mind always in motion

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Preferred Citation: Segrè, Emilio. A Mind Always in Motion: The Autobiography of Emilio Segre. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, c1993 1993. tt!:""ark.cdli#.org"ark:"13$3$"ft%$$$$%r#"

A Mind Always in Motion

The Autobiography of Emilio Segrè

Emilio Segrè

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RESS

Berkeley · Los Angeles · Oxford

! "##$ T%e Regents o& t%e Uni'ersity o& Cali&ornia


A()nowledgments&en Emilio, 'o instr(cted me on so many tings, said tat e 'o(ld leave te !(#lication of isa(to#iogra!y to me as a )consola*ione,) is advice 'as: )+(st deliver te latest set of diskettes to te !(#lisers, and tey 'ill do te rest.) &ell, it 'asnt tat easy, es!ecially for a !erfectionist like me, #(t- m(st say tat te staff - 'orked 'it at te University of California Press 'ere m(c more tan (stefficient and friendly. /one of tem ad kno'n Emilio !ersonally, and tey only got ac0(ainted 'itim tro(g is man(scri!t. &en, one after anoter, te editors told me, )nce - started reading, -co(ldnt !(t it do'n,) - kne' te #ook 'as in good ands. 2(s, to UC Press irector +im Clark, toeditors Eileen 4c&illiam, Erika B5ky, and Peter reyer, and to designer Bar#ara +ello', - convey mymost eartfelt tanks for teir interest and dedication in making Emilios last #ook 'at it is no'. 2oProfessor 6o#ert &. Seidel for is conscientio(s do(#lececking of te !ysics, my most !rofo(ndgratit(de. 7ast #(t not least, my dee!est tanks to Professor E(gene Commins and is 'ife Ulla forteir el! and friendsi! 8te saying ) friend in need is a friend indeed) comes to mind 'enever -tink of tem, and to Professor 'en Cam#erlain, 'ose s!ontaneo(s re!ly to my 0(estion, );o''o(ld yo( descri#e Emilio<) #ecame te title of tis #ook.

6S 4. SE=6>SU44E6 199?



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re&a(e

- ave 'ritten tis a(to#iogra!y #eca(se - to(gt it migt interest a !(#lic c(rio(s a#o(t te sciencedominated !eriod in 'ic - lived. 4any oter !ysicists, my contem!oraries, ave done te same,

among tem 7(is lvare*, reeman yson, &alter Elsasser, 6icard eynman, tto risc, &erner;eisen#erg, Sir 6(dolf Peierls, and Br(no 6ossi.

Eac of tem 'rites from is o'n !oint of vie' and according to is !ersonality. 2is emerges clearly,for instance, in descri!tions of te 7os lamos !eriodD in com!aring tem, one recogni*es te mainfacts, #(t te differences of inter!retation and te im!ortance assigned to tose facts #y te a(torsstand o(t starkly, as do (dgments on !ersons and events. 2ese differences are interesting and so(ldnot #e s(!!ressed.

2(s, for eAam!le, in reading Peierlss a(to#iogra!y,1F 'ic occasionally refers to !ersons andcirc(mstances - also disc(ss in tis #ook, - fo(nd im to #e a m(c more likea#le and gentle !ersontan - am. - am reminded of a remark made to me in te 19G$s #y te ten governor of California,

Edm(nd =erald )Pat) Bro'n. ;e ad invited me to a small intimate dinner at is official residence, andd(ring o(r conversation e 0(estioned me on some !oints !ertaining to te University of California, of'ic e 'as an eA officio 6egent. - ans'ered as 'ell as - co(ldD e listened, tanked me, and ten,la(ging, added: )&en yo( s!eak to a !olitician yo( so(ld say tose tings like tis)Hand ere!eated 'at - ad said in te di!lomatic form - so(ld ave

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(sed. 2e e!isode st(ck in my mind, #(t - do not tink - ave !rofited from it.

Beca(se te gro't of science in tis cent(ry is s(c an im!osing !enomenon, - #elieve tere is (stification for tis modest 'ork. -t is not (st a manifestation of vanity, of gratit(de to some, ofdisaffection 'it oters, or a 'ay of venting my s!leen, as one migt (ncarita#ly s(rmise. -t is ratera narrative of te life of one of te many scientists 'o ave contri#(ted to te !enomenon. -ts a!!ealmay #e similar to tat offered, in a different conteAt, #y te memoirs of one of /a!oleons generals orone of 7incolns am#assadors.

- ave tried to tell te (nvarnised tr(t 8as - see it and to re!ort events te 'ay - #elieve teyocc(rred, as 'ell as 'at - felt and to(gt at te time. - do not like to s!eak ill of oters, and even lessof myself, #(t - ave not so(gt to dis!lay manners and tact - never ad, and - ave tried to treat myselfno #etter tan anyone else. - #elieve it 'ill #e clear #y te end of te #ook tat scientists are only(man.

- tank my friends 6en*o de elice, +. 7. ;eil#ron, ntony &als#y, r. Edgardo 4acorini, and te

late vv. =offredo 6occas, 'o el!ed me greatly in vario(s 'ays. 4y 'ife 6osa 4ines Segrè asvaliantly and !atiently el!ed me in 'riting tis #ook, tro(g er interest in it, er enco(ragement,and er criticism. #ove all, se ke!t te old c(rm(dgeon alive.



!alace, 'ic faced te garden: )Pi!!iO -t is time to go ome for l(nc.) nd Pi!!i, feeling (ngry, oined er !rom!tly.

-, Pi!!i, 'as #orn in 2ivoli, on +an(ary 3$, 19$. 4y fater re!orted my arrival to te civil a(toritieslater tan !rescri#ed #y la', and to avoid com!lications, - 'as registered as aving #een #orn one#r(ary 1, 'ic #ecame my official #irtday. - 'as called Emilio =inoD according to my moter, tefirst name reminded er of er great friends Emilia 2reves and Erailia P(sterla, a#o(t 'om more later.

2e second name onored my (ncle =ino, my faters yo(nger #roter. ;o'ever,

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as a cild every#ody called me Pi!!i, a nickname - coined as soon as - started s!eaking.

4y #irt!lace 'as a o(se in a 0(arter ten called Killini rnaldi. 4y fater, =i(se!!e #ramo Segrè,'as #orn in Bo**olo, near 4ant(a, in nortern -taly, on e#r(ary ?, 1N9D my moter melia S(sanna2reves 'as #orn in lorence on +(ly ?%, 1NG%. - 'as te yo(ngest of tree #roters. 2e eldest, ngelo4arco, 'as #orn in 1N91 8died in 19G9, and te second, 4arco Cla(dio, 'as #orn in 1N93 8died in19N3D t(s my #roters 'ere fo(rteen and t'elve years older tan -.

2e Segrè amily ad lived in Bo**olo for cent(ries. - #elieve tey originally came from S!ain, !ossi#ly at te time of te eA!(lsion of te +e's in 1J9?. ll my grand!arents died old, #(t #efore my #irt. 2e information - ave a#o(t tem comes from 'at - eard at ome or fo(nd in doc(ments. 4y !aternal grandfater, ngelo 4iracolo, 'as named 4iracolo #eca(se is moter 'as fiftyfo(r at tetime of is #irt. ;e 'as, - #elieve, a so!kee!er in Bo**olo. - ave eard only of is !ysical strengt,ealt, and gymnastic !ro'ess. &en e 'as a#o(t eigty, e retired 'it is 'ife to te city ofncona, 'ere one of is cildren, Cla(dio, 'orked. 4y grandfater ngelo seems to ave liked toscare is family #y so'ing off is acro#atics on te roofs of neig#oring o(ses. ;e also commentedto is cildren, all very s(ccessf(l in life: )-f it 'ere not for te 'orries yo( give me, - 'o(ld liveforever.) ;e, is 'ife, and teir son Cla(dio are all #(ried in ncona.

;is 'ife, Egle Cases, 'as an o(tstanding 'oman, #ot for er #rains and for er caracter. ;ercildren, da(gtersinla', and grandcildren al'ays s!oke of er to me 'it dee! affection and igres!ect. 4y moter told me re!eatedly o' m(c se enoyed aving er moterinla' in er ome at2ivoli, and o' se felt closer to er tan to er o'n moter. - ave fo(nd a s(#tle eco of tis inletters 'ritten #y my grandmoter Egle to er f(t(re da(gterinla', ten engaged to my fater. 2eletters, alto(g sort, so' (ncommon (nderstanding and 'armt. Egle ad received an ed(cation'ell a#ove 'at 'as c(stomary for girls of er time. ;er ome 'as a center of

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attraction for te intellect(al life, !rovincial, #(t not negligi#le, offered ten #y a small -talian to'n.

ngelo and Egle Segrè ad fo(r cildren. 2e oldest, and te only girl, #y name Bice, married a6iccardo 6imini and ad fo(r sons. ne of tem, Enrico, #ecame a !rofessor of organic cemistry atte University of Pavia and is remem#ered for te ngeli6imini reaction of aldeydes. ;e 'as tefater of 6iccardo and Bindo 6imini, my contem!oraries and close friends, 'o 'ill often a!!ear intis story.

2e tree sons of ngelo and Egle 'ere Cla(dio 81N3Q19?%, my fater =i(se!!e 81N9Q19JJ, and=ino 81NGJQ19J?. 2ey 'ere very close to eac oter, #(t not to teir sister Bice. Possi#ly se 'as adiffic(lt !erson, as is s(ggested #y te many stories - eard a#o(t er. - ad only a sligt ac0(aintance



'it er.

4y (ncles Cla(dio and =ino attended te University of Pavia tanks to Collegio =islieri fello'si!s.3F 2is college ad #een created #y Po!e Pi(s K at te time of te Co(nter6eformation to el!talented yo(ng men 'o co(ld not afford an ed(cation. &it te (nification of -taly in te nineteentcent(ry, te la's of earlier times discriminating on gro(nds of religion ad #een voided, and UncleCla(dio may ave #een te first +e' to #e admitted to te college.

Cla(dio o#tained is igest degree as an engineer from te University of 2(rin in 1N%GD s(#se0(entlye 'ent to te Ecole des mines in Paris, 'ere e st(died geology. ;e remained fond of rance for terest of is life, #(t occasionally 8and very lo(dly critici*ed renc ca(vinism. ;e still resented(nfriendly treatment e ad received in te 4ont dr region d(ring geological field tri!s. n isret(rn to -taly, in 1NN1, e 'ent to 'ork for te errovie meridionali, a railroad com!any, and devotedimself to te a!!lication of geology to railroad constr(ction. ;is !ersonal eA!erience led im tointrod(ce more scientific !roced(res in te railroad ind(stry, and in 19$ e s(cceeded in esta#lisingan )eA!erimental instit(te for te errovie meridionali) in ncona, 'ic !assed to te -taliangovernment on te s(#se0(ent nationali*ation of te railroads. 2e instit(tes !(r!ose 'as to el! terailroads #y !(tting te o!erations of !lanning, !(rcasing, #(ilding,

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and testing on a so(nd tecnical #asis. 2is sim!le idea is no' common!lace, #(t in my (ncles time it'as ne' and (n(s(al. nly is ent(siasm and !ersistence s(cceeded in carrying it tro(g and indevelo!ing an eAcellent tecnological la#oratory for its im!lementation.

Uncle Cla(dio 'as of sort stat(re and in is later years some'at deaf. ;e s!oke very lo(dly and,'en angry, tended to (se !rofane lang(age, not !ermitted at te time in !olite com!any. -n 19$ emoved, 'it is instit(te, from ncona to 6ome. ;e settled in a rented a!artment in a tenmodern #(ilding on te corner #et'een Pia**a della Ciesa n(ova and Corso Kittorio. Uncle Cla(dio, for istimes, 'as 'idely traveled, often re!resenting te -talian railroads at international conferences. ;e told

me tat at one of tese e ad met +(les;enri PoincarR, 'o, conf(sing im 'it te matematicianCorrado Segre 8no accent and no relation, 'as most cordial, canging, o'ever, almost to r(deness'en e #ecame a'are of is mistake.JF Cla(dio ad visited all of E(ro!e and Egy!t. ;e never 'entto merica. ;e (sed to tell me stories a#o(t te c*arist 6(ssia of 19$N reminiscent of 'at -eA!erienced in te Soviet Union in 19G. or instance, e visited te Mremlin and te g(ide, in ret(rnfor a s(ita#le ti!, allo'ed im to sit on te trone of te c*ar, #(t no ti! 'o(ld #(y im an o!!ort(nityto take a !oto. 4y (ncle also noted tat 6(ssia 'as ten, as s(#se0(ently, te only co(ntry re0(iringan internal !ass!ort.

Since Cla(dio never married, is ne!e'sHtat is, - and my #rotersH'ere te #eneficiaries of is !aternal instincts. ;e 'as a sort of second fater to (s, someone 'it 'om one co(ld s!eak a#o(t

anyting, 'o told (s is ideas and 'as al'ays ready to el! (s. 4y #roter ngelo often made tro(#le'it some (nto'ard deed, a !oorly !lanned tri!, an illness in some strange !lace, and Uncle Cla(dioal'ays 'ent to is resc(e. -t is not #y cance tat tree of is grandne!e's #ear is name.

&en 'e moved to 6ome in 191%, 'e rented an a!artment in te same #(ilding as Uncle Cla(dio, onefloor #elo' im, and - 'as sent to slee! in is a!artment. 4y #edrooms tem!erat(re, in 'inter, 'as? , #(t 'it a good eiderdo'n it 'as 0(ite comforta#le. -n te

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morning - often ad interesting talks 'it my (ncle 'ile so'eringD f(rtermore is li#rary, from te7aro(sse encyclo!edia do'n, no(rised my c(riosity.

comical, longremem#ered incident occ(rred aro(nd tat time. Uncle Cla(dios cat, 'ic addisa!!eared for a fe' days, !ossi#ly 'andering te neig#oring roofs, rea!!eared one nigt in a sorrystate, me'ing des!erately. 4y (ncle let im in and, seeing te condition e 'as in, said lo(dly:)(mmy, 'y do yo( go looking for advent(res< ont yo( kno' tat yo(ve #een gelded<) /eAt day

a neig#or, igly em#arrassed, a!!roaced my (ncle and said: )Commendatore, yo( 'ill eAc(se me,and yo( can co(nt on my discretion, #(t - m(st tell yo( tat last nigt - inadvertently overeard yo(dressing do'n yo(r ne!e'. - regret tat - eard some secrets tat are none of my #(siness.) 4y (ncle'as st(nned, #(t e soon (nderstood is neig#ors conf(sion and reass(red im as to te state of mytesticles.

Uncle Cla(dio ad a o(sekee!er, nnetta, 'o came from Ur#ania, in te 4arce, and ad #een #ro(gt (! #y my grandmoter. Se 'as !ractically a mem#er of o(r family, al'ays ready to el! incase of tro(#le. Se died in my (ncles ome and 'as re!laced #y er niece.

