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Mission to Mars Design

Marysia Serafin & Alexa Gracias

Senior Project 2015

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SCOPE SUMMARY

Need: Further human exploration of the solar system and knowledge.

Goal: To send humans to Mars and prepare for long-term human inhabitation on Mars.

Objective: Create a basic Martian base for humans to live on and determine factors necessary to facilitate a long-term human colony on Mars.

Operational Concept: A transit vehicle will transport initial crewmembers to Mars, where they will construct a preliminary base. Subsequent transit vehicles will bring more crewmembers and resources and commencing scientific inquiry and exploration of the planet. In 2045, in conclusion of the mission, all crewmembers, data, and equipment will be transported back to Earth in a transit vehicle.

Assumptions: The proposed mission is approved, and all required technology and resources are available.

Constraints: There are several constraints to the mission. First, the mission launch must occur before the year 2040. Second, the outpost must contain between 10 and 40 people. Third, the outpost inhabitants and crew must depart from Mars in time to return to Earth by 2045.

Authority and Responsibility: The proposed mission is international, and with the authority of the United Nations; NASA and participating nations have the authority to carry out the mission, and all participating nations share responsibility for the mission.

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MISSION OVERVIEW

A. MISSION STATEMENT

The proposed mission is to be conducted to prepare for and establish preliminary requirements for human colonization outside of Earth. The proposed mission for a Martian base will identify factors necessary to facilitate permanent human colonies. The human residence on Mars will also allow for scientific experimentation and the gathering of knowledge impossible to be performed by the rovers that currently inhabit Mars, such as: long-terms effects of microgravity and radiation on the human body. The scientific community and the human race will benefit from the proposed mission through the creation of technology that can be applied on Earth, research that can be used to aid disease treatment (cancer in particular), and creating a significant step in the expansion of humanity.

B. SURFACE BASE NAME

The proposed to be established will be called ‘Santa Maria’ after one of the ships used by Christopher Columbus on his voyage that ultimately led him to the Americas. (History.com, 2009) The reasoning for the name is as follows: Christopher Columbus’ voyages led the way to civilization and the exploration of the Americas, and created a new era. The proposed mission aims to create human civilization on other planets and further progress and understanding, much like the results of Christopher Columbus’ voyages.

C. REQUIREMENTS

There are several requirements for both the mission and the system. The mission requires that the crew depart for Mars by 2040 and return by 2045, as listed in the mission constraint. It requires four transit vehicles; one, to transport preliminary crew and act as the initial base; two to transport secondary crew, supplies, and attach to the initial base and add on to it; three, to send further basic supplies for survival and experimentation, as well as supplies that have become necessary during mission duration; and a fourth, larger transit vehicle to transport all outpost crewmembers back to Earth. The mission requires standard laboratory and medical equipment to perform scientific and medical experiments, and ensure the health of the crew. The mission requires supplies to support the crew, including food, water, extravehicular activity suits, hygienic supplies, first aid supplies, and entertainment to ensure the mental health of the crew. Construction and maintenance equipment will be required to make repairs to the outpost. The mission requires a drill and a water filtration system, in order to utilize the frozen water located underneath the Martian surface. (Watanabe, 2008) The mission furthermore requires a budget that will allow for necessary materials, and a crew that has been trained for the proposed mission.

In order to support the outpost crew, there must be a life support system in the transit vehicles and the outpost, the most necessary piece for human survival. The life support systems include oxygen circulation and pressure control to keep crewmembers alive. There is no oxygen in space, and the Martian atmosphere is 96% carbon dioxide, rendering the life support system absolutely vital. (Coffey, 2008) In addition, the large amount of dust in the Martian atmosphere

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can lead to changes in pressure, with unknown complications on the human body. There must also be a backup system in case of emergency failure of the life support system and enough working spacesuits with oxygen tanks in case of failure of the backup system. The base must contain a temperature control system. The Martian surface is usually very cold, partially due to its extremely thin atmosphere, and temperatures often range from -17.2° C to -107° C, although sometimes they can escalate up to 27° C, so temperature control is a necessary part of the system. (Tillman, n.d.) There must be a system the filters and redistributes water on the transit vehicle and the Martian base, until the base achieves a functional water filtration system. The initial proposed system is the one used on the International Space Station, the Environmental Control Life Support System (ECLSS), which also is utilized as the life support and temperature control system. (Boeing, 2014) The transit vehicles and Martian base must also contain a power system to keep all functions running, and a backup in case of an emergency or failure.

D. GOALS

As stated in the scope summary page, the mission’s goals are to send humans to Mars and create a semi-permanent outpost. This will allow the conduction of research of the effects of space; like radiation and microgravity, on the human body, as well as the effects of Mars. In addition, scientific experiments can be performed in-person, rather than by rover, on Mars, leading to new research and understanding. This will all lead to the design of future human colonies on both Mars and other foreign planets, through the research conducted and knowledge obtained from the proposed Martian experiment. By studying the problems and effects of Mars, it can lead to the design of factors that will allow for a healthier, successful, and prepared human Martian colony. The mission goal correlates to the Mars Exploration Program Goal of ‘human exploration’, by exploring Mars and preparing for further human exploration and habitation. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d.) In addition, the experiments carried out by scientists on the outpost relate to the effects of the Martian climate on the human body, which correlates to the goal of characterizing the Martian climate. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d.)

