Tribosystem showing parts in relative motion, lubricant

film, load and operating environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208Figure 15.2 Stribeck curve for friction between surfaces relative

to viscosity, speed and load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209Figure 15.3 Suitable lubricant forms for different friction states

(boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic regimes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210Figure 15.4 Operating mechanisms of solid lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213Figure 16.1 Drivers of future oil formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

xxvii

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Typical additive proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Table 2.1 Effects of waste lubricating oil on physical properties of soil . . . 22Table 2.2 Effects of waste lubricating oil on the chemical properties

of soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Table 2.3 Relative substance toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Table 3.1 API lubricant base stock categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Table 3.2 Typical drain intervals over the recent past (km) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Table 3.3 Sources of SAPS (sulphated ash, phosphorous and sulphur)

in lubricants (additives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Table 3.4 Physico-chemical characteristics of mineral and synthetic

base oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Table 4.1 Oil contents of widely available non edible vegetable oils . . . . . . 48Table 4.2 The biodegradability of petroleum based lubricants

and lubricants from alternative resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50Table 4.3 Comparison of petroleum based lubricants with lubricants

from alternative resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Table 7.1 Common terms related to the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Table 7.2 Benefits of biodegradable lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94Table 8.1 Weighting factors used to calculate the global warming

potential (time horizon 20 years). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110Table 8.2 Weighting factors for the acidification potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110Table 9.1 Engine oil use trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116Table 10.1 Properties of used oils, intermediate products

during re-refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Table 10.2 API base oil categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Table 10.3 Properties of base oil products of Hylube-process . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Table 10.4 Properties of base oil products of MRD solvent extraction

process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Table 10.5 Properties of base oil products of CEP process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Table 10.6 Properties of base oil products of Revivoil process . . . . . . . . . . . 142Table 11.1 Lubricants in the environment (for Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

List of Tablesxxviii

Table 11.2 ISO 15380:2002 requirements for environmentally acceptable hydraulic fluids based on synthetic esters . . . . . . . . . . 150

Table 11.3 Typical base fluids for EAL against mineral oil base . . . . . . . . . . 151Table 11.4 Total-loss lubricants currently available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Table 11.5 Emission reduction levels of modern engine oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Table 12.1 Differential biodegradation rates by lubricant base oils . . . . . . . . 170Table 12.2 Comparative toxicity of base oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Table 12.3 Bioaccumulation potential by base oil types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172Table 12.4 Water hazard classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174Table 15.1 Lubricant constituent components for specific

regime requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211Table 15.2 Types of anti-seize pastes by color, solid-lubricant

content and typical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214Table 15.3 Common solid lubricants and characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218Table 15.4 Areas where solid lubricants are required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219Table 15.5 Advantages and disadvantages of solid lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . 219