4y Uncle =ino 'as a !rofessor of 6oman la'. ;e ad follo'ed te (s(al career of an -talian(niversity !rofessor, !assing from less im!ortant scools to more famo(s ones: Camerino, Sassari,

Parma, and, (ltimately, 2(rin. -n is !rofession e ad an international re!(tation, as - can confirmfrom an incident tat occ(rred to me in Berkeley almost t'enty years after is deat. ne rainy nigt, -'as in te ac(lty Cl(# at te University of California and canced to ear a disting(ised gentleman'o 'as 6egi(s !rofessor of la' at Cam#ridge University in England tele!oning a Berkeley la' !rofessor 'o 'as a friend of mine to a!ologi*e for #eing late for dinner #eca(se te 'eater made itdiffic(lt to find trans!ortation. - introd(ced myself and vol(nteered to take im to my friends ome. ;etanked me and said: )O So yo( are te famo(s SegrèO) - felt flattered and assented, #(t e looked atme in a strange 'ay, and - (nderstood at once 'at e 'as tinking. or im, te famo(s Segrè 'as my(ncle, and te ages did not i#e, #eca(se my (ncle 'o(ld ave #een a#o(t 1$$ years old. 2e 'orty

@ % @gentleman 'as disa!!ointed, as PoincarR ad #een 'it my (ncle Cla(dio.

=ino Segrè 'as (nass(ming and even timid, a dis!osition #y reason of 'ic e remained a little lessfamo(s, less 'ell !aid, and less onored tan e deserved and 'ised to #e. ;e often 'rote im!ortantlegal o!inions for famo(s la'yers, 'o !raised im igly, #(t !aid im little, 'ile tey (sed is'ork in teir #riefs and collected fat fees temselves. 4y fater s(ccessf(lly em!loyed is #roter insome diffic(lt legal cases and al'ays cided im a#o(t is lo' fees. ig scool in 2(rin is namedafter =ino Segrè.

nes first im!ression of im 'as of a some'at sort man, lean, 'it an a0(iline nose, l(mino(s,im!ressive #l(e eyes, a ig foreead, and a small #lond, singed m(stace, 'it alf a cigarette in is

mo(t. - say )alf) #eca(se e c(t is cigarettes in t'o #efore smoking tem and t(s al'ays #(rnedis m(stace. ;e ad a strong constit(tion and liked gymnastics. -n is familiar conversation yo( co(ldear te traces of is native dialect. f co(rse, in lect(ring e (sed standard -talian, #(t 'en tere 'assometing e did not like e reverted to dialect to say, )Pias mia) 8- dont like it.

&en e came to 6ome from 2(rin in te co(rse of is official d(ties, is arrival 'as a oyo(s occasionfor is t'o #roters, is sisterinla', and is ne!e's. ;e ad a room of is o'n in o(r o(se, 'it a #ookcase containing te Cor!(s (ris civilis and oter !ondero(s 6oman la' teAts in 7atin. ;e co(ldnot live 'ito(t tem.



4y (ncle 'as fre0(ently s(mmoned to 6ome, #eca(se #ot is colleag(es and te government advery early discovered tat 'en tere 'as diffic(lt 'ork to do, re0(iring steadfast a!!lication, fairness,and ac(men, and es!ecially if it 'as not !aid, =ino Segrè 'as te !erson to call for. ;is !resenceg(aranteed s(ccess. 2(s, for instance, alto(g it 'as kno'n tat e 'as cool to te ascist regime,te government entr(sted im 'it eavy #(rdens in reforming te -talian Civil Code. ;e 'o(ldeA!lain to me, a yo(ng #oy, te rationale for many sections of te Civil CodeHfor instance, te section

on ineritanceHand 'y it 'as fair to 'rite te la' in a certain 'ay rater tan in anoter.

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s a #oy, - lacked any s!ecial interest in te la' or in istory, and most of te dead classicism 'elearned in ig scool seemed a #oring 'aste of time to me. /ot so 'alks in te 6oman or(m 'itmy (ncle. ;is detailed eA!lanations of family relations in ancient 6ome, teir 7atin names and legalim!lications, 'ere sometimes a little !ondero(s, #(t e tr(ly enlivened 6oman r(ins, inscri!tions, andstat(es 'it te dee! kno'ledge and familiarity of a !erson 'o ad really mastered teir istory. 2ogo 'it im to te or(m 'as like taking a 'alk 'it a learned ancient 6oman #ent on introd(cing meto is great city. )So and so did tis, so and so did tat,) Uncle =ino 'o(ld eA!lain, !ointing o(t teir

mon(ments or inscri!tions. )2ey 'ere related to eac oter t(s, and tese 'ere teir motives andinterests.) - ave since ad te fort(ne of meeting oter great minds, #(t te first o(tstanding scientific !ersonality - enco(ntered 'as my (ncle =ino. rom im - ad my first im!ressions of 'at it means to'ork 'it ones ead, 'it a#sol(te onesty, !atience, stamina, !recision, and devotion to te s(#ectmatter. 2ese 0(alities, togeter 'it imagination and analytical a#ility, are among te re0(irements forany scientific enter!rise.

lto(g e kne' =erman 'ell and 'as c(lt(rally close to is =erman colleag(es and =ermanscience, e al'ays ke!t a 'atcf(l, #alanced detacment from =erman c(lt(re. ;e disliked narro'-talian nationalism as m(c as e did te s(#servient admiration for =ermany tat !revailed in -taly #et'een 191$ and 19J$. -n !olitics e 'as a li#eral, and a laicist, essentially in te traditions of te6isorgimentoD e ad a clear !remonition of te f(t(re of ascism, and of its conse0(ences for -taly.

4y (ncles Cla(dio and =ino 'ere 'ell kno'n in te -talian intelligentsia. Bot 'ere mem#ers of teigly selective ccademia na*ionale dei 7incei, te -talian national academy, a fact es!eciallyremarka#le in te case of my (ncle Cla(dio, 'o ad no academic connections.

4y fater, =i(se!!e, never 'ent to college. fter finising ig scool, e left Bo**olo and moved tote to'n of Ur#ania, in te 4arce region in Central -taly. 2ere e #ecame an assistant to Co(nt

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4attei, te administrator of te !ro!erties of te istorical family l#ani. 4y fater 'as ten a#o(t

eigteen. t first e learned !a!ermaking and ceramic tecni0(es and, a#ove all, ac0(ired #(sinesseA!erience. 7ater e 'orked for te famo(s =inori ceramics 'orks and for oter man(fact(rers inCivita Castellana, not far from 6ome.

-n te 1NN$s, 2ivolis famo(s 'aterfalls, 'ic ad #een !ainted #y artists for cent(ries, 'ere #ecoming im!ortant so(rces of !o'er, on a very different scale from te small medieval mills of earlieryears. 2e SocietT !er le for*e idra(lice ad (si ind(striali ed agricoli, a cor!oration devoted to te(tili*ation of te 'aters of te river niene for !o'er and irrigation, ired te yo(ng =i(se!!e Segrè asan assistant to its general manager, and 'en te latter died, my fater re!laced im. ;e moved to2ivoli and devoted te cor!oration !rimarily to !a!ermaking and te generation of ydroelectric !o'er.



2e second 'as limited in sco!e, and tat side of te #(siness 'as (ltimately sold to oter com!anies, #(t - noneteless remem#er s!ending many o(rs as a cild in te generating !lant, 'ere te foremantried to eA!lain te 'orkings of te generators and transformers to me. Unfort(nately, - co(ld never(nderstand im. 2e foreman ad mastered is trade 'ell, #(t e ad ad only te most r(dimentaryformal ed(cation and co(ld not comm(nicate is ideas. -n tis e !era!s resem#led, al#eit in a modestsense, tose great nineteentcent(ry !ysicists 'o ignored formal matematics.

Pa!ermaking #ecame and remained my faters !rinci!al concern for te rest of is life. Slo'ly eincreased is sare in te mill. ;e first leased it tro(g a !artnersi!, in 'ic e 'as te general !artner. 7ater e transformed te !artnersi! into a cor!oration, te SocietT cartiere ti#(rtine 8SC2, of'ic e 'as a minority sareolder. -n te co(rse of time, e #o(gt o(t te oter sareolders,(ltimately #ecoming te sole stockolder. ;e devoted years to disentangling relations #et'een teconcessionaries of te 'ater rigts of te river niene. Some of tese rigts 'ent #ack to te 4iddleges and formed an eAtremely com!licated legal and tecnical com!leA. -n 19$9 my fater and oters,'it great !atience and skill s(cceeded in !ers(ading all

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te interested !arties to come to an agreement tat clarified and settled te sit(ation in modern terms.4y fater 'as !ro(d of tis acievement, #y 'ic - eA!ect e gained some 'ater rigts for iscom!any.

4y fater also took (!on imself an (n!aid minor #(rden: te administration of te istoric KilladEste, 'ose o'ner, rcd(ke rancis erdinand, never visited it. 2e arcd(ke made it a conditiontat te !ro!erty so(ld not cost im anyting. 4y fater felt a lively res!onsi#ility for te !reservationof te #(ildings and fo(ntains, #(t co(ld raise only very little money for tis !(r!ose, mostly fromentrance fees. /everteless e accom!lised te task, 'it te el! of some 'illing artists, 'ocontri#(ted teir 'ork, and of a small #(t devoted and ard'orking #and of gardeners and artisans.

4y moters family, te 2reves, 'ere from Kercelli, in Piedmont, 'ere my grandfater 4arco 'as

#orn in 1N1J. -n searc of #etter treatment of +e's, e migrated to lorence, 'ere e st(diedarcitect(re and married. fter losing is 'ife and an infant son, e 'orked for a time in Paris (nderE(gène Kiolletle(c, /a!oleon ---s arcitect. 2e 'ido'er ten married my grandmoter Elisarvieto, 'o 'as from a lorentine family, and in 1N% te t'o settled in lorence. 4y grandfatersmost im!ortant arcitect(ral 'ork 'as te lorence synagog(e, #(ilt #y im and te arcitects 4arianoalcini and Kincen*o 4iceli aro(nd 1NN?.F

4y moter melia, #orn on +(ly ?%, 1NG%, 'as te yo(ngest and favorite da(gter of er a(stere fater.;er formal scooling 'as limited in its s(#ect matter #(t not s(!erficial. Se learned Englis 'elleno(g to read Englis novels and oter #ooks. -n o(r ome at 2ivoli tere 'as a good li#rary, mostlyliterary, in -talian, renc, and Englis.

2e 2reveses of my grandfaters generation 'ere !racticing +e's, and even te neAt generation 'o(ldgo to te synagog(e at least on maor olidays. 2e Segrès on te oter and did not o#serve any rites,and my moter, after er marriage, a#andoned any formal religio(s !ractice. Se told me only aminim(m of #i#lical stories and te central +e'is !rayer, 'it its monoteistic credo. ;o'ever, if -'as in lorence d(ring some religio(s festivity, - !artici!ated in it 'it my (ncle

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and co(sins. - once 'as tere for om Mi!!(r 'en - 'as a#o(t t'elve. n tat solemn oliday, one is



s(!!osed to fast for t'entyfo(r o(rs. &e all 'ent to te synagog(e in te morning. 2o'ard noon -left and, feeling (ngry, 'ent to a resta(rant to eat. 7o and #eold, - fo(nd my (ncle =(ido tereO -to(gt e 'o(ld !ay for my l(nc, #(t e 'as not !leased to see me and did not a!!reciate =ods oke.

or te !(r!oses of tis acco(nt, my moters most im!ortant si#lings 'ere +aco!o 81NG$Q191? and=(ido 81NGJQ19GJ.GF +aco!o evidently ad eAce!tional matematical talentHat least tis is 'at te

famo(s matematician Kito Kolterra, 'o ad #een is friend and scoolmate, told me more tan once.;o'ever, +aco!o died of sy!ilis e contracted on a tri! aro(nd te 'orld (ndertaken 'it te !oetngiolo rvieto, is friend and co(sin. ;e left a modest fort(ne to is ne!e's #(t, in dra'ing (! is'ill, forgot me. 4y (ncle Cla(dio 'as dis!leased #y tis omission and told me tat e 'o(ld leave mea s!ecial legacy as com!ensation, 'ic in d(e co(rse e did. ;e ad not, o'ever, reckoned 'it iseAec(tor, my fater. Saying tat Uncle =inos tree da(gters, Egle, Bice, and a(sta, needed tisineritance more tan - did, ater gave tem my (ncles 'ole estate, incl(ding my s!ecial legacy. lltis 'as done 'it my agreement, alto(g, kno'ing my fater, - #elieve tat e 'o(ld ave done tesame even 'ito(t it.

4y moters oter #roter, =(ido, st(died la'. fter modest #eginnings, e 'as soon involved inim!ortant real estate transactions on #ealf of ric relatives. -n a maor #(ilding crisis in 1NN, enegotiated defa(lt settlements #et'een =erman ca!italists and -talian contractors. ;e t(s started acareer as a financial eA!ert tat 'as to take im very far. Event(ally, e #ecame !resident of 7aondiaria, a maor ins(rance com!any. ;e died a fe' days sort of is (ndredt #irtday, and 'enover ninety 'as still actively !residing over te #oard of directors of te ondiaria.

=(ido 2revess 'ife, Emilia in*i, 'o 'as a very close friend of my moters, and greatly infl(enceder, died in 19?? of ence!alitis. =(ido and Emilia ad fo(r cildren, Silvia 87evi Kidale, 4arcella,4arco, and =i(liana 8rtomD tese co(sins 'ere very close to me d(ring my early years.

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4y fater m(st ave met =(ido 2reves on #(siness. ater, 'o 'as ten t'entynine, 'as looking fora s(ita#le #ride, and =(ido introd(ced im to is sister melia. 2ey m(st ave #een favora#lyim!ressed 'it eac oter, #eca(se soon tey 'ere engaged.

4y fater traveled a great deal on #(sinessD is letters mention Pesaro, Pisa, 4ilan, /a!les, lorence,and fre0(ent comm(ting #et'een 6ome and 2ivoli. Pro#a#ly tey dee!ly im!ressed my moter, 'oad lived in a !rotected and rater closed circle. 2e letters may also ave frigtened er sligtly, #eca(se tey intimated tat te im!ending marriage 'o(ld #ring great canges in er a#its and lifestyle. 4y fater descri#es te comforta#le and attractive ome e 'as !re!aring for is #ride 8it evenad r(nning 'ater in te kitcenO, te #ea(ty of te location, and te vie' of te 6oman Cam!agna.

4y !arents 'ere married on +(ly %, 1NN9. -mmediately after te 'edding, my fater #ro(gt is #ride

to te Killini rnaldi 0(arter of 2ivoli, 'ere e leased a villa called Killino B 4aria, 'ic eevent(ally #o(gt in 19?$.