E. RISKS

The proposed mission contains several risks and dangers. Radiation, energy through electromagnetic waves, has the poses long-term risk to crew members and the mission. It can cause cancer and other defects, and also has the ability to contaminate or shut down equipment. There is a high risk of radiation in space through Van Allen Belts, galactic cosmic rays, and solar particle events. (Bevill, 2014) There is no protection other than shielding on the transit vehicle in space, and whilst on Mars, the extremely thin atmosphere doesn’t do much to protect against radiation. (Bevill, 2014) (Tillman, n.d.) Therefore strong shielding in extravehicular activity (EVA) suits, the surface base, and transit vehicle is necessary. (Bevill, 2014) In addition, nutritional supplements and medical equipment to treat the effects of radiation is necessary, but not necessarily a solution.

Malnutrition and illness are also risks posed on the crewmembers. Malnutrition can cause crewmembers to lose concentration, and endanger the crew. Illness could contaminate

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the whole crew, therefore compromising both them and the mission. In order to remain healthy, crewmembers should take vitamins and nutritional supplements, and there should be a doctor on board to treat any illness.

Although a great opportunity for learning and exploration, space holds many dangers. Human bodies, adapted for and protected by the Earth, are unused to the high levels of radiation one is exposed to in space, or the reduction of gravity. It can be disorienting, diminishing, and even lethal. Not only are human bodied at risk, but the spacecrafts themselves, exposed to radiation and meteorites, both of which can cause damage to the spacecraft. Even upon arrival, crewmembers are subjected to risk factors. Whilst all precautions must be taken to ensure the success and safety of the mission, there are constraints involved. However, radiation, meteoroid impact, and microgravity are just a few of the dangers of spaceflight that must be overcome to aid in the progress of the human race.

Radiation, energy in the form of waves or particles, poses great risk to astronauts. (Cambridge Dictionary, 2014) Crewmembers would be exposed to radiation in flight from the Sun in the form of solar flares, and the rest of the universe in the form of cosmic radiation. (National Science Biomedical Research Institute, 2010) Humans are exposed to radiation on Earth, but Earth’s magnetic field protects humans from 99.9% of harmful radiation, and Earth’s atmosphere plays a key role in blocking out radiation. (Tate, 2013) In spaceflight, the levels of radiation humans are exposed to are much higher than those on Earth. (Tate, 2013) The three major sources of radiation in space are trapped belt radiation, which are radiation belts (or Van Allen Belts) that circle the earth, where high energy electrons and ions are trapped outside of Earth at high altitudes by Earth’s magnetic fields; galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), originating from outside the solar system, are atomic nuclei that have been stripped of all their electrons, and often emit gamma rays; and solar particle events which are injections into interplanetary space of energetic electrons, protons, alpha and heavier particles, and are accelerated by interplanetary shock waves that often precede solar flares, solar particle events could be the most lethal the spacecraft with light radiation shielding. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) (Windows to the Universe, 2010) (Christian, 2012) (Bevill, 2014) All of the radiation sources pose risk to crewmembers whilst in transit and staying on a planetary surface. The radiation has the ability to penetrate spacecraft, and planets with light or no atmosphere and magnetic field provide very little radiation protection. (Tate, 2013) Crewmembers would be exposed to long-term radiation, which could lead to radiation sickness (high-dose radiation exposure that usually affects the gastrointestinal system and bone marrow) and the damage of the body’s chromosomes. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014) Both of these side effects of radiation have the potential to compromise the mission through the illness of crewmembers, and can lead to cancer, cell damage, by creating free radicals (ionized molecules) in the body, and can lead to birth defects in crewmembers’ children. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) In addition to the danger to crewmembers, radiation can compromise the spacecraft itself. High amounts of radiation have the ability to shut down computers, causing machines and computer systems on board to fail, and endanger crew members. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014)

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As radiation is so dangerous and destructive, it is necessary to take all possible precautions to prevent the dangerous effects of high-dose radiation exposure, for both crewmembers’ sake and to protect the spacecraft from shutting down. For flights, spacecraft can use shielding by being covered in materials with high hydrogen contents, as hydrogen atoms are apt at absorbing and deflecting radiation, for example, reinforced polyethylene. (Wilson, 2007) Demron is a material that provides radiation shielding similar to that of radiation shielding, and gold foil, which was used in the Apollo flights, can also be used in radiation shielding. (Cygo, 2014) (Gold Avenue, n.d.) However, the materials used in radiation shielding cannot be so heavy that they weigh the spacecraft down. (Wilson, 2007) Research into materials like polyethylene and demron, which are lighter than aluminum, an effective but heavy radiation shield. (Cygo, 2014) Another restriction is cost—both Demron and gold foil are very expensive. (Gold Avenue, n.d.) An effective material for radiation shielding needs to be cost-effective, light, and effective at shielding. (Wilson, 2007)