2e o(se ad tree floorsD for many years 'e occ(!ied te first floor and some rooms on te to! floor.7ater, 'e took over te 'ole o(se. -n my cildood 'e lived in te first floor. 4y fater convertedalf of a large terrace into a #atroom, neAt to te master #edroom, 'it a *inc #att(# and !rimitive #(t ade0(ate 'asing facilities. -f #atrooms in 2ivoli 'ere not common, te city 'as among te firstin te 'orld to ac0(ire electric ligt, 'it car#on filament #(l#s tat gave a reddis (eD at te time,tey still (sed acetylene lam!s in my (ncles o(se near lorence.



2e 2ivoli of my cildood 'as very different from te !resentday city. ro(nd 191, 2ivoli ad a !o!(lation of a#o(t siAteen to(sand, confined in a to'n tat ad not canged very m(c since te4iddle ges. &e lived in a ne' develo!ment, consisting of a#o(t a do*en o(ses on te slo!e of4o(nt 6i!oli, o(tside of to'n, at te start of a co(ntry road tat follo'ed te ills at mid level amongte olive groves, leading to villages and farms a fe' miles a'ay. Bet'een te o(ses tere 'as a r(stic !ark, 'ell laid o(t 'it olives, !lane trees, lilacs, and acacias. 2e tree lo'est o(ses, one of 'ic

'as o(rs,

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overlooked te Kiale Carciano, 'it a s(!er# vie' of te 6oman Cam!agna, at tat time largely 'ild.2e dome of St. Peters in 6ome 'as a mere #(##le on te ori*on. -n #et'een, te !lain 'as crossed #y te niene 6iver, 'ose co(rse 'as flagged #y a !rominent landmark: te large cylindricalma(sole(m of te Pla(tii, dating from te early 6oman em!ire. #o(t a mile to te left of te river, onesa' te dark cy!ress trees and r(ins of te em!eror ;adrians villa. n te rigt side of te !lain, tere'ere t'o large ills, cro'ned #y te Sa#ine villages of 4ontecelio and St. ngelo. Closer #y, te eyerested on te silver gray of te olive trees covering te ill on 'ic 2ivoli itself 'as #(ilt. -t 'as a

st(nning vie', 'ic canged vastly according to te o(r, season, and 'eater conditions.2e Kiale #elo' o(r o(se 'as saded #y #ig elm trees, and in te fall te elm leaves formed a goldenr(g on te road'ay. 2e 'ind made tem s'irl and sometimes ea!ed tem (! #efore #lo'ing tema'ay. - can still in my imagination smell te dry leaves and fres rain. 2e stretc (sed #y te !eo!leof 2ivoli for te traditional !romenade 'as still r(stic, 'ito(t side'alks. lmost eAactly #elo' o(ro(se tere 'as a small ca!el 'it a 4adonna, to 'om te !eo!le of 2ivoli addressed !rayers. -remem#er cro'ds of sa'l'ra!!ed 'omen im!loring te 4adonna to kee! -taly o(t of &orld &ar -.Soon tereafter te aven(e 'as (sed for #asic training of recr(its destined for tat 'ar. 4any of tesoldiers ad 'ite andkerciefs tied to teir rigt arms to el! tem disting(is rigt from left.

t ome te cooking 'as done on carcoal stoves. 2e food 'as very sim!le, #(t very good. Boiled

meat, roasts, vegeta#le so(!s, !e!!ers, and all greens in season: tomatoes, endive, egg!lants, cicory,string #eans, *(ccini, s0(as, !eas, and many oter vegeta#les. 2e eAcellent #read, #aked at omeonce a 'eek, 'as darkD in addition 'e ate rice and a little omemade !asta. or te olidays, #otCatolic and +e'is, tere 'ere oter delicio(s dises, often of +e'is origin, !assed do'n tro(gUncle Cla(dios o(sekee!er nnetta from my !aternal grandmoter. 2e coffee 'as al'ays very 'eak #eca(se my moter liked it so: o(r ome 'as notorio(s for it. ll told, te food 'as not very varied, #(t 'olesome and tasty. &en - 'as a#o(t

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t'enty and stayed at 2ivoli eiter alone or 'it some friend to !re!are for eAams, te old caretaker, a

maid trained #y my moter, !re!ared te same fare for (s: #rot, #oiled #eef, roasted !e!!ers, fr(it. &eloved it.

4any of te tings 'e #(y in so!s no'adays 'ere made to order: soes #y te soemaker, my clotes #y a seamstress, and so on. /eedless to say, tere 'ere no a(tomo#ilesD 'en 'e needed to, 'e renteda orsedra'n carriage.

2ivoli 'as linked to 6ome #y te railroad, 'ic 'as (sed #y Uncle Cla(dio, 'o visited (s almostevery 'eekend, and #y a steam tram'ay, 'ic 'as a little more ra!id and convenient. 2e tram ranfrom Porta San 7oren*o in 6ome and follo'ed te Kia 2i#(rtina, reacing te termin(s in 2ivoli, a



fivemin(te 'alk from o(r o(se, in a#o(t an o(r. 2e last t'o miles 'ere 0(ite stee!, and te enginemade lo(d noises.

2oday 819N% te landsca!e as #een devastated. 2e destr(ction is a!!alling: carelessness, s!ec(lativegreed, and !lain incom!etence ave destroyed most of te #ea(ty of te !lace.

t te time of my #irt, in 19$, te s(ccess of te !a!er mill 'as esta#lised and o(r family 'as, ifnot ric, more tan comforta#le. 4y !arents ad started traveling a#road and, among oter tri!s, ad #een to England for te coronation of Ming Ed'ard K-- as g(ests of a 7ondon c(stomer 'o #o(gtcigarette !a!er from my fater.

4y first recollections go #ack to 19$N: a red #elt, certain stri!ed socks, te Modak camera of my #roter 4arco, a +a!anese cost(me given to me #y my (ncle +aco!o 2reves. ro(nd tat time my !arents ired an (strian nanny for me. Se ad a #eard and ad ad an (nl(cky love affair 'it er #roterinla', 'o #elonged to an elite (strian l!ine regiment. fter l(nc se re!aired to er roomon te (!!er floor of o(r o(seD se smoked strong cigars and sometimes drank cognac in er room.Se loved me dearly, and er affection 'as f(lly reci!rocatedD se ta(gt me many tings, taking temfrom an ill(strated encyclo!edia, 'ose !ict(res, incl(ding tose of tort(res, occ(!ied me for manyo(rs. 2is /anny, 'om - called 2ata, took me to te !(#lic

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gardens to !lay, and if anyone tried to kiss me, se 'o(ld say severely, )/on si !aciano i !am!ini)8ne does not kiss cildren 'it a strong (strian accent. rom er - learned =erman for te firsttime, #(t later - forgot it.

&en - 'as a#o(t five years old, my moter ta(gt me to read, and sortly after'ard, my !arents ireda yo(ng teacer for my !rivate instr(ction. Signorina 4aggini ad (st grad(ated from a teacerstraining college, and - 'as er first !(!il. Se ta(gt me 'it great ent(siasm and according to telatest ed(cational teories se ad learned at scool. Besides reading and 'riting and te oter (s(al

s(#ects of te first grades 8se 'as not too demanding on te Pytagorean ta#le, se often took meiking in te ills #eind 2ivoli. Se 'o(ld #(y a one!enny ta#let of 2o#ler cocolate, 'ic ad !ict(res - collected, and ten 'e 'alked for a co(!le of o(rs in te ills. (ring tose 'alks seta(gt me istory, nat(ral istory, !oetry, civics, and so on. - ad an eAcellent memory and greatlyenoyed learning tings s(c as te !ysiology of digestion, ill(strated #y te eA!eriment of ce'ing a !iece of #read (ntil it #ecame s'eet tro(g te action of te en*yme !tyalin on starc. - #elieve - 'asa rater eAtraordinary !(!il, #(t since se ad no eA!erience and did not kno' 'at to eA!ect of a cildof siA, se attri#(ted everyting to )family #ackgro(nd.) 7ater, 'it my o'n cildren, - often recalledte teacings of Signorina 4aggini, 'it 'om - remained friends (ntil er deat in 19%1.

t te same time, my !arents sent me to !(#lic scool, mainly so tat - 'o(ld ave te society of otercildren. -t took me five min(tes to 'alk from ome to scool, and - 'ent alone from te very first. t

te #eginning of te to'n, te road crossed a !ass often s'e!t in 'inter #y a #itterly cold 'ind. - 'o(ld'ra! myself in my ooded cloak and r(n as fast as - co(ld !ast te critical s!ot.

amily strolls on te Carciano road 'ere a firm a#itD d(ring te 'inter, my !arents and - invaria#ly(sed to take a 'alk tere from a#o(t ? to J P.4. n tese strolls, 'en it 'as cold, as it (s(ally 'as in'inter, my moter 'ore a sk(nk f(r and m(ff tat !reserved a sligt sk(nk scent, 'ic - liked andassociated 'it er. 4y nose is t(s im!rinted on te sk(nk odor, and - still like it. Kery often 'e 'ere

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%F norato Carlandi, and oters from foreign co(ntries often came to 2ivoli, and my !arents kne'most of tem. 2e fact tat my fater 'as in carge of te Killa dEste el!ed (s make contact, #eca(sete artists often 'orked tere.

(ring te s(mmer, my moter and some friends s!ent te mornings se'ing in te sade on te central #alcony of te villa, 'ic ad a magnificent vie' of its !ark and of te Cam!agna 6omana. - too !layed

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in te !ark of te villa, togeter 'it te son of te gardener. nce my friend and - fo(nd o(t tat amovie com!any ad !re!ared a great scene involving fire'orks for some film tey 'ere sooting. 2osignal 'en to let off te fire'orks, tey ad idden a Bengal ligt #eind a tree, 'ic 'e set offH needless to say at te 'rong time, #(t innocently eno(g, - #elieveH'it conse0(ences tat may easily #e imagined. 2is 'as not my only advent(re 'it fire'orks. &en - 'as a#o(t ten years old, - st(ffedsome s(lf(r, !otassi(m clorate, and carcoal into a #am#oo cane and lit it. 7(ckily, - 'as not killed, #(t te tremendo(s eA!losion ended my !laying 'it fire'orks.

(ring te s(mmer, - often 'ent 'it Signorina 4aggini to c0(e l#(le, a s(lf(r s!a a#o(t eigtmiles from 2ivoli, on te road to 6ome. ;o'ever, - learned to s'im only 'en - 'as a#o(t t'elveyears old, at te seasore. t c0(e l#(le, - met and made friends 'it a yo(ng (stralian !riest,+on 7eyden, 'o gave me a most interesting #ook in Englis called The Handy oy , 'ic ta(gt meo' to #(ild toys, air!lane models, telegra!ic a!!arat(s, and so on. ;e also gave me a 'onderf(lrenc #ook, La anni!re bleue , 'ic introd(ced me to te eAotic and fantastic 'orld of te 4ongols8my moter ad started teacing me renc sortly after my sevent #irtday. fter tat - read andreread 4arco Polos "l milione . - s!ent !leasant o(rs 'it my friend on te slo!es of 4onte 6i!oliD - #elieve my !arents feared tat e 'o(ld try to convert me to Cristianity, #(t, as far as - remem#er, teeAcellent yo(ng man never mentioned religion to me.

(ring te ottest !art of te year, 'e 'ent to te seasore at Kiareggio or orte dei 4armi, 'ere -

often fo(nd my Segrè or 2reves co(sins 8#(t very seldom #ot togeter. =i(liano Bonfante, te son ofa 'ellkno'n !rofessor of 6oman la' 'o 'as a friend and rival of my (ncle =inos, 'as my(n!leasant !laymate. &e all lived in a !ension in Kiareggio, ten still r(stic and dominated #y a famo(sand tenflo(rising !ine 'ood. nce in a 'ile te com!oser P(ccini 'o(ld a!!ear 'it ismotor#oat, and 'e kne' tat dnn(n*io ad a villa near#y 8(ntil e 'as com!elled to flee iscreditors. &e once 'ent to visit 4arconis radio station at Coltano, and - still remem#er te noise ofte s!arks and te a!!earance of te com!leA electrical

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transmitter. Uncle Cla(dio visited (s once in a 'ile for sort !eriods. ter'ise 'e follo'ed teordinary seasore ro(tine: #ating, ikes, #(ilding canoes or castles of sand, and #ellyf(ls of gra!es.;ere my co(sin a(sta ta(gt me o' to s'imD 'it er - #(ilt many sand #oats, 'ic 'e (sed forimaginary travel.

-n Se!tem#er 'e 'o(ld move to 4arignolle, te 2reves villa, near lorence. -t is a large #(ilding ofmedieval origin, 'it si*ea#le landoldings, ten c(ltivated #y sarecro!!ers. live oil, 'ine,vegeta#les, fr(it, and some 'eat 'ere te main cro!s. 2ere 'as also a andsome -talian garden in tegro(nds of te villa !ro!er. 2e families in*i and 2reves, eac 'it a large n(m#er of #oys and girlsof similar ages and more or less related to eac oter, occ(!ied te villa. nce in a 'ile, my !arents



'o(ld go for a vacation a#road and !ark me at te villa. &en - 'as very yo(ng - s(ffered greatly #eing se!arated from my moter. 4y co(sins Silvia and 4arcella, 'o 'ere a#o(t t'elve years oldertan - 'as, tried (ns(ccessf(lly to take care of me. 2ey 'ere too !rim and Kictorian for a sligtly 'ildcild. ort(nately for me, - ad never ad an Englis governess like te 2reves cildren. es!ite teirstrict (!#ringing, my older co(sins once organi*ed a 'onderf(l game. &e smaller cildren, 'o 'erea#o(t t'elve years old, ad created a !ostal system for o(rselves. -t ad its little letters, stam!s,

deliveries, and so on, and 'e enoyed 'riting to eac oter. t a certain !oint, 'e started receivingmysterio(s comm(nications commanding (s to collect vario(s o#ects and to #ring tem to !reassigned !laces, 'it in(nctions of strict secrecy. ne nigt te messages, 'ic 'e ad scr(!(lo(sly ke!tsecret, called (s to a fis!ond tat 'as in te territory of te villa. &e all arrived tere after overcomingseveral o#stacles, s(c as masked enemies o!!osing o(r !rogress, and at te a!!ointed !lace 'e fo(nda feast, 'it fire'orks, organi*ed #y te older girls, Silvia and 4arcella.

- am (na#le to identify te earliest origins of my interest in !ysics. 4y first memories aving someconnection 'it !ysics ave to do 'it tools and a camera #elonging to my #roters. - called tecamera a #mappa sciafa# 8te correct term is m$cchina fotogr$fica , #eca(se - did not yet s!eak 'ell.7ater, at ome, - m(st ave eard talk a#o(t

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scientific or tecnical s(#ects, and as soon as - learned to read - got old of #ooks a#o(t science s(cas 2issandiers Le ricreazioni scientifiche 8Scientific recreationsNF and !o!(lar scientific maga*ines. -still ave a note#ook dated 4arc ?%, 191?, entitled )Pysics,) in 'ic, in te and'riting of a sevenyearold #oy, and 'it some miss!ellings, - descri#e te sim!le eA!eriments - !erformed, !ossi#lyaving read of tem in 2issandier. 4y moter el!ed me in dra'ing te fig(res 'it 'ic - ill(stratedte note#ook. Colors s(c as tose !rod(ced #y te refraction of s(nligt in a !itcer of 'ateres!ecially fascinated me.

little later, my #roter 4arco, 'o 'as !re!aring for a cemistry eAamination at te (niversity,

#o(gt cemicals at a local dr(gstore and re!eated many of te eA!eriments mentioned in is teAt#ookat ome. ;e allo'ed me to 'atc im, and - 'as com!letely entralled #y te color canges tat - sa'a!!ening in is test t(#es.

Uncle Cla(dio took me to visit is o'n instit(te, 'ere for te first time - sa' a real scientificla#oratory, 'it all kinds of a!!arat(s. 4y (ncle also gave me an old !ysics teAt #y . =anot, !rintedin 1NG3, in 'ic, among oter s(#ects, - fo(nd mention of )te recent eA!eriments #y 4r.araday.)9F 2is #ook #ecame my constant com!anion, togeter 'it te istory of rance #y Kictor(r(y, 'ic 'as given to me #y my moter. fe' years later, on /ovem#er ?1, 191G, seeing myinterest in !ysics, Uncle Cla(dio gave me a 1913 renc edition of =anots #ook.1$F n te flyleafe 'rote: )2o my #eloved ne!e', 'it te 'is tat soon !ysics 'ill serve te arts of Peace, UncleCla(dio.) t te P(sterla o(se - also fo(nd a #ook #y +. B. (mas, from 'ic - learned te

com!osition of, and te difference #et'een, s(l!ites, s(l!ides, and s(l!ates and similar facts ofinorganic cemistry. - also admiringly read aradays %hemical History of a %andle .

- ave a #ook, )or 'en - sall #e gro'n (!,) in 'ic one 'as s(!!osed to 'rite ans'ers to0(estions a#o(t oneself. -n it, - 'rote as my 'is for te f(t(re tat - 'anted to #ecome a !ysicocemist and die at tirty in te eA!losion of my la#oratory.

ll told, - ad a a!!y cildood and 'as m(c cared for #y my moter 8less so #y my fater, 'o didnot !ay m(c attention to me. /eedless to say, - also eA!erienced my sare of cildood scares and



attit(de to'ard me. s a cild, of co(rse, - did not see tis, #(t tinking it over no', it seems o#vio(sto me.

-n 191%, d(ring te 'ar, 'e moved from 2ivoli to 6ome, 'ic !rod(ced a great cange in o(r familys'ay of life. B(siness increasingly re0(ired my faters !resence in 6ome, and te daytodaymanagement of te !a!er mill co(ld #e entr(sted to a tecnical director. 2raveling #ack and fort #et'een 2ivoli and 6ome 'as tiring, and my fater s(ffered an angina attack. Scared, e cons(lted a

noted doctor in 6ome, 'o told im to set is affairs in order #eca(se e migt die

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any moment. 84y fater lived over tirty years longer and, 'it a certain !erverse glee, attended tef(neral of te doctor e ad cons(lted. 2e !ysicians in 2ivoli, r. llegri and oters, tried tominimi*e te im!ortance of te e!isode, and tey 'ere clearly rigt. ;o'ever, o#ectively, te centerof my faters 'ork ad sifted from 2ivoli to 6ome.

+(st ten, a cardinal 'o lived on te floor #elo' Uncle Cla(dio diedD te a!artment e left 'as largeeno(g #ot for o(r family and for te #(siness office of te !a!er mill. &e ad already s!ent a fe'

monts at a !ension in 6ome 'it a vie' to moving tere !ermanently, and tis finally decided (s.Bot my 4oter and - dee!ly regretted leaving 2ivoli. or my !art, - ated leaving my o!en air gamesand my old friends, as 'ell as te s!ace 'e ad at ome in 2ivoli for my eA!eriments. B(t te move to6ome, te end of &orld &ar -, and te ne' ig scool - no' #egan to attend signaled te end of mycildood. - 'as t'elve years old, and many tings in me ad started to cange.

4y moter ad great diffic(lty in getting ad(sted to life in 6ome. ll er friends 'ere in 2ivoli, 'erese ad lived for almost tirty years. 7ife tere s(ited erD se loved te freedom of te co(ntry. 2oceer er (!, my fater ke!t te lease of o(r 2ivoli o(se 8later e #o(gt it o(trigt, and as aconsolation 'e s!ent long !eriods in te s!ring and fall tere. Pera!s it is not 'ito(t significance,o'ever, tat tere is a street in 2ivoli named after melia Segrè, in !art #eca(se of er tragic end as a

martyr of te /a*is, in !art #eca(se of te fond memories se left, #(t not one named after my fater,=i(se!!e Segrè, 'o did so m(c for te 'elfare of te city.

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C%a*ter Two+

4is(o'ering t%e 5orld, Rome and 6ig% S(%ool -"#"10"#772,

S(ent o& Florentine 5isteria

Ce !ensieri soavi,Ce s!eran*e, ce cori, o Silvia miaOV(ale allor ci a!!aria7a vita (mana e il fatoO

8&at tender to(gts,&at o!es, 'at earts, Silvia mineO;o' (man life and fate



Seemed to (s tenO=iacomo 7eo!ardi, ) Silvia) 8trans. rt(ro Kivante

2e move to 6ome signaled te start of a second !eriod of my life. - 'as no longer a cild, and tecange in residence a!!ened to coincide 'it te onset of !(#erty. /e' feelings, ne' interests cameto te fore. - started to see a 'ider 'orld, to a!!reciate !oetry, to recogni*e te #ea(ty of intellect(alconstr(ctions. -t 'as a clo(dy, not a a!!y !eriod. - 'as confronted 'it ne', seemingly dreadf(l !ro#lems, and - did not kno' o' to co!e 'it tem or 'om to t(rn to for el!.

t 6ome - 'as enrolled in te =innasio 4amiani, located in a !alace neAt door to o(r ome on CorsoKittorio. - ardly remem#er te teacers of te early classes. Soon - started taking some eAtra #ooks in'ic - 'as interested 'it me to scool in order to ave someting to read if classes #ecame too #oring. Us(ally te teacers let it !ass, !rovided - did not dist(r# any#ody. - got old of a #ook onelementary

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geometry and am(sed myself in solving its !ro#lems, more or less as - 'o(ld ave solved cross'ord !(**les.

s (s(al, 'e s!ent te s(mmer of 191N in 2ivoliD in te fall, te dreadf(l infl(en*a e!idemics of te !revio(s year rec(rredD -, o'ever, ad already ad te disease in 191%, 'ito(t kno'ing 'at it 'as.&e lingered in 2ivoli, and in order not to 'aste too m(c time, - started translating vids Metamorphoses , 'ic 'as re0(ired reading for te coming scool year, on my o'n. -n tat solitaryfall at 2ivoli, (nder te infl(ence of tis strange teAt, - felt !oetic emotions for te first time. -t 'as a !eriod of dee! (!sets, certainly connected 'it !(#erty, and it left its marks on me.

ll told, - remem#er my ginnasio years as rater #oring. - did not learn m(c 7atin or =reek. - 'asta(gt matematics 'it a mis!laced rigor, (nder te infl(ence of te great matematician =i(se!!e

Peano, #(t 'ito(t ade0(ate !ractical eAercises. s my st(dies !rogressed, o'ever, te teacers #ecame of #etter 0(ality. fter five years - !assed from ginnasio to liceo& 'ere - s!ent tree moreyears.

-n te liceo& a Professor 6(a tried to teac (s, tro(g s!arse #(t a!!ro!riate remarks, 'at it meant to'rite 'ell in -talian 8and !era!s in any oter lang(age. ;e de#(nked te em!ty retoric of several ofmy scoolmates, derived from misg(ided imitation of 'riters s(c as te !oet =ios(è Card(cci 81N3Q 19$% and dnn(n*io. ;e told (s tat if 'e s(cceeded in aving one or t'o ideas and in eA!lainingtem clearly and concisely, 'e 'o(ld 'rite good essays and get ig marks. ttem!ts to s(#stit(teeven modest to(gts 'it em!ty 'ords 'o(ld #e !oor 'riting and earn lo' grades. nce - learnedtese sim!le r(les, - started a small essay factory, not only for myself, #(t also for my co(sins andfriends. - !rod(ced tem 'ito(t effort and 'it good s(ccess. Professor 6(a also said tat ad 'e #een good 'riters, o(r styles 'o(ld ave resem#led tose of te great a(tors 'e st(died. 2o me eassigned 7eo!ardi.

2e 7atin and =reek teacers s(cceeded only in #oring and disg(sting me 'it teir s(#ects. 2e !rofessor of renc, 4. =rimod, a native rencman, 'as eAcellent, o'ever, and seeing tat (nlikemy scoolmates, - kne' te lang(age, e let me get ac0(ainted 'it renc

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literat(re 'ito(t #otering to teac me all te s(#tleties of renc grammar. n eAcellent antology ead com!iled el!ed me greatly to a!!reciate renc 'riters.

f istory 'e learned only dates, 'ito(t any sense.

Professor 4onti in !ysics inc(lcated in me ' W ma (ntil - really (nderstood its meaning. ;e to(gttat one so(ld teac fe' notions, #(t toro(gly. 2is 'as a very ealty attit(de, 'ic did not !revent im from eA!laining even some relativity. Einstein 'as fasiona#le in tose days.

2e matematics !rofessor drove me cra*y 'it edekind c(ts. - learned rigoro(s !roofs of seeminglyo#vio(s tings, (seless at my level, and at a time 'en 'it a little effort, - co(ld ave learnedcalc(l(s, 'ic 'o(ld ave #een inval(a#le to me. n my o'n - read sections of Enri0(ess%ollectanea& an encyclo!edia of elementary matematics seen from a iger !oint of vie', and somen(m#er teory. - regret te effort s!ent in tose years, so im!ortant for learning, on nonE(clideangeometry, n(m#er teory, and oter s(#ects, com!letely omitting a!!lied matematics. t ome tere'ere #ooks on analytic geometry, alge#ra, and calc(l(s tat ad #een (sed as teAts #y my #roters atengineering scool, #(t my #roter 4arco locked tem (! and for#ade me to (se tem, on te !reteAttat tey 'o(ld )tire my ead.) -n fact, e 'anted to remain te only one at ome to kno' ) "l c$lcolo

sublime& ) as e called sim!le infinitesimal calc(l(s.

Being so m(c older tan - 'as, my #roters ngelo and 4arco virt(ally #elonged to a differentgeneration and 'ere already at te (niversity 'en - 'as #arely learning to read. ngelo ad #een adiffic(lt cild, and Uncle Cla(dio fre0(ently reco(nted is deeds. or instance, in a railroadcom!artment, e ad insisted on #eing !(t on a #aggage net a#ove te !assengers and, once tere, (sedis vantage !oint to !ee on tose #elo' im.

-n 1911 ngelo vol(nteered for te army to satisfy is military o#ligations, #(t almost immediatelycame do'n 'it a serio(s case of !ne(monia, from 'ic e #arely recovered. ;e 'as discargedfrom te army on ealt gro(nds and tereafter started a life of travels, strange advent(res, and generaldisorientation tat created serio(s !ro#

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lems for my !arents, 'o did not kno' o' to co!e 'it im. Before oining te army, ngelo adstarted st(dying engineering, and e develo!ed a !assion for matematics and !ysics, alto(g e 'asnot es!ecially !roficient in eiter. s a #oy e ad ac0(ired a vast literary c(lt(re in -talian, renc,=erman, Englis, and S!anis, 'ic e mastered, as 'ell as in classical 7atin and =reek. 2e li#rarye left at ome 'en e 'ent a'ay 'as a great so(rce of reading material for me.

ngelo did not like 2ivoli and, es!ecially in is early years, 'anted to stay a'ay from is !arents and #e inde!endent. ;o'ever, 'en e landed in tro(#le or fell ill, some#ody, (s(ally Uncle Cla(dio, adto come to is resc(e. Ultimately, my !arents (nloaded im on Uncle =ino, 'o ad a good o!inion ofte (ncommon intelligence of is ne!e' and 'as not as close to im as my !arents. !!reciatingngelos talents, Uncle =ino do'n!layed is eccentricities and trained im 'it infinite !atience inla' and istory. fter tis scooling #y is (ncle, ngelo st(died 'it te noted !ilologist =erolamoKitelli, 'o introd(ced im to !a!yrology, and also 'it te istorian =aetano de Sanctis.S(#se0(ently e 'ent to =ermany, 'ere e 'orked 'it local istorians and ad an advent(ro(s andsome'at nomadic life. -n =ermany e met Mata Scall 81N99Q19N%, 'om e married in 193G.#o(t 193$ e 'on a (niversity cair in economic istory at Catania, in Sicily. ;e ten started !ainting #(t ref(sed to eAi#it is 'ork. 4ore of im later.

ngelo disliked and des!ised is #roter 4arco, 'o reci!rocated is feelings. 2e yo(nger #roter,



alto(g less intelligent, and someting of a y!ocrite, 'as often eAtolled as an eAam!le #y o(r !arents. 2ey clearly favored im, #eca(se e gave tem fe'er !ro#lems. 4arco on is side al'aystried to !oint o(t ngelos 'eaknesses and to em#arrass im. )2ere is no !oint in 'orrying a#o(tngeloD e does not ave te co(rage to get imself into serio(s tro(#leO) e 'o(ld say.

s a yo(ng #oy, 4arco ad !erformed scientific eA!eriments, #(ilt some gadgets, and st(dieddiligently, o#taining consistently good grades. Ultimately, e grad(ated in engineering. Com!ared 'it

ngelo, al'ays a !ro#lem cild, 4arco 'as a !aragon of normalcy, and

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o(r !arents tolerated some of is o#vio(s fa(lts, s(c as !om!o(sly !reacing common!lace or illconceived trivialities, often seasoned 'it 7atin 0(otations. ne of is favorite s(#ects 'as )2e +e's,a doomed race,) referring to s(!!osed +e'is !ysical and mental traits.

s a cild - nat(rally admired and loved my older #roters. - still remem#er ngelos carm in tellingme a story #ased on =oetes 'aust . (rtermore, e ad collections of old coins and of matces,'ic fascinated me. 4arco so'ed me is tools and is camera, demonstrating teir (se to me. - ave

already mentioned te cemical eA!eriments e !erformed in my !resence.fter &orld &ar -, o'ever, - ad gro'n (!, and my #roters a!!eared to me in a different ligt. Botad managed, 'it great !r(dence, to esca!e frontline service. ngelo ended (! as an infantryman in a2(scan garrison, #(t e 'as !roficient as a cry!togra!er and s(cceeded in #reaking a =reek code. ;etreated is military service onestly #(t rater cynically. 4arco attended an officertraining scool in2(rin. 4y moter and - 'ent to tat city for some time to #e near im. fter'ard e oined a dirigi#leo(tfit, #(t e never 'ent to te front. ;e gained val(a#le tecnical eA!erience, and after te 'ar e #ragged a#o(t is eroism.