In addition to shielding outside the spacecraft, an area of the spacecraft, preferably in the center, could be surrounded by water tanks and used as a radiation shield for crewmembers. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) This type of protection, in addition to the external shielding, would be incredibly useful during times of high radiation exposure, like solar flares. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) The hydrogen in the water would be able to deflect or absorb the radiation, and help protect crew members. (Cygo, 2014)

Before the flight, crewmembers could submit bone marrow samples. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) By storing them on the spacecraft, they could be used in case of a contraction of cancer throughout the flight. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) During long-term missions, whether in-transit or on a surface stay, medical attention is necessary, but not always available. The bone marrow would supplement the cancer treatment for the mission, and could potentially save a crewmember’s life, as the risk of cancer due to radiation is greatly elevated in space, as well as on surfaces with inadequate atmospheres and magnetic fields, like the Moon and Mars. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) Crewmembers could also supplement their diet with vitamins and antioxidants like vitamins E,C, and beta-carotene, which can help counteract the effects of free radicals. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014)

By adding radiation shielding and detectors, crewmembers can be protected in spacesuits, whilst in extravehicular activity (EVA), outside the spacecraft or on a surface. (National Space Biomedical Research Institute, 2010) In addition, space stations can be built underground to help neutralize some of the side effects of radiation, and covered with radiation shielding material. Crewmembers can also restrict themselves to areas on surfaces with lower altitudes, as radiation exposure is greater in areas of higher altitude. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014)

Meteoroid impacts also pose a risk to the safety of crewmembers and the success of the mission. Meteorites are small pieces of interplanetary debris, leftover from the creation of the solar system, and can be found throughout it, orbiting the sun. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) The meteorites are small; however, they are travelling so fast that some have the ability to

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cause serious damage. (Stansbery, 2014) Although the odds that a meteorite will hit a spacecraft are not large, they cannot be underestimated. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) Meteorites have the ability to damage a spaceship, effectively compromising it, and killing the crew via loss of pressurization or other vital systems. (Stansbery, 2014) A major threat of these meteorites is the current lack of meteorite-tracking technology on spacecraft. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) Currently, spacecraft rely on tracking from bases on Earth; however, the lag time on long-duration missions poses a threat. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) Meteoroid impacts are an in-transit issue, and mostly in near-Earth space: the meteorites have the ability to hit the spacecraft whilst its travelling, but they aren’t found on a planet’s surface. (Stansbery, 2014) However, dust and other particles on a surface pose a danger, as they could compromise the suits worn in EVAs.

Meteoroid impacts cannot necessarily be avoided. However, it is possible to shield the spacecraft from them. The International Space Station (ISS), for example, is covered in a thick aluminum hull that protects it from meteorites. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) However, aluminum is heavy. (Wilson, 2007) Light-weight materials that also double as radiation protection to reduce weight and cost can be used in meteoroid impact protection, like polyethylene. (Wilson, 2007) In addition, effective meteorite-tracking technology could be placed on transit vehicles, to take out the danger of lag-time between Earth and the transit vehicle. This would allow the spacecraft to avoid large meteorites that are on a collision course, and keep the crew and spacecraft safe.

The dangers posed by reduced or microgravity risk the safety of the crewmembers. The human body evolved and has adapted to Earth’s gravity, and the sudden change can change it. The lack of Earth’s gravity can disorient crew members, or lead to negative side effects on the body. (Netting, 2011) During the preliminary part of the trip, crew members might experience space motion sickness, motion sickness caused by the lack of gravity, causing the vestibular system to become confused. (Netting, 2011) A serious long-term effect of reduced or microgravity is the deconditioning of the body’s systems, the cardiovascular system in particular. (Dismukes, 1998) As the heart does not have to combat Earth’s gravity to pump blood, it may lead to reduced output, decreased heart rate and size, and impaired blood volume regulation, as well as the inability of the heart to supply enough blood to the brain for a crewmember to remain conscious. (Dismukes, 1998) The loss of Earth’s gravity also causes the musculoskeletal system to deteriorate. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) As there is less weight to carry, bones lose nutrients and decrease in size and volume. (Dismukes, 1998) Muscle tone and strength decreases over time, the reflexes weaken, and an inability to do physical work develops. (Dismukes, 1998) Reduced gravity also causes the weakening of the immune system, and disturbed sleep patterns. (Dismukes, 1998) Upon returning from space, crewmembers may also have difficulty readapting to Earth’s gravity, and become dizzy or unable to maintain balance. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.)

The risk from reduced or microgravity is long term, and will affect crewmembers in-transit as well as those on surface stays. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, 2011) During interplanetary spaceflight, microgravity prevails. However, on places like the Moon and Mars, where gravity is less than that on Earth, the reduced gravity will also cause negative side effects in

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crewmembers, although potentially less severe, as the gravitational force is higher than that in-transit. On Mars, crewmembers could potentially restore their bodies on long-duration surface stays, but the effects of the diminished gravity there on the human body are largely unknown. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.)