- ten started recogni*ing some traits of is caracter tat ad esca!ed me 'en - 'as a cild. ngelo'as convinced tat 4arco ad migtily contri#(ted to estranging im from o(r !arents, and - started to

ave some inklings tat 4arco migt #e trying someting of te sort also 'it me. t ome emanaged to dis!lace me from te room - sared 'it im, sending me to slee! on te (!!er floor inUncle Cla(dios ome on te !reteAt tat - snored and dist(r#ed im. ;e 'as, in fact, trying to !(s meo(t of o(r !arents ome.

4arco loved to !ontificate on all occasions, even on s(#ects e 'as ignorant of. 4(c later e #ecamefamo(s among my !ysicist friends #y lect(ring ermi on termodynamics. ermi, maldi or 6asetti,and - 'ere !resent, and 'e all grinned at 4arcos conceitD e certainly 'as te one 'o kne' te leasttermodynamics among (s, and e did not reali*e o' ridic(lo(s te sit(ation 'as.

-n te s!ring of 19?1, 'en - 'as siAteen, some#ody !ers(aded me

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to oin te vang(ardisti, a ascist yo(t organi*ation. t ome o!inions 'ere divided: Uncle Cla(diofavored ascism, 'ic e sa' as restoring order and national !ride. Uncle =ino on te oter and,said tat it 'o(ld end #adly, more or less as a!!ened, and added, in dialect, )Pias mia) 8- dont like it.7o(d 0(arrels #et'een te #roters follo'ed, alto(g tey loved eac oter dearly. - #elieve myfater listened to tem 'ito(t great feelings one 'ay or te oterD !era!s e tended to favor ascismfor reasons similar to Uncle Cla(dios. -n retros!ect, - recogni*e tat only =ino ad s(fficient istoricaland legal !re!aration to take te long vie'. ;o'ever, all tree #roters, #y conviction or !ractical



necessity, oined te ascist Party. 2eir o!inions, like tose of most -talians, canged 'it time. -started aving serio(s do(#ts a#o(t ascism in te s(mmer of 19?J, after te m(rder of te Socialistleader =iacomo 4atteotti.

-n my first years in 6ome, - also started 'andering a'ay from ome. ne day - discovered te !!ian&ay. - ad gone for a 'alk alone and, - do not kno' o', fo(nd myself on an eAtraordinary road,flanked #y cy!ress trees and 6oman tom#s and r(ins, and 'it a 6oman !avement. 2e s(rro(ndings

'ere so #ea(tif(l and romantic tat tey reminded me of my #eloved 2ivoli. - did not kno' 'ere -ad landed, #(t te im!ression 'as enormo(s. &en - ret(rned ome and told my !arents, teyeA!lained to me tat - ad #een on te !!ian &ay.

&ile - 'as at ig scool, - visited lorence several times, staying eiter at te #ea(tif(l 2reves villaor at teir ome on Kia 4asaccio. 2e large treestoried #(ilding 'as s(rro(nded #y eAtensivegro(nds containing a s!lendid garden, 'it many small lemon trees in terra cotta !ots, mar#le stat(es, a !ond 'it red fis, tall #am#oo tickets, oto(ses, a green for !laying bocce& and an orangery. 2eome, 'it m(c Englis f(rnit(re, 'as a dis!lay of my (ncle =(idos taste and 'ealt. ;e smokedeAcellent 2ra#(cos cigars, read Englis ne's!a!ers, and drank tea for #reakfast. &en e 'as a#o(tninety years old, after &orld &ar --, e reali*ed tat it 'as im!ossi#le to kee! is villa 'ile all similaresta#lisments in its neig#orood 'ere #eing transformed into (ge a!artment o(ses. ;e ten soldte estate 'ito(t a 'ord to is cildren, 'o later discovered te fait accom!li.

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- (s(ally 'ent to lorence aro(nd Easter. t te 2reves villa and in its s(rro(ndings - co(ld al'ayssmell te strong scent of 'isteria. Even no' - occasionally find a road or !ass #y a garden tat #y itssmell reminds me of te lorentine s!ring and vividly evokes its mood. 2e !oet Ugo oscolo notedtis olfactory !ec(liarity of lorence in is famo(s lyric " sepolcri& 'riting: )E le convalli " !o!olate dicase e doliveti " mille di fiori al ciel mandano incensi . . .) 8)'ile ty a!!y valleys dotted"'it villasand olive groves send fort to eaven " te fragrance of a to(sand flo'ers . . .)1F

-n lorence te family o#served +e'is Passover rites, #(t 'at - 'as really interested in 'as sneakinga'ay to Costa S. =iorgio to see my flame, +.;., a #ea(tif(l girl 'it 'om - ad fallen in love d(ringte s(mmer of 1919 at te seaside. -t 'as a love (nfort(nately m(c too !latonicD even a kiss 'o(ldave #een considered sinf(l. 2at did not make it less ardent, #(t #ot of (s 'ere too yo(ng, tooinnocent, and ad #een #ro(gt (! too strictly.

2e 'ole !eriod from my fifteent #irtday on 'as dominated #y re!ressed seA(al desires. !(ritanical (!#ringing, my nat(ral #asf(lness, lack of !arental g(idance, and some (na!!yconversations 'it friends 'en - 'as a#o(t fifteen #ro(gt me to a diffic(lt im!asse. 4y #roter4arco a(gmented my !ro#lems #y giving me some (nfort(nate #ooks #y a 4r. Stal, 'o advocated aKictorian credo of im!ossi#le castity. 4arco imself, o'ever, 'ile !reacing to me, 'ent to

#rotels. - fo(nd condoms in a dra'er of is desk, #(t did not kno' 'at tey 'ere. - 'as afraid of andre!elled #y o(ses of !rostit(tion, 'ic 'ere fre0(ented #y most yo(ng -talian men. Unlike some ofmy friends, - ad not fo(nd a middleaged matron 'illing to serve as a #na(e scuola# 8training si!. -ad #een inf(sed 'it a dee! sense of g(ilt a#o(t mast(r#ation, 'ic - ad #een told 'o(ld ave allkinds of dire conse0(ences. - 'as t(s confronted 'it an insol(#le !ro#lem, since - co(ld not marry atfifteen years of age and te fe' girls - met 'ere more tan caste, at least in teory, and ad #een #ro(gt (! similarly to myself.

- did not dare to s!eak to my !arents a#o(t tis. f oter ad(lts, Uncle Cla(dio 'as te most(nderstanding, #(t e 'as too old, #orn



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and #ro(gt (! in a different cent(ry and !ossi#ly 'it 'rong ideas. ll e co(ld give me 'assym!aty. ;o'ever, e s!oke o!enly and frankly and called a s!ade a s!ade.

fter a fe' years, te !ro#lem #ecame serio(s, as - s(s!ect it may also ave #een for my #roter

ngelo. - 'as too sy to mention it to any of my contem!oraries, even close friends. - am s(re - 'asnot te only one in tis 0(andaryD on te contrary, - #elieve it 'as common among my friends. Somet(rned to teir !riests, - do not kno' 'it 'at res(ltsD some 'ere serio(sly (rt for a long time. Someyo(ng intellect(als formed castity leag(es.

4y moter !era!s (nderstood #etter tan se so'ed, #(t se ke!t er co(nsel. ;o'ever, seenco(raged me in any s!ort - took (!, and !artic(larly in mo(ntaineering and skiing. 4y fater 'asafraid - migt (rt myself, and for is o'n !eace of mind 'o(ld ave !referred me not to try skiing. -started in 19?1, 'en skiing 'as ardly kno'n in central -taly. Before ten, 'it my motersenco(ragement, - ad already made cycling tri!s, !layed tennis, and fenced. ttem!ts to teac me todance failed misera#ly. - attended classes 'it yo(ng ladies of good family, 'o 'ere mostly (gly andcl(msyD a dancing teacer at a scool in lorence gave lessons skim!ily clad and 'as attractive, #(t -'o(ld ave !referred er to transfer er teacings to #ed.

s - ave said, Pa!T did not !ay m(c attention to me, #(t 'it te !assing of time - lost my fear ofim and started to recogni*e is (ncommon 0(alities. Still in 2ivoli, 'en - 'as a#o(t t'elve years old,e ad sent me as an a!!rentice to a ca#inetmaker to im!rove my man(al deAterity. 4y fater (stlyto(gt tat te (se of te ands is not less im!ortant tan tat of te #rain. 7ater, 'en - 'as !era!sfo(rteen years old, e made me 'ork in a small la#oratory in te !a!er mill, 'ere - #adly #(rned myfingers trying to dissolve some rosin in #oiling alcool, 'ic ca(gt fire. - 'as l(cky tat noting'orse a!!ened.

2o get to te !a!er mill - ad sec(red a key to te lo'er gate of te Killa dEste, 'ic o!ened onto anold medieval dirt road. Starting from ome, - first !assed tro(g te silent and solitary gardens of te

Killa, (ntil - reaced te last, 0(iet lane leading to te lo'er gate, a !at'ay overgro'n 'it emeraldgreen moss tat looked like a Persian

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silk r(g. Beyond te gate, one fo(nd noise, stenc, and m(d. 2e contrast co(ld not ave #een greater,and it !ert(r#ed me dee!ly.

Pa!T ad also !(t me to 'ork in an office !re!aring electric !o'er #ills for is c(stomersD f(rtermore,e forced me to st(dy =erman. ;e did all tis 'it yells lo(der tan necessary and ins(fficient !atience, #(t e noneteless ad a !ositive ed(cational im!act. Pa!T did not s!eak to me fre0(ently or

at lengt, #(t - listened very caref(lly to is conversation d(ring meals, from 'ic - learned a greatdeal. ;e t(s ta(gt me o' #anks 'ork, 'at a cor!oration is, and a#o(t stocks and #onds and oter #(siness s(#ects. - enoyed is eA!lanations toro(gly, and my esteem for im gre' f(rter. &it te !assing of time, e ta(gt me m(c more on #(siness s(#ects and - came to reali*e te !enetration andfairness of is (dgments. - also recogni*ed is kindness, often idden #y is gr(ff manner, and isgenerosity to tose 'o merited it. 7ater, as an ad(lt, - treas(red is advice, 'ic deserved to #elistened to all te more caref(lly inasm(c as it 'as given so s!aringly.

4y scoolmates in 6ome 'ere very different from tose in 2ivoli, #(t - made a fe' friends. -n additionto my classmates, - also #ecame friends 'it t'o #oys 'o later #ecame famo(sD tey 'ere in te same



scool #(t in different classes. ne 'as En*o Sereni, a f(t(re -sraeli leaderD te oter 'as is #roterEmilio, a f(t(re #ig'ig of -talian comm(nism.?F 2ey eaded a gro(! tat ardently disc(ssed !oliticals(#ects, and tey invited me to some ig#ro' meetings. - disagreed 'it many of te ideas - eardDindeed, several of tem seemed a#s(rd to me, #(t - did not kno' o' to defend my o!inions 'itade0(ate retorical and dialectical skill. Ultimately, - lost !atience 'it tem and 'ent my o'n 'ay, #(t te eA!erience ta(gt me to disting(is #et'een 'ellfo(nded concl(sions and tose tat !revail

only tro(g skilled advocacy. t te time - ac0(ired a distaste for 'at - later called ) pappagalli parlanti ) 8talking !arrots.

&it te move to 6ome, - sa' my second co(sins 6iccardo and Bindo 6imini m(c more often. 2ey'ere te or!ans of my co(sin Enrico and a#o(t my o'n age. Enrico, 'o ad #een very close to myfater, died in a railroad accident in te s(mmer of 191%, leaving is

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family in diffic(lties. 4y fater el!ed tem materially in s!ite of te o#stacles e enco(ntered in teeAaggerated !ride of te 'ido', da, 'o did not 'ant to acce!t financial el!.

da and er cildren #ecame intimate 'it (s. - 'as es!ecially close to 6iccardoD is yo(nger #roterBindo 'as an intracta#le yo(ng #oy, and da (ltimately enrolled im in a military college to give imsome disci!line. 6iccardo 'as like a #roter to me. ;e ad a very sar! mind, 'it scientificinclinations, and 'as a ard 'orker, conscientio(s, and o#servant. -n d(e co(rse, all tis made im intoa s(!erior !ysician. -n 193N te -talian racist la's forced im to emigrate, and e 'ent to 4ontevideoin Ur(g(ay, 'ere e 'rote some good !a!ers on #lood circ(lation, #esides acieving great !rofessional s(ccess. &en life se!arated (s, 'e ke!t (! an active confidential corres!ondence, and'en 'e met again after ten years of se!aration, 'e felt as if 'e ad met only a fe' days earlier. (rcorres!ondence lasted (ntil is deat in 19%% and contained o(r most intimate to(gts.

(ring my first years at ig scool - again st(died =erman, 'ic - ad forgotten since learning itfrom my 2ata =i(se!!ina. 4y !arents ad ired a yo(ng S'iss governess for me aro(nd 191, and

tanks to er - co(ld (se =erman fl(ently. - also digested a fair amo(nt of =erman !oetry, incl(ding=oetes 'aust& several of Scillers !lays, and ;eine. 4y 2reves co(sins 'ere almost #iling(al inEnglis tanks to a long s(ccession of 'itcgovernesses teir !arents ad forced on tem, and teydecided to teac Englis to me d(ring teir visits to 2ivoli. 4arco 2reves 'as an eAcellent teacer,some'at !edantic, #(t !atient, insistent, and effective. 7ater - also ad some !rivate coacing.

t scool - follo'ed te !rescri#ed co(rses reasona#ly 'ell, #(t 'ito(t sining in tem, so tat(s(ally - 'as tird 8in grades in my classes. Besides 'at 'as ta(gt at scool, - st(died some !ysics #ooks, often in =erman or Englis, on my o'n. - still ave =la*e#rooks Light , Balis Elements of Astronomy , 4aA'ells Theory of Heat , and a#ove all 6eices )ie *uantentheorie , 'ic greatlyim!ressed me.3F ngelo ad #o(gt tese #ooks and left tem at ome. - cannot claim tat -

(nderstood all - read. - la#ored over 4aA'ell, #(t co(ld not fatom it. - ad not yet learned tat inorder to st(dy !ysics, one as to (se

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!a!er and !encil and 'ork tro(g te calc(lations as one goes along. Us(ally - read tese #ooks atscool d(ring #oring classes tat - disdained.

4y eA!erience 'it modern lang(ages so's tat - 'as not refractory a#o(t learning lang(ages, andtat if in eigt years of ginnasio and liceo , - did not learn 7atin or =reek, not all te fa(lt 'as mine.



2e metods (sed to teac tese dead lang(ages, and te teacers, 'ere at fa(lt. By te time - 'asnearing te end of ig scool, te teacer of =reek ad com!letely disg(sted me, and my grades 'erefailing. t tat time it 'as !ossi#le to o#tain a ig scool di!loma 'ito(t a s!ecial eAamination !rovided one ad grades a#ove a certain minim(m in eac s(#ect. -n =reek - 'as falling #elo' teminim(m, and - kne' tat a =reek eAam 'o(ld ave #een disastro(s for me. 7(ck ad it tat one day=iorgio Pas0(ali, a famo(s =reek scolar and a family friend, came to o(r o(se for l(nc. - ad

kno'n Pas0(ali since - 'as a small cild, and - told im a#o(t my diffic(lties 'it =reek. )&o isyo(r =reek teacer<) e asked. )&at a strange coincidenceO) e remarked 'en - gave im te mansname. );e is te secretary of te committee - am cairing in te 4inistry of Ed(cation. - am ere (stfor one of its meetings.) ;e said no more, #(t my grades in =reek mirac(lo(sly started to im!rove and #y te end of te year, taking into acco(nt my !rogress, - ad reaced te minim(m re0(ired tograd(ate from ig scool 'ito(t an eAamination.

By 1919 - ad #ecome a yo(ng man, and - nat(rally started to ask some of te eternal (man 0(estionsa#o(t te !(r!ose of life, good and evil, te fo(ndation of morals, and te essence of te so(l. - readten some of tose #ooks - innocently to(gt to #e te !illars of o(r c(lt(re. - cose tem #y earsayor #eca(se tey 'ere availa#le at ome. mong tem 'ere escartess )iscours de la m+thode ,=alileos )ialogo . . . sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo and "l saggiatore , 2olstois ,ar and

-eace and esurrection& several novels #y Kictor ;(go, some of Platos dialog(es, and oter classics. -ad an iron stomac for any reading, and some of it st(ck, #(t - do not remem#er m(c of 'at - read.

- never ad a religio(s crisis. - read 6enans Life of %hrist and Sa

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#atiers life of Saint rancis 'it !leas(re, as 'ell as some sort #ooks on B(ddism and +(daism. 4y !arents asked ante 7attes, a noted +e'is scolar, to give me some lessons on +(daism, #(t tey didnot im!ress me, and neiter did - read te Bi#le 'it veneration or cele#rate a #ar mit*va. &enever -tried to read te ld 2estament, - ad te im!ression of a very (nomogeneo(s teAt. Certain !arts

seemed to me great, s(#lime, and ric 'it moral teacingsD oter seemed #ar#aro(s and cr(el. -tseems to me tat donai is very different in different !arts of te Bi#le, and in some cases so c(rlisand vindictive as can #e conceived only #y te mind of a !riest.

2e only +e'is religio(s rites - attended 'en - 'as yo(ng 'ere in te lorence synagog(e. - fo(ndtem interesting and, es!ecially later, after - ad gro'n (!, even moving, #(t not for teological orreligio(s reasons. 2eir com!elling force came from te traditions tey evoked, from family istoryand from feelings rooted in te s(#conscio(s. -n 19NJ, on te occasion of my grandsons #ar mit*va in-srael, - sa' an old cantor in te small ;er*liya synagog(e ecstatically em#racing te 2ora, as if it'ere a cild. - (nderstood im, #(t - did not sare 'at - to(gt 'ere is feelings.

- do ave some religio(s feelings, 'ic - rationally recogni*e as cildisD noneteless, tey comfort

me #eca(se tey remind me of !eo!le - once loved and of old times. n a more intellect(al level, - findmyself close to Einsteins !osition as e descri#ed it in res!onse to a letter from a scoolcild asking'eter scientists !rayed, and, if so, 'at tey !rayed for:

Scientific researc is #ased on te idea tat everyting tat takes !lace is determined #yla's of nat(re, and terefore tis olds for te actions of !eo!le. or tis reason, a researcscientist 'ill ardly #e inclined to #elieve tat events co(ld #e infl(enced #y a !rayer, i.e. #y a 'is addressed to a s(!ernat(ral Being.

;o'ever, it m(st #e admitted tat o(r act(al kno'ledge of tese la's is only im!erfect andfragmentary, so tat, act(ally te #elief in te eAistence of #asic allem#racing la's in



/at(re also rests on a sort of fait. ll te same tis fait as #een largely (stified t(s far #y te s(ccess of scientific researc.

B(t, on te oter and, everyone 'o is serio(sly involved in te

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!(rs(it of science #ecomes convinced tat a s!irit is manifest in te la's of te UniverseH a s!irit vastly s(!erior to tat of man, and one in te face of 'ic 'e 'it o(r modest !o'ers m(st feel (m#le. -n tis 'ay te !(rs(it of science leads to a religio(s feeling of as!ecial sort, 'ic is indeed 0(ite different from te religiosity of someone more naive.JF

- ave seen inn(mera#le tragedies and orrors ca(sed #y religio(s and !olitical fanaticism, eno(g toins!ire in me a great dislike for )a#sol(te tr(t,) )f(ndamentalism,) and similar attit(des. n te oterand - ave met tr(ly religio(s !eo!le, in 'om religion ins!ired te no#lest cond(ct.

2'o s(c saintly men come to my mind. ne 'as a Catolic !riest, on /ello del 6aso, 'o, after&orld &ar --, moved #y te orrors e sa' among -talian cildren, #(ilt a ome for tem at 2ivoli anddirected it (ntil is deat. - met on /ello after te 'ar, and e instantly #ecame my friend. ;is

!ersonal carm 'as eAtraordinary and felt #y everyone 'o came in contact 'it im, 'eter it 'as a #r(tali*ed cild, a ric lando'ner, or an agnostic scientist. - remem#er my visits to im as 'arm,enricing eA!eriences.

2e oter 'as Professor B(rton +. 4oyer 8191?Q%3, 'o 'as for a time my colleag(e. s a yo(ngman, e ad 'anted to #e a Protestant missionary and trained for tat calling, #(t te 'ar made iminto a s(!erior !ysicist. ;e 'orked at te 6adiation 7a#oratory in Berkeley and in d(e co(rse !layed amaor !art in te discovery of te ne(tral !ion. ;o'ever, is real desire 'as to el! is fello' men.4oyer #ecame ead of te !ysics de!artment at Berkeley at te time of te 'orst st(dent (nrest, ande 'as one of a andf(l of !eo!le 'o managed to gain te confidence #ot of te administration andof te re#ellio(s st(dents. &en tings 0(ieted do'n, e 'ent to -ndia to el! in te setting (! of a

tecnical instit(te tere. Some time after is ret(rn to Berkeley, e 'as called to te University ofregon to revitali*e its scientific de!artments, 'ic e did 'it o(tstanding s(ccess, alto(g e died #efore e co(ld finis te o#.F - felt dee!ly attracted to im in s!ite of o(r greatly different #ackgro(nds.

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C%a*ter T%ree+

T%e Ed3(ation o& a %ysi(ist -"#770"#782,

S(ent o& Roman 6ay and Al*ine Snow . . . cè non fa scien*a,san*a lo ritenere, aver inteso.

8 . . . for kno'ledge none can va(nt'o retains not, to(g e ave (nderstood.ante, Paradiso .J1QJ? 8trans. 7a(rence Binyon



2e end of ig scool materially canged my st(dies, 'ic 'ere still my !rimary occ(!ation. /olonger 'as - forced to st(dy s(#ects in 'ic - 'as not interested, and neiter 'as - s(#ect to !edagog(es 'om - often co(ld not admire. t te (niversity - fo(nd several teacers 'o 'ere(niversally kno'n as eminent in teir fields, and 'o o#vio(sly dominated teir s(#ects. &at -learned 'as ne' to meD interesting and callenging, it stim(lated me to tink f(rter a#o(t 'at -

eard, 'ic ad only rarely a!!ened in ig scool. - 'as m(c freer in organi*ing my time andcosing my friends. - did a fair amo(nt of fencing at first, #(t later - #ecame an ent(siasticmo(ntaineer and skier. 7ove, girls, and seA also came to te forefront.

- finised ig scool in +(ly 19??, matric(lating in engineering #y a !rocess of elimination. 2e firstt'o introd(ctory years of st(dy 'ere common to engineering, !ysics, and matematics. - kne', froma !ractical !oint of vie', tat my fater 'o(ld give me a o# in te !a!er mill or find me 'ork in someoter ind(stry. 2e idea of a career as a !ysicist seemed farfetced #eca(se it offered little o!e offinding any em!loyment.

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- and my !arents certainly favored a (niversity career, #(t to try for tis 'as very risky #eca(se at tetime tere 'ere very fe' o!enings in -talyHin total a#o(t t'enty cairs in !ysics, all of temocc(!ied. Pera!s one !osition #ecame availa#le eac year #eca(se of retirements and deats.(rtermore, - ad some misgivings a#o(t 'eter !ysics 'as (! to date in -taly. - do not kno' from'ere - got tat idea. Possi#ly in reading 6eices #ook - ad noted tat ardly any -talians 'erementioned, and even in te old =anot, tere 'ere fe' -talians. -n any case te coice of te !re!aratory #iennial co(rse !ost!oned making a final decision, so - registered for it.

-n my first year at (niversity, - st(died alge#ra (nder Professor rancesco Severi, geometry 'itProfessor =(ido Casteln(ovo, and cemistry 'it Professor /icola Parravano. - also took a draftingco(rse. Severi gave eAcellent lect(res, and - 'as !leased #y te cange of level from ig scoolD ere

tere 'as real intellect(al stim(l(s and a callenge to (nderstandD !era!s even to try to inventsometing ne'. Casteln(ovo 'as a !aragon of clarity, and in s!ite of is monotono(s voice, 'icind(ced slee!, one learned ne' and interesting tings. - soon came to s(s!ect, o'ever, tat tecemist, Parravano, did not al'ays kno' 'at e 'as talking a#o(t. t ome - ad fo(nd a treatise on !ysicocemistry #y &alter /ernst,1F and com!aring 'at - ad learned from it 'it 'at ProfessorParravano ta(gt, - concl(ded tat e ad mis(nderstood several tings, or at least tat e (nderstoodtem differently from me. 2e !rofessors assistants 'ere more accessi#le tan te great men, and oneof Severis eA!lained o(rier series to (s in a startling and !rofo(nd 'ay, 'ic gave m(c food forto(gt.

-n my second year, Severi ta(gt (s analysisD Senator . 4. Cor#ino, te ead of te de!artment,

!ysics 8in !ractice only dealing 'it electricityD Pittarelli, descri!tive geometryD and 2(llio 7eviCivita, rational mecanics. -n my first t'o years at (niversity, no#ody ta(gt (s any termal !ysics oro!tics, let alone more modern s(#ects.

7eviCivitas co(rse on rational mecanics 'as !oorly attended, alto(g te !rofessor 'as famo(s andte lect(res 'ere good, even if sligtly ver#ose.?F 7eviCivita 'as very sort and also sortsigtedD

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neverteless, e strove to reac te to! of te #lack#oard, !(tting is nose very close to it, raising is



arm, and 'riting #lind. -n tis !osition, e 'as once str(ck on te #ack of te ead #y a missile fromte !easooter of some nasty st(dent. 7eviCivita t(rned aro(nd and, 'it te most innocenteA!ression, asked: );ave - 'ritten a 'rong sign<) ;is candor and good fait 'ere so o#vio(s tatno#ody la(ged, and no !easooter ever dared dist(r# im again. or many monts 'e eard tesim!lifications tat occ(r in mecanics if ' X d- is a total differential 'ito(t te !rofessor evereA!laining 'at a total differential 'as, and 'ito(t (s ever asking. 7eviCivita tr(sted o(r analytical

com!etence, #(t (nfort(nately Severi ad not mentioned total differentials. /o less im!ortant tan te co(rses 'ere my ne' fello' st(dents. mong tem =iovanni erro7(**i'as te closest to me. &e came from te same ig scool, #(t from different sections. Soon 'e startedst(dying togeter. &e liked to com!ete in solving !ro#lems and 'e 0(i**ed eac oter on te teory.

- also discovered tat tere 'as a very great advantage in st(dying steadily d(ring te year, avoiding acramming !eriod #efore te eAaminations. =ood, !aternal Professor Casteln(ovo ad 'arned (s on tiss(#ectD - 'as s(r!rised in discovering te !ertinence of is advice. - fo(nd tat - needed time fordigesting many ne' ideas and tat a steady diet no(rised infinitely more tan occasional feasts 8and #o(ts of indigestion. - #elieve tat te disci!line of steady 'ork el!ed me immensely ten and later inlife.

Ettore 4aorana, 'o s(#se0(ently ac0(ired a 'elldeserved re!(tation as a matematical geni(s, 'asanoter of my fello' st(dents.3F nce, not aving s(fficiently !re!ared a lect(re, Severi started a !roof of a teorem te 'rong 'ay. 4aorana immediately 'is!ered tat e 'o(ld soon #e in tro(#le,so 'e all antici!ated 'at 'as to come. fter a min(te or t'o, Severis face reddened, and it #ecameo#vio(s tat e did not kno' o' to !roceed. Some voices ten m(rm(red: )4aorana !redicted it.)Severi did not kno' 'o 4aorana 'as, #(t said a(gtily, )2en let 4r. 4aorana come for'ard.)Ettore 'as !(sed to te #lack#oard, 'ere e erased 'at Severi ad 'ritten and gave te correct !roof. -t is note'orty tat Severi neiter com!limented im

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in any 'ay nor made any effort to #ecome ac0(ainted 'it im. n a different occasion, 'ile - 'as'aiting to #e called to an oral eAamination, 4aorana gave me a syntetic !roof for te eAistence ofKillarcea(s circles on a tor(s. - did not f(lly (nderstand it, #(t memori*ed it on te s!ot. s - enteredte eAamination room, Professor Pittarelli asked me, as 'as is 'ont, 'eter - ad !re!ared a s!ecialto!ic. )es, on Killarcea(s circles,) - said, and - !roceeded immediately to re!eat 4aoranas 'ords #efore - forgot tem. 2e !rofessor 'as im!ressed and congrat(lated me on s(c an elegant !roof,'ic 'as ne' to im.