Artificial gravity is a solution, potentially by creating an onboard centrifuge, or by rotating the entire vehicle. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.) However, such processes would likely disorient or nauseate crewmembers, and the movement will be felt as one moves away from the center of rotation. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.)

To alleviate some of the symptoms of microgravity, space motion sickness in particular, crewmembers can prepare for the impending mission by spending time in recreations of conditions in space on Earth, like the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. (Durkin, 2012) By adapting to conditions in the laboratory, crewmembers may be able to avoid space motion sickness, or overcome it quickly. Physical exercise will be instrumental at fending off muscle and bone deterioration, and help keep the heart strong. (Dismukes, 1998) In addition, nutritional and vitamin supplements will help maintain a strong immune system, and replace the nutrients lost as a result of microgravity. (NASA Aerospace Scholars, n.d.)

Of the three risk factors discussed, radiation holds the greatest danger to both crewmembers and the mission. All three factors hold incredible risk to the crewmembers, but radiation has the potential to do the most damage. Shields can and are used to protect against meteoroid impact, and tracking systems can be developed. (Cygo, 2014) (Wilson, 2007) Exercise and supplements can be used to combat the effects of microgravity. (Dismukes, 1998) Radiation, however, is not consistent, and could overcome shielding during times of high dosage. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) Radiation’s slow, long-term effects leave crewmembers unable to do much about it. All three risk factors occur in-transit, and while both radiation and microgravity occur on surface stays, radiation is much harder to combat. It can also contaminate scientific results, or cause malfunctions within the spacecraft, and endanger the crew. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) Its side effects may also go unnoticed and untreated for months, long enough for them to become incredibly serious. The risk of radiation also follows an astronaut after returning to Earth, as their risk of contracting cancer is high, and some tissues may already be damaged. (International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) Furthermore, radiation can hurt those not involved with the mission: children conceived after returning from space have the potential to be born with birth defects.(International Space School Educational Trust, 2014) For these enormous risks, radiation is the most dangerous.

Radiation, meteoroid impact, and microgravity all have the ability to compromise the mission. They can endanger the spacecraft or crewmembers, even after their return to Earth. It is necessary to protect the crewmembers; however, there is always risk involved. The continual development and research into these risks will allow for progress in the elimination of them, and ultimately the furthering of human knowledge.

F. HISTORY

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The following is a brief timeline of all NASA Mars Exploration programs.

Past/Completed Programs:

Time Name Goal Objective Result

1964 Mariner 3 (flyby)

Explore the inner solar system.

To visit and return data from Venus, Mars, and Mercury.

Failure: shroud failed to jettison

1964 Mariner 4 (flyby)

Explore the inner solar system.

To visit and return data from Venus, Mars, and Mercury.

Success: returned 21 images. Mariner 4 collected the first-ever close-up images of another planet. The craft lasted 3 years (expected lifetime was 8 months) in solar orbit and studied the solar wind environment.

1969 Mariner 6 (flyby)

Explore the solar system.

Analyze Martian atmosphere and surface.

Success: returned 75 images. Dual mission with Mariner 7. Disproved theory that dark features seen on surface were canals. Recorded data via sensors, and missed volcanoes later discovered by chance.

1969 Mariner 7 (flyby)

Explore the solar system.

Analyze Martian atmosphere and surface.

Success: returned 126 images. Dual mission with Mariner 6. Disproved theory that dark features seen on surface were canals. Recorded data via sensors, and missed volcanoes later discovered by chance.

1971 Mariner 8 Explore Mars’ surface.

Gather data on the composition, density, pressure, and temperature of the atmosphere, and the

Failure: launch failure, upper stage tumbled out of control, causing Centaur stage to shut down.

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composition, temperature, and topography of the surface.

1971 Mariner 9 Explore Mars’ surface.

Orbit Mars and return images and data about the surface.

Success: returned 7,329 images. After a dust storm abated, the spacecraft gathered data on the atmospheric composition, density, pressure, and temperature and also the surface composition, temperature, gravity, and topography of Mars. Mariner 9 discovered volcanoes and a canyon on the surface, and photo-mapped 100% of the surface.

1975 Viking Orbiter 1/Lander

Collect data on Mars.

Obtain high resolution images of the surface, find the structure and composition of the atmosphere and surface, and search for evidence of life.

Success: first successful landing on Mars. Landers conducted experiments to look for signs of life. Orbiters mapped surface features and found evidence of surface water.

1975 Viking Orbiter 2/Lander

Collect data on Mars.

Obtain high resolution images of the surface, find the structure and composition of the atmosphere and surface, and search for evidence of life.

Returned 16,000 images, atmospheric data, and soil experiments. Landers conducted experiments to look for signs of life. Orbiters mapped surface features and found evidence of surface water.

1992 Mars Observer

Study geology, geophysics and climate of Mars.

Determine the global elemental and mineralogical character of the

Failure: contact lost with spacecraft before arrival.

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surface material; define the topography and gravitational field; establish the nature of the Martian magnetic field; determine the temporal and spatial distribution, abundance, sources, and sinks of volatiles and dust over a seasonal cycle; and explore the structure/circulation of the atmosphere.

1996-2006

Mars Global Surveyor

Expand knowledge of Mars.

Study the Martian surface, atmosphere, and interior.

Success: returned more images than previous Mars missions. Gave 3D view of Martian topography and images that suggested sources of liquid water at or near the surface of Mars existed.

1996-1997

Mars Pathfinder

Demonstrate the technology necessary to bring a lander and a rover to the Martian surface cost-effectively and efficiently.

Study the Martian atmosphere, surface meteorology and geology, form, and structure, and Martian rocks and soil.

Success: technology experiment lasted 5 times longer than warranty. Returned 2.3 billion bits of data; including chemical analyses of rocks and data on weather factors. Data suggested that Mars used to be warm and wet with a thicker atmosphere.

1998-1999

Mars Climate Orbiter

Study Martian weather, climate, and water.

Serve as an interplanetary weather satellite and communications

Failure: spacecraft lost upon arrival.

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relay for the Mars Polar Lander.

1999-1999

Mars Polar Lander

Land near the edges of the South Polar ice cap on Mar, and measure the Martian soil composition.

Record meteorological conditions,

analyze samples of the polar deposits for volatiles, dig trenches to look for aqueously deposited minerals,

image for evidence of climate changes and seasonal cycles, and determine soil types and composition.

Failure: contact with spacecraft lost upon arrival.

1999 Deep Space Probes (2)

Impact the Martian surface to test new technologies.

Record meteorological conditions,

analyze samples of the polar deposits for volatiles, dig trenches to look for aqueously deposited minerals,

image for evidence of climate changes and seasonal cycles, and determine soil types and composition.

Failure: spacecraft lost upon arrival (arrived with Mars Polar Lander)

2007-2010

Phoenix Mars Lander

Search for water on Mars.

Study the history of water in the Martian arctic and search for evidence of a habitable area by digging through the surface to an ice-rich layer.

Success: returned over 25 gigabits of data. Delivered weather reports from Mars, and analyzed Martian history through layers of ice and soil.

2003- Mars Exploration

Look for clues of previous water on

Study composition rocks and minerals

Success: operating lifetime more than 15

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2010 Rover—

Spirit Mars. for signs of former

water. times warranty, found rocks that contained traces of past water.

(NASA, “Missions”, n.d.) (NASA, “Historical Log”, n.d.)(Bell, 2013) (Williams, 2006) (Netting, “Mars Exploration Rover—Spirit”, 2013) (Netting, “Phoenix”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Climate Orbiter”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Polar Lander”, 2013)(Wilson, 2012) (Netting, “Mars Global Surveyor”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Observer”, 2013) (Howell 2012)

Present programs:

Time Name Goal Objective Result

2001-now

Mars Odyssey

Contribute to current knowledge of Mars.

Study Martian geology, climate, and mineralogy.

Success: produces images of Mars in high resolution, allowed creation of maps of chemical elements and find regions of buried ice, determined radiation in low orbit is twice the amount of that on Earth.

2003-now

Mars Exploration Rover—Opportunity

Look for clues of previous water on Mars.

Study composition rocks and minerals for signs of former water.

Success: operating lifetime more than 15 times warranty, found compounds associated with water, returned data suggesting there was once a salty sea.

2003-now

Mars Express

Explore the atmosphere and surface of Mars from polar orbit.

Search for sub-surface water from orbit.

Success: determined features beneath the surface, imaging Mars in detail.

2005-now

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

Search for evidence that water existed on Mars for a sustained period of time.

Study geological features and look for sub-surface water, and act as an “interplanetary internet”.

Success: returned more than 26 terabits of data, which equals more than all other Mars missions combined)

2011-now

Mars Science Laboratory

Investigate the past or present potential of Mars to support

Search for organic carbon compounds, find features that show biological

Success: exploring Mars’ habitability, used precision landing techniques,

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microbial life. processes, examine

rocks and soils to interpret the processes that formed and modified them, assess how Mars' atmosphere has changed over time, determine current distribution and cycles of water and carbon dioxide.

2013-now

MAVEN Explore Mars’ upper atmosphere, ionosphere, and interactions with the sun and solar wind.

Determine the role that the loss of volatiles on Mars has played over time on the planet’s atmosphere, climate, and habitability.

On route to Mars

(NASA, “Missions”, n.d.) (NASA, “Historical Log”, n.d.) (Netting, “Maven”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Science Laboratory”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Express”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Exploration Rover—Opportunity”, 2013) (Netting, “Mars Odyssey”, 2013)

Future Programs:

Time Name Goal Objective Result

2016 InSight Study Mars’ interior. Understand the processes that shaped the planets of the inner solar system.

Unlaunched

2016 ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter—Urey Instrument

Determine if there previously existed life on Mars.

Search for molecular building blocks on Mars and determine if they were built by anything alive.

Unlaunched

2020 Unnamed mission plans.

Determine the potential for life on Mars.

Gather knowledge in preparation for human exploration of

Unlaunched

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Mars.