4y friend =iovanni erro7(**i and - !re!ared for eAaminations on a #enc in te marvelo(s Palatinegardens, near te o(se of te s(!erintendent of te diggings at te 6oman or(m, te (manist andarcaeologist =iacomo Boni 81N9Q19?. -t 'as an eAtraordinary location, 0(iet and evocative, 'it

la(rel tickets and -talian gardens. n te days of ancient 6oman festivals, some#ody !(t (! ricfestoons of flo'ers and fr(its, anging tem in a!!ro!riate !laces.

-n te fall, erro7(**i and - re!aired to 2ivoli for concentrated, (ndist(r#ed st(dy, as - 'as later to do'it Edoardo maldi. 4y !arents o(sekee!er tere fed (s eAcellentlyD after st(dying 'e 'ent forikes (nder te olive trees or on te Kiale Carciano, as - ad done since my cildood. -f #y cance itrained, te rain 'as follo'ed #y te clear, cool, scented air of te #eginning of a(t(mn.

4o(ntaineering #ecame a serio(s avocation 'it me, and every s(mmer - and some friend 'ent to tel!s for rock or ice clim#ingD d(ring te 'inter 'e !racticed crossco(ntry skiing, often in te #r(**i.-n te olomites - clim#ed te Kaolet 2o'ers, and, all alone, te Cin0(e ita, and many oter



mo(ntains in te vicinity of Cortina dm!e**o, in te Pale di San 4artino gro(!, and else'ere. (rclim#s reaced todays fo(rt class and 'o(ld no' #e deemed easy, #(t in te 19?$s tey 'ere to(gtfairly diffic(lt. &e al'ays 'ent 'ito(t a g(ide, for s!ort as 'ell as to save money.

4y active mo(ntaineering lasted (ntil a#o(t 193$. 7ater !ysics a#sor#ed my s(mmers too, and stilllater, after my marriage, - discovered

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tat 'ile - still liked iking, cam!ing, and o(tdoor activities a lot, - ad no more stomac for diffic(ltclim#s.

-n my tird year at (niversity, - transferred to te Engineering Scool, 'ere - fo(nd te co(rses m(cless interesting tan in te !re!aratory #ienni(m, eAce!t for one #y Professor U. Bordoni, 'o ta(gt(s termodynamics according to Cla(si(s, em!asi*ing all its s(#tleties. 2e oter !rofessors ta(gtordinary engineering !ractice, at a lo' tecnical level and 'ito(t imagination. 2o refres myself, -attended a matematics co(rse on te teory of f(nctions of a com!leA varia#le, given #y ProfessorUgo maldi, te fater of my f(t(re friend Edoardo. 2e lect(res 'ere at 1 P.4. , not eAactly a !leasant

o(r in 6ome, #(t te teacer !resented te material in a fascinating 'ay. 2e eA!osition resem#led asoa! o!era, and at te end of eac lect(re - asked myself 'at te neAt 'o(ld #ring: ne' sing(larities<ne' !o'er series develo!ments<

t a#o(t tis time, my fello' st(dent and mo(ntainclim#ing com!anion =iovanni Enri0(es told metat e ad eard from is fater tat tere 'as at 6ome a sort of geni(s, a certain Enrico ermi, 'oad recently got is !ysics degree in Pisa. &en - 'ent to ear ermi s!eak at a matematics seminar,JF - soon reali*ed tat te r(mor 'as not eAaggeratedD at last ere 'as some#ody f(lly conversant 'itmodern !ysics. ;o'ever, - did not a!!roac ermi at tat time. t oter meetings of te sameseminar, - eard E. 7anda(, 'ose talk confirmed my conviction tat !(re matematics 'as not myc(! of tea. noter time a !rofessor from Bologna s!oke for an (nconsciona#ly long time. or somereason, te ligt 'ent o(t for a fe' min(tesD 'en it came #ack on, te room 'as almost em!ty.

-n my tird or fo(rt year in engineering, 'y - do not remem#er, or !era!s never gras!ed, - gre' aCarlie Ca!lin mo(stace and started going to scool 'earing a #o'ler at and kid gloves, carrying acane. 2is lasted for several monts and !rovoked a certain amo(nt of mockery among my fello'st(dents, to 'ic - res!onded 'it a(gty disdain.

-n 19?% my moter ad te a!!y idea of giving me a iat $9 a(

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tomo#ile. - s(s!ect se may ave to(gt it 'as te sim!lest 'ay of getting me a girlfriend. -f se adany s(c idea, o'ever, se never even inted at it to me.

Cars 'ere ten still relatively (ncommon in 6ome, and te $9 made #ig canges in my life. -t rankedme as affl(ent among my fello' st(dents, and every#ody 'anted to (se my car. -t also greatlyfacilitated mo(ntain tri!s. n te oter and, it did not ave great s(ccess in !roc(ring me a girlfriend.4y friends and - took several girls of a good family #ackgro(nd to te seasore or to !laces in tevicinity of 6ome, #(t al'ays 'itin te limits of strict decor(m and !revailing -talian r(les. ften 'e'ent in a !arty of fo(r: =iovanni Enri0(es and - 'it t'o girls, 'om 'e may ave liked even moretan 'e let on. 2o give an idea of te diffic(lties 'e faced, once at te seasore at Castel (sano, a#o(tt'enty miles from 6ome, 'e lost te ignition key. &e 'ere s(!!osed to ret(rn #efore nigtfall, and



#eing late 'o(ld ave ca(sed a scandal. By com#ining all o(r tecnical ingen(ity, 'e s(cceeded in #y!assing te ignition s'itc and starting te car. 2is so's o' restricted 'e 'ereD a sim!leaccident 'o(ld not ave eAc(sed (s for a fe' o(rs delay in getting #ack.

-n tose days, te s(rro(ndings of 6ome 'ere of an (ns(r!assed #ea(ty, no' almost entirely vanised.-n s!ringtime, !laces s(c as te Pratoni di /emi, a !latea( at a#o(t 3,$$$ feet in te volcanic l#an;ills, overflo'ed 'it 'ild on0(ils and violetsD Pratica di 4are, almost (nkno'n eAce!t to a fe'

cognoscenti, resem#led a Pacific island, 'it !alms, tro!ical vegetation, and 'ild #(ffaloes 'allo'ingin te m(dD Keios Etr(scan r(ins, covered 'it scented oneys(ckle, 'ere inters!ersed 'it greenmeado's, on 'ic - 'o(ld lie for o(rs talking to my girlfriend. -t 'as ard to tell 'ic 'as moreeAciting: er !erf(me or te scent of te ay and of te 'ildflo'ers. Even stia and regene, stills!arsely !o!(lated, 'ere tr(e gems.

-n te #eginning of te 19?$s, - ad caref(lly to(red 6ome, often togeter 'it my co(sin a(sta, 'ocame visiting from 2(rin and stayed 'it (s. Se ad rater romantic tastes, and 'it te el! of te2o(ring Cl(# -taliano g(ide#ook, kne' 'ere to go and at 'at time of te day. 7ittle 'onder tat t'oyo(ng !eo!le (nder s(c con

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ditions so(ld develo! tender feelingsD o'ever as time 'ent on, friendsi! !revailed over love, andend(red solidly (ntil a(stas deat in 19N?.

t ome, 4arco, after attem!ting some deals on is o'n, in 'ic e lost money to an im!ostor, adacce!ted a o# in te !a!er mill, and e eA!ected, in d(e co(rse, to s(cceed my fater. ater told meo!enly tat tere co(ld #e only one !erson in command of te !a!er mill, and tat e 'o(ld el! mestart a different #(siness for myself or find a o# else'ere, according to my !reference.

-n te meantime my distaste for engineering st(dies steadily increased. 7(ck ad it tat in te s!ring of19?%, =iovanni Enri0(es introd(ced me to Cor#inos ne'ly arrived assistant, ranco 6asetti.F

6asetti, 'o 'as ten a#o(t t'entyfive, 'as a close friend of ermisD e ad st(died 'it ermi atPisa, ad follo'ed im to lorence, and ad #een ired #y Cor#ino on ermis s(ggestion 'en ermi'as a!!ointed !rofessor of teoretical !ysics at 6ome. -n addition to #eing an eAcellent !ysicist,6asetti 'as a skier, a mo(ntain clim#er, an insect collector, and in general a !erson of te most diverseinterests.

4y car allo'ed (s to go to !laces tat 'ere oter'ise rater inaccessi#le, and at te end of 4ay 19?%,Enri0(es, 6asetti, and - 'ent to Castel del 4onte in te #r(**i. rom tere, 'e follo'ed a long ridgeto te =ran Sasso, te igest mo(ntain in te !ennines. -t 'as a ike of a co(!le of days, re0(iring(s to slee! in te o!en. 2ese conditions el!ed create a fast friendsi! #et'een (s, and soon tereafter6asetti introd(ced me to ermi.

2e t'o of tem 'ere looking for !ysics st(dents to ed(cate, and - 'as looking for teacers, so 'es(ited eac oter. t te end of +(ly, - 'ent 'it 6asetti to te Pi**o dEta from te valley of te river7iri in central -taly, a lengty and very #ea(tif(l eAc(rsion. 2e long, dee! valleys of tis isolated andrarely visited !art of te co(ntry, 'it teir 'ell!reserved as, oak, and ma!le 'oods, !reserved teas!ect of -taly #efore its deforestation in recent cent(ries. /ear te to! of te mo(ntain, 6asetti startedlooking for some tiny insects of te gen(s ythinus& 'ic lived (nder te #ark of trees. ;e s(ckedtem into a small glass container e ad #ro(gt 'it im and saved tem for is famo(s

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collection of coleo!tera. t te same time, s!eaking very lo(dly, e ta(gt me te !rinci!les ofstatistical mecanics and Bolt*manns distri#(tion. ;e asserted tat eAce!t for ermi and imself, tere'as no !ysics !rofessor in te -talian (niversities conversant 'it s(c teories. n te Pi**o dEta, -also learned some calc(l(s of variations and analytical mecanics. - greatly enoyed tese strangelect(res and on my ret(rn ome made notes on tem.

fe' 'eeks later - 'ent to stia 'it ermi, 6asetti, and oter yo(ng men and 'omen. ermi started

talking !ysics and asked me 'at - kne'. ;e callenged me to calc(late te vi#rations of a eavyro!e dangling vertically, 'ic - did to is satisfaction. 2(s started o(r friendsi!.

-n te s(mmer of 19?%, al'ays in my car, 'e 'ent to te Kal d;erens, in te l!s. - sto!!ed on te6iviera near =enoa, to say ello to 6enata +., a great and (na!!y love of mine, 'o 'as s!ending ervacations tere. (r com!any consisted of =iovanni Enri0(es, 6asetti, erro7(**i, Piero rancetti8Enri0(ess co(sin and myself. &e settled in a very !rimitive ref(ge and from tere started severalrater diffic(lt clim#s: ents des Bo(0(etins, ent d;erens, and oters. - ad 'it me a g(ide#ookand caref(lly st(died te itineraries. -t 'as a sensi#le ting to do, #(t - 'as rater !edantic, and myfriends teased me #eca(se - 'o(ld say tings like: );ere according to te #ook 'e so(ld find te !la0(e marking te s!ot 'ere Y lost is life.) ;o'ever, recogni*ing landmarks and critical s!ots onte clim# el!ed (s acieve o(r goal. nce 'e 'ere ca(gt in an electrical storm. 2e sigt of tes!arks coming o(t of o(r ice aAes and of o(r air standing on end 'as tr(ly s!ectac(lar, and scary.

2at s(mmer - eA!erienced for te first time a strange, almost !atological, !ec(liarity of 6asettis.&enever e sa' a cance of ditcing is com!anions, 'eter #eca(se of darkness or fog or anyoter reason, e took it. 7ater e reoiced in aving done so as to(g it ad #een a f(nny oke. !sycologist co(ld ave a field day 'it s(c #eavior.

rom te Kal d;erens, 'e !assed to Kal 2o(rnance and from tere on (g(st 1J, 19?%, 'e clim#edte 4atterorn. 2e 'eater foiled a

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first attem!t, #(t te neAt day, taking advantage of a clear s!ell, 'e #o(nced #ack from Bre(il, sle!t atte 7(igi medeo di Savoia ;(t and, after a very cold and 'indy clim#, reaced te to!. &e descendedfrom te S'iss side, slee!ing at te Solvay ;(t. 2at year te ice and sno' conditions on te mo(ntain'ere diffic(lt, and o(rs ad not #een an easy enter!rise. (ring o(r stay at Bre(il, 'e met te d(cadegli #r(**i, a co(sin of te king of -taly and a noted eA!lorer, as 'ell as te famo(s 'riter andmo(ntain clim#er =(ido 6ey. 2e latter invited (s for tea at is villa and gave me some !ict(res. 2eBre(il too as #een disfig(red #y m(c ne' constr(ction and a(tomo#ile traffic since &orld &ar --. -no(r day, te easiest access 'as #y a m(le trail from Kal 2o(rnance.

fter te 4atterorn clim#, - met my (ncle Cla(dio in osta, 'ere e a!!ened to #e attending ageological meeting. - accom!anied im on a field tri! and e so'ed me te landsca!e tro(g te

eyes of a geologist. -t 'as a revelation and a fascinating lessonD - do not kno' 'y my (ncle ad nevertaken me on a field tri! #efore. Unfort(nately, it 'as also te last !ossi#le cance. t osta, 'ile 'e'ere togeter, Uncle Cla(dio s(ffered a small strokeD it did not seem serio(s at first, and e recoveredfast, #(t after is ret(rn to 6ome, more strokes, of increasing gravity follo'ed, and on 4arc 1N, 19?N,e died. ;e 'as te first !erson dear to me tat - sa' dead, and te sigt affected me dee!ly. rom'at - ave 'ritten a#o(t im, it so(ld #e clear 'at a loss it 'as for me.

rom osta - 'ent to Como, 'ere an -nternational Pysics Conference 'as eld tat Se!tem#er tocommemorate te (ndredt anniversary of te deat of lessandro Kolta in 1N?%.GF /eedless to say, -'as not invited. - 'as not even a !ysics st(dent, #(t - to(gt, 'it some im!(dence, tat #y tailing



6asetti, 'o in t(rn 'as tailing ermi, - migt #e a#le to attend some of te lect(res and see 'at 'asgoing on. -ndeed, tis came to !ass. Besides going to te lect(res, - collected several free !(#licationstat 'ere given to tose attending te conference, and in !artic(lar an eAcellent series of articles onmodern !ysics, 'ritten #y M. M. arro' of te Bell 2ele!one Com!any. - read tem caref(lly d(ringte conference.