(NASA, “Missions”, n.d.) (NASA, 2012) (Netting, “ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter”, 2013)

From past missions to Mars, factors that have worked (e.g. parachute landings with Spirit) and those that have not can be determined, and key problem areas in the history of Mars missions (landings and communications) can be identified so as to prevent them.

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

A. EXPERIMENTATION ON MARS

In order to broaden current understanding and knowledge of Mars, the following three questions have been raised:

1. Was the Martian atmosphere thick enough at some point during the planet’s history to allow for life?

2. What are the temperature patterns throughout the Martian year?

3. How much radiation is the surface exposed to throughout the Martian year?

The first question correlates with the Mars Exploration Program scientific goal, “determine if life ever arose on Mars.” (NASA, “NASA’s Mars Exploration Program’s Science Theme”, n.d.) By studying the atmosphere and its fluctuations, it could be determined if it was ever, or will ever be thick enough to retain heat and oxygen and provide a radiation blanket—all of which are necessary for sustained life. To learn more about the planet, it is necessary to study its past.

The second question correlates with the Martian Exploration Program scientific goal, “prepare for human exploration.” (NASA, “NASA’s Mars Exploration Program’s Science Theme”, n.d.) From vast research, it is known that Mars fluctuates greatly in temperature throughout the day and year. (Tillman, n.d.) In order to prepare for human exploration of Mars, it is necessary to understand the temperature patterns. Once this has been done, technology can be tailored to safely accommodate these temperature fluctuations, and humans can take another step forward in the exploration of the universe.

The third question also correlates to the Martian Exploration Program scientific goal, “prepare for human exploration.” (NASA, “NASA’s Mars Exploration Program’s Science Theme”, n.d.) Radiation is dangerous, and astronauts must have all precautions to be protected from it. As a result of the thin Martian atmosphere and the comparatively short distance to the sun, the Martian surface is greatly exposed to radiation. By determining the radiation levels, scientists can design lasting technology that will be able to adequately protect humans from the toxic radiation. As safety is the first priority, determining yearly radiation levels is a way to take a big step forward in human exploration.

The proposed mission is to aid in the fulfillment of two Mars Exploration Program science goals, ‘determine if life ever arose on Mars’ and ‘prepare for human exploration.’ By

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studying the atmospheric and surface conditions of Mars, it will lead to a deeper understanding of the planet and a gateway to further human exploration of the universe. Both the scientific community and the human race at large will benefit from the proposed mission. The mission will broaden knowledge and understanding of the universe, and allow the human race to expand and learn.

The proposed mission will study the depth, consistency, and fluctuations or change over time (including possible previous and future patterns) of the Martian atmosphere, to better understand the planet and determine if the atmosphere ever had or ever will naturally meet the conditions required for sustained life. The proposed mission will also study the temperature fluctuations and patterns of the planet throughout the year. This will lead to predictions on the temperature, and allow for preparation against the harsh Martian conditions. Finally, the proposed mission will study the radiation levels and types on the Martian surface from galactic cosmic rays and solar energetic particles (Sci-News, 2013), furthering allowing for determination of past or future life on Mars.

B. EXPERIMENTATION ON EFFECTS ON HUMAN BODY

In order to maintain optimal astronaut performance and safety, astronauts must maintain stable and adequate sleep (NASA, 2013). However, this has proven difficult during long duration space missions (NASA, 2013). The Cardiac Adapted Sleep Parameter Electrocardiogram Recorder (CASPER) experiment was designed to detect physiological causes for sleep disturbances via heart monitoring (NASA, 2014). Through the experiment, information was obtained that would lead to countermeasures aimed at providing solid sleep for astronauts (NASA, 2014). The proposed redesigned experiment retains the features of the CASPER experiment. However, it adds a biweekly electroencephalogram (EEG) in order to record levels of alertness of astronauts. Through the cardiac monitoring and EEG the effects of sleep in space on the human body can be recorded, and used to improve astronauts’ sleep.

In order to further human understanding of the universe and improve life on earth via extraterrestrial experimentation, it is necessary to protect the people who are attaining these goals. Sleep is a necessary human function—it rejuvenates the body, gives it time to repair, retain memories, and remain in good mental health (Stafford, 2012). Adults need at least seven hours of sleep per night, yet the average astronaut only gets six hours (National Sleep Foundation, 2013) (NASA, 2013). Sleep deprivation can result in performance deficits, behavioral abnormalities, and a weakened immune system, none of which are suitable for living in space (Plummer, 2014) (NASA, 2013). The Cardiac Adapted Sleep Parameter Electrocardiogram Recorder (CASPER) experiment studied sleep patterns of International Space Station (ISS) crew members to determine physiological reasons for possible sleep disturbances (NASA, 2014). The proposed adapted experiment retains the cardiac monitoring, but adds a biweekly electroencephalogram (EEG) to determine levels of alertness and consciousness of astronauts (Children’s’ Hospital of Pittsburgh of UMPC, n.d.).

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The CASPER experiment (September 2006 to April 2007), sponsored by the European Space Agency (ESA) monitored heart rates of ISS crewmembers whilst they slept (NASA, 2014). The participating astronauts wore vests fitted with sensors and cables connecting to electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes in order to measure the heart rate (NASA, 2014). The data collected was used to determine reasons and patterns of sleep disruption (NASA, 2014). In addition, the participating astronauts filled out a questionnaire relating to daily activities and quality of sleep before and after sleeping (NASA, 2014) (Gríofa, 2008). The questionnaire aided in determining possible causes of sleep disruption and helped develop countermeasures (NASA, 2014). The information obtained from the experiment was used to aid sleep stability on long duration missions and people suffering from sleep disturbances on Earth (NASA, 2014).

The proposed experiment retains the cardiac monitoring of participating astronauts whilst sleeping via the adapted vest (NASA, 2014). This will aid in determining physiological variables that disrupt sleep (NASA, 2014). The added biweekly EEG will be used to determine levels of alertness and consciousness (Children’s’ Hospital of Pittsburgh of UMPC, n.d). As the experiment is designed for long duration missions, the EEG can be used to determine how space’s effect on sleeping patterns develops over time. A battery operated ambulatory EEG will be used to conduct the experiment, such as the Cadwell Easy Ambulatory, which requires D cell batteries (Cadwell, 2012). The EEG will run for whatever time deemed necessary to gather information, and its ambulatory component allows the astronaut to resume daily activities whilst performing the EEG. The experiment may run for the length of time the astronaut is in space, or until sufficient data has been obtained.

Possible results of the proposed experiment include the reduction of sleep disturbances over time, due to the adaptation of astronauts to their new environment throughout the long duration mission. After three months, sleep disturbances may still be present, but will be reduced by six months, and near absent by a year. However, as astronauts typically receive an hour less than the necessary amount, it is predicted that the EEG will show that their alertness and performance deteriorates over time due to sleep deprivation (as shown by the CASPER experiment), with significant reduction by three months that deteriorates slowly by six months and a year, due to an adaptation to shorter sleep times (Gríofa, 2008) (National Sleep Foundation, 2013) (NASA, 2013).

SURFACE BASE

A. TYPE

The proposed base will be a Phase III type, a small operational base. (Larson and Pranke, 2003) This is because it is primarily functioning as a tool to prepare for permanent human habitation on Mars. Therefore, the Martian outpost will serve to research the effects of Mars on the human body and subsequent factors that affect the success of the proposed mission and futures ones. However, the base will contain a system for the retrieval of subsurface frozen water and subsequent filtration, and extended scientific experimentation and research as well

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as exploration. The proposed surface base will ultimately act as an experimental version of a future permanent human colony. The surface base will consist of the interiors of the primary transit vehicles, as well as areas constructed by crewmembers through prepared pieces. Most of the outpost will have been made pre-landing, as a result of the unavailability of materials on Mars, and set up by crewmembers with an engineering background.

B. LOCATION

The proposed surface base will be located in the area known as Vastitas Borealis, which is near the Martian North Pole. (Carr, 2014) The region, located in the northern hemisphere, contains water ice, including a partially-filled crater. (European Space Agency, 2005) The coordinates for the base will be 70.5° North and 103° East, the location of the partially-filled crater. (European Space Agency, 2005) This will allow for the retrieval, melting, and filtration of the water ice for utilization and consumption on the outpost, as well as experimentation and research into the formations, composition, and history of materials in Vastitas Borealis.

The region is shown below:

(Neukum, 2004)

CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS

A. MAJOR PHASES

The proposed mission starts with Phase One. This contains the planning and preparation of the transit vehicles, and the utilization as the basis for the Martian Outpost. Research will be conducted to find the best was to design and create the transit vehicles and bases, using previous technology as well as new technology designed for the proposed mission. The construction of the transit vehicles and base materials will be carried out, as well as the creation and gathering of materials and resources necessary for life support and temperature systems. Crewmembers, chosen for their expertise in required areas and abilities, will be chosen and subsequently trained. The launch date will be set, and all final preparations will be carried out.

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Phase two contains the majority of the mission. In phase two, the preliminary crew, containing ten crewmembers in the first transit vehicle will depart for Mars, landing approximately ten months later and set up the initial base, creating a Phase II research base. (Larson and Pranke, 2003) (Redd, 2014) Small, basic experimentation and research will be carried out, and the findings reported back to Earth periodically. A secondary crew of ten will depart after the arrival of the first crew, arriving approximately ten months after, bringing supplies and a second area of the base. (Redd, 2014) The base will become a Phase III operational base, and will carry out extensive research, experimentation and exploration. (Larson and Pranke, 2003) The water ice retrieval and filtration system will begin to run, allowing for the growth of plants. A third transit vehicle containing a crew of four will arrive bringing more supplies, and add to the Martian outpost.

Phase three completes the mission. A fourth, much larger transit vehicle will arrive with a crew of four and transport fourteen of the crewmembers back to Earth, along with the majority of equipment and research. The third transit vehicle used will transport remaining crewmembers and scientific equipment back to Earth after the arrival of the first part of the crew back on Earth. Both transit vehicles will arrive back on Earth approximately ten months after their departure from Mars. (Redd, 2014) The third phase of the proposed mission will be completed by 2041, four years before the deadline of 2045.