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4any great !ysicists 'ere !resentD among tem 4aA Planck, Ernest 6(terford, /iels Bor, 6o#ert4illikan, &olfgang Pa(li, and &erner ;eisen#erg. Einstein 'as not tere #eca(se e did not 'ant toenter ascist -taly. Cor#ino, V(irino 4aorana 8Ettores (ncle, ermi, and a fe' oters re!resented-taly, and it 'as easy to see tat ermi 'as te only -talian 'o co(nted in te eyes of te foreign !artici!ants. 2e organi*ers offered lavis rece!tions and eAc(rsions on a lordly scale. Cor#ino !rivately commented tat -taly so(ld ave eAi#ited more !ysics and less os!itality and tat itso(ld not deceive itself tat s!onsoring a conference 'as a s(#stit(te for scientific acievement. romComo, te !artici!ants in te conference 'ent to 6ome, 'ere 4(ssolini received tem.

&at - ad seen at te conference ti!!ed te scales in my decision to s'itc from engineering to !ysics. - ad #een #rooding over te idea since te s!ring, 'en my meetings 'it 6asetti and ermiad convinced me tat a (ni0(e o!!ort(nity for serio(sly learning and !racticing !ysics ad arrived.2e yo(ng !rofessors, 'o 'ere only sligtly older tan - 'as, treated me not as a mere fresman #(tas a f(t(re colleag(e. 2ey 'ere !re!ared to let me ave immediate access to te la#oratory of te !ysics de!artment, to so' me 'at tey 'ere doing, and to give me an o!!ort(nity of el!ing temin teir 'ork. &at more co(ld ave - 'ised for<

n my ret(rn to 6ome, - started going reg(larly to te la# in te Pysics -nstit(te at Kia Panis!ernaN9a, 'ere - fo(nd my mentors dressed in nonetooclean gray smocks, so m(c so tat my olfactorymemory can still evoke te caracteristic sligt smell of tose garments. 2ey eA!lained to me te !(r!ose and te tecni0(es of te eA!eriments tey 'ere !erforming and te res(lts tey eA!ected.%F

t te time, aving read m(c !ysics !rivately, - 'as ac0(ainted 'it classical !ysics at anintermediate level. 4y matematical !re!aration 'as !retty good and derived mainly from teeAcellent (niversity co(rses - ad attended. - also kne' some cemistry and ad 'orked in a goodanalytical la#oratory at te Engineering Scool. 4y !ractical eA!erience derived from amate(riseA!eriments and a!!a

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rat(sD - ad #(ilt a crystal radio receiver and !layed 'it a 6(mkorff coil. ll told, - kne' o' to (semy ands and sim!le tools.

ermi started t(toring me !rivately almost from te o(tset. t a#o(t G.3$ P.4. e 'o(ld call me to isoffice and tere, mostly 'it 6asetti also in attendance, e 'o(ld eA!lain to me 'atever came tomind, or 'atever - !ro!osed. - listened, 'en - did not (nderstand - asked 0(estions, and ten at ome- 'rote do'n 'at - ad learned, 'it te el! of seets of !a!er tat ermi ad filled 'it form(lae ase !rogressed in tis cross #et'een a lect(re and an informal conversation. - did tis 'ork mostly teday after te lect(re, and - incl(ded some !ro#lem !ro!osed #y ermi or, more fre0(ently, of my o'ninvention. ;ere are some sam!les of te s(#ects treated, according to my eAtant notes: ligt diffractionfrom a slitD mean free !at in gasesD fl(ct(ationsD classical teory of ligt resonanceD molec(lar rotatory !o'erD diff(sion vac((m !(m!sD Yray diffraction according to 4aA yon 7a(e and to &. ;. Bragg.



2is 'as !ossi#ly te most infl(ential )class) teacing - ever ad. little later Edoardo maldi oinedte )class.)

6asetti so'ed (s o' to !erform s!ectrosco!ic eA!eriments (sing interferometers, s!ectrogra!s, andsim!le tecni0(es. ermi to(gt tat one co(ld teac teory, #(t tat te only 'ay of learningeA!erimentation 'as a la#oratory a!!renticesi!. (rtermore, it 'as is r(le tat #eginners so(ldst(dy teory and eA!eriment e0(allyD s!eciali*ation 'o(ld come only later. ;e (sed te same teacing

metod again and again, !artic(larly in Cicago.NF 2e s(#ects too, even after many years, 'ere oftente same as in 6ome, almost stereoty!ed. -n fact, tey 'ere te metods and res(lts tat seemedim!ortant to ermi. - 'as a#le to retrace tem to an eAtent even in note#ooks of is o'n st(dies at Pisaor earlier. Some of tese note#ooks, 'ic are asto(nding for te (nerring coice of materials, arede!osited in Cicago among ermis !a!ers. - sa' tem only after is deat.

ermi did not give imself airsD e 'as very sim!le in is manner, co(rteo(s, and easily accessi#le.2ese o(t'ard a!!earances noneteless concealed great reserve. (tside of !ysics, e 'as m(cmore inclined to listen tan to s!eak and refrained from !rivate confidences.

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lto(g 'e s!ent many o(rs togeter every day, and ostensi#ly on a footing of e0(ality, - do not #elieve tere 'as te same degree of intimacy 'it im as 'it te oter mem#ers of o(r gro(!.Pera!s is manifest scientific s(!eriority contri#(ted to tis sit(ation, #(t its main ca(se 'as ermisdis!osition and te care 'it 'ic e set reason over feelings. &it te !assing of time and given tes!ecial circ(mstances tat o#tained later d(ring te 'ar, ermis reserve increased rater tandecreased. 2is 'as contrary to 'at one migt ave eA!ectedD relative differences in age and scientificstanding tended to diminis 'it time. lto(g affa#le, ermi al'ays ins!ired a certain a'e, and !era!s more so in tose 'o kne' im #est tan in tose 'o ad only a c(rsory ac0(aintance.

Under ermis ministrations, 'e ra!idly gained an incredi#le ent(siasm for science. &e loved !ysics'it an intensity com!ara#le to tat of !ysical (man loveD 'e to(gt and talked only a#o(t !ysics.

6a!id !rogress follo'ed, 'ic f(rter enanced o(r !assion. &e s!ent all o(r availa#le time at tePysics -nstit(teHtat is, according to te oly -talian sced(le, from N .4. to 1 P.4. and from 3P.4. to N P.4. , 4onday to riday and on Sat(rday mornings. &e never 'ent to 'ork after dinner andvery seldom on S(nday. 2e instit(te closed on a reg(lar sced(le, and none of (s ad a key to tedoor.

Sat(rday 'as a very interesting day #eca(se 'e fre0(ently devoted Sat(rday mornings to !lanningf(t(re 'ork. n S(nday 'e (s(ally 'ent on ikes 'it friends of #ot seAes, incl(ding manynon!ysicists, #(t te !ysicists often formed a se!arate gro(! after a 'ile and started talking so!.Under te infl(ence of o(r common life, 'e develo!ed some strange tics, s(c as te a#it of s!eaking'it an intonation or cadence caracteristic of ermi. -t 'as not a !ose, only mimicry.9F

Everyting 'as going 'ell for me, #(t - 'as still registered at te Engineering Scool and not in te !ysics de!artment. ny mention of te fact tat - 'as inclined to s'itc met 'it distinct coldness atome. Uncle Cla(dio, 'o 'as already ill, 'anted me to get my engineering degree firstD my !arentssaid tat as an engineer - 'o(ld easily #e a#le to find a o#, #(t tat as a !ysicist, if - did not o#tain a(niversity

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cair, - 'o(ld ave to make a living as a ig scool teacer, a dim !ros!ect.



6asetti and ermi ad ra!idly convinced me tat tey 'ere s(!ermen 8not a totally erroneo(s o!inion,merely eAaggerated, and tat 'oever associated 'it tem 'o(ld #ecome one too. 2ey 'ere !ositive tey 'ere te only (!todate !ysicists in -taly 8'it te !ossi#le eAce!tion of teir st(dentsand te only ones tat co(nted scientifically.

-n te #eginning - tried to kee! (! 'it #ot engineering and !ysics, #(t - soon reali*ed tat tis 'asnot !ossi#le. St(dying !ysics 'it te intensity and dedication - desired, and tat 'as necessary if -

'as to meet ermis eA!ectations, did not leave time or energy for anyting else. -n te meantime - ad #een introd(ced to Cor#ino, 'o in s!ite of is #enevolent cordiality ins!ired me 'it considera#lea'e too.1$F 2is feeling !aradoAically manifested itself in my often acting as if - did not see im, or inmy #eing c(rt 'it im. - al'ays regretted not aving #een more o!en 'it im, as - desired and as edeserved.

inally, - decided - ad to #(rn my #ridges and transfer to !ysics. UneA!ectedly, - met 'it a #(rea(cratic diffic(lty. Beca(se - ad not taken a re0(ired la#oratory co(rse in !ractical !ysics, -stood to lose a year. -t 'as ten tat - really sa' Cor#ino in action for te first time. ;e tele!oned arelative of is 'o 'as registrar at te Engineering Scool and told im: )Segrè 'ants to register in !ysics, #(t in te certificate yo( ave given im tere is no mention of te eAam in !ractical !ysics.;o' come< ;e !assed it in my instit(te last year and got a grade of 3$"3$.) 2e registrar a!ologi*edand corrected te )error,) and - did not 'aste te year. 2e follo'ing year, o'ever, Cor#ino assignedme to teac tat co(rse, and no', siAty years later, it da'ns on me tat !era!s it 'as not (st #ycance. - re!eatedly sa' Cor#ino circ(mventing o#noAio(s reg(lations or managing some 'ell!lannedsceme, #(t never 'ito(t a clear (stification from a iger !oint of vie'. ;e 'as a master atovercoming o#stacles standing in te 'ay of raising te level of !ysics in -taly. Ultimately, es(cceeded #rilliantly.

fe' monts after - transferred to !ysics, - s!oke to Ettore 4aorana a#o(t doing so, enco(ragingim to follo' my eAam!le. - told

@ $ @im tat te Engineering Scool 'as not for im, (st as it 'as not for me, and tat te !resent sit(ationin te !ysics de!artment offered a (ni0(e o!!ort(nity. Ettore listened and ten decided to come to seein !erson. t te instit(te, e fo(nd ermi calc(lating te f(nction central to te 2omasermistatistical metod for calc(lating atomic !ro!erties,11F cranking a small Br(nsviga adding macine #yand. &it its el!, in a#o(t a 'eek of 'ork, e ad o#tained a n(merical ta#le of te f(nction.4aorana informed imself in detail a#o(t te matematical !ro#lem and 'ent ome 'ito(t f(rtercomment. t ome, e transformed ermis nonlinear e0(ation into a 6iccati e0(ation and solved itn(merically (sing is #rain as calc(lating macine. fter a fe' days e ret(rned to te !ysicsde!artment and asked ermi to so' im is n(merical res(lts. ;e com!ared tem 'it is o'n andverified tat tey agreed. )S(r!risingly, ermi as made no errors,) e said. fter tis eA!erience, e

too converted to !ysics, #(t #eing matematically vastly s(!erior to all of (s, and in some res!ectseven to ermi, e did not come reg(larly to o(r instr(ctional sessions, alto(g e !artici!ated in manyof o(r conversations and disc(ssions. ;e never tried eA!erimental 'ork.

-n te early days of o(r informal 6ome gro(!, =iovanni =entile, +r., son of te !iloso!er, !o'erf(lsenator, minister, and ascist #ig'ig of te same name, often came to te instit(te. ;e ad recentlygrad(ated from te Sc(ola normale in Pisa and, !ossi#ly #eca(se of teir common Sicilian roots, #ecame very close to 4aorana and 'rote a fe' !a!ers 'it im. =entile remained o(r friend andoccasionally visited te instit(te, #(t never #ecame a reg(lar mem#er of o(r gro(!.



lready in te fall of 19?% 'e ad a ne' recr(it, Edoardo maldi.1?F )-n te !resent state of ra!idcange no' !revailing in !ysics all over E(ro!e, and 'it ermis a!!ointment at 6ome, aneAce!tional !eriod as o!ened (! for yo(ng !eo!le 'o ave already so'n s(fficient a#ility and are'illing to make an eAce!tional effort in teoretical and eA!erimental st(dy,) Cor#ino ad anno(nced inone of is lect(res to te secondyear st(dents. maldi 'as te only one 'o ans'ered te a!!eal and oined o(r gro(!. ;e 'as te yo(ngest, and seemed even

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yo(nger tan e 'as #eca(se of is rosy com!leAion, so e 'as often called )te little #oy) 8 il

fanciulletto .

+okingly, 'e ass(med nicknames tat originated from a ri#ald !oem !o!(lar at te Sc(ola normale atPisa, 'ere it ad #een transmitted orally for a long !eriod. ermi and 6asetti kne' #y eart longeAcer!ts from tis !oem and occasionally 0(oted it. noter origin of te nicknames 'as a !arody ofte offices of te Katican C(ria. Cor#ino 'as te ;eavenly aterD ermi, te Po!eD 6asetti, teCardinal KicarD -, te Prefect of te 7i#raries, #eca(se - 'as interested in te li#rary and kne' te !ysics literat(reD o'ever, - 'as also te Basilisk, #eca(se - 'as s(!!osed to s!it fire 'en madD4aoranas eAtremely critical attit(de earned im te title of =rand -n0(isitor.

maldi ad te most common sense and 'as also #y nat(re and (!#ringing 'armer and more (manetan te rest of (s. 4aorana, 'it is !rofo(nd ske!ticism and !essimism and is ironic #ent, 'as notal'ays easily accessi#le. 6asetti 'as !(re #rains, 'it cildis forms of selfisness fostered #y ismoter, #(t in s!ite of is !ec(liarities, e 'as easily a!!roaca#le. f ermi - ave already s!oken.ll in all, tey 'ere eAcellent friends, loyal, genero(s, and onest. 2ere 'ere, o'ever, differences inte degree of intimacy !revailing among (s. maldi, 6asetti, and - co(ld s!eak of anyting 'it oneanoter, incl(ding girls, love, !olitics, and careerD 'it ermi or 4aorana, tere 'as more reserve.

-n tat !eriod, or sortly #efore it, - fell des!erately, #(t (nfort(nately !latonically, in love 'it 6enata+. -n te famo(s $9, 'e 'ent to te most romantic s!ots in te vicinity of 6ome, 'ere se de!loyed

m(c detacment. ig scool friend 'om - still sa' occasionally told me stories aimed atinflaming my ealo(sy and s(fferings. 4any years later - learned asto(nding tings a#o(t tat !eriodfrom 6enataD ad - kno'n tem aro(nd 19?%, tey migt ave canged my life. Bot 6enata and -'ere victims of o(r (!#ringing in a 'orld 'ere tere 'as no !ill, and 'ere girls married as virgins8at least most of tem. - still see myself trying to ad(st te fringes of an interferometer 'ile tinkingof and