B. OPERATIONS TIMELINE

Phase One

Present-2020 Approval of project with NASA and United Nations and preliminary planning.

2020-2025 Planning the transit vehicles and the interiors that will be converted to the Martian base, as well as creating new technology for the trip.

2025-2030 Construction of transit vehicles and parts for Martian base, filtration system, spacesuits, and laboratory equipment. Crewmembers will also be trained during this time.

Phase Two

2030-2030 Launch of first transit vehicle containing first 10 crewmembers, will arrive approximately in 2031, creating a Phase II research base.

2030-2031 Launch of second transit vehicle containing ten more crew members, materials for further construction of the base, and supplies. They will land approximately in 2032, and create a small Phase III operational base.

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2031-2037 The base will conduct research into the

formations and history of Mars, and the effects of the Martian environment on the human body.

2037-2037 A third transit vehicle will arrive, bringing more supplies.

2037-2040 The base will continue to explore and conduct research and experimentation.

(Redd, 2014)

Phase Three

2039-2040 A fourth transit vehicle will depart for Mars.

2040-2040 The fourth transit vehicle to arrive will return for Earth with of the outpost crewmembers and some research and equipment, arriving on Earth in 2041.

2040-2041 The third transit vehicle to arrive on Mars will transport remaining crewmembers, research and equipment back to Earth, landing in 2042.

(Redd, 2014)

C. CREW

The proposed mission is designed to be international in order to better share the research and knowledge that will result from the proposed mission. All participating countries will participate in the cost and design and training of the crew. The main spoken language on the Martian outpost will be English, although all crewmembers will be bilingual.

The proposed mission aims to be fair to all participating members; therefore it aims to have equal representation in the crew from both genders. There will be twenty-eight crewmembers in total: ten in the arriving first transit vehicle, ten in the second, four in the third, and four in the fourth. Half of the crewmembers in each arriving transit vehicle will be female, the other half male. The crewmembers’ age will range from late 20s to mid-30s at the time of departure for Mars. This is so that they will have had time to receive extensive training to gain expertise in a specific area, but young enough so that they are in their physical prime of life, and are less likely to have health problems.

In the first and second arriving transit vehicles, there must be at least four people with extensive pilot training, although all members must have flying training in case of emergency. The ten-man crews will also each contain two doctors (one containing extensive training with radiation), two engineers (both with extensive mechanical and electrical training), and two scientists (a biochemist and a geologist). The doctors are necessary so that proper medical care can be given, and the dangerous effects of radiation and microgravity can be combatted. The engineers are necessary to make repairs on the transit vehicle and to construct and run the

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Martian surface base and the subsequent water retrieval and filtration plant. The scientists will conduct research on the effect of space and the Martian environment on the human body, and study the history of Mars. The crews arriving in the third and fourth transit vehicles must all have extensive pilot training also. However, the crew of four arriving in the third transit vehicle will contain another biochemist and another geologist, in order to perform more research. During initial construction of the Martian outpost, all crewmembers are expected to help, with the guidance and main work completed by the engineers. The specialties of the crewmembers has been chosen with the mission goal in mind: to create an outpost on Mars to determine the effects of the Martian environment on the human body, whilst determining how to make it adaptable for a permanent human civilization, in addition to researching Mars itself.

All crewmembers must have training prior to the mission to develop necessary bonding and peace-keeping skills. The mission will span over a decade, rendering it necessary for crewmembers to develop healthy relationships with one another. All crewmembers are expected to aid in preserving the integrity and goals of the mission.

D. MISSION ELEMENTS

The proposed mission requires four transit vehicles. The first two must have detachable tops and bottoms, so that the middle will form a basic Martian outpost. As a result, the first and second transit vehicle must be very large, in order to incorporate fuel tanks, control rooms, barracks, a full laboratory, a full medical bay, a kitchen, and a crew room. The middles of the first two transit vehicles must also connect, to form an extensive Martian outpost. In addition, the second transit vehicles will contain equipment for the water filtration system, and premade walls and machines in order to extend the Martian outpost. The third and fourth transit vehicles must also be large, to carry equipment and a large crew back to Earth. All transit vehicles and the Martian outpost must have life support systems, including pressure and temperature control; radiation protection; medical, scientific, and construction equipment; communications back to Earth; and protection against meteoroids (whilst in space) and dust storms (on Mars). In addition, there must be an extensive fuel store for the trip back to Earth.

CONCLUSION

The proposed mission has been designed with the future of the human base in mind. It will primarily gather research to prepare for future human exploration in space, and permanent human habitation in space. It is to act as a semi-permanent base, gathering information about the long-term effects of space and the Martian on the human environment, in order to make adaptations in the future for permanent human residence in these unfamiliar conditions. In addition, it will research Mars in order to understand or discover elements that will make the planet more hospitable to human life. Through the international element, it is hopes that the proposed mission will contribute to the growth of the human race as a whole in the future.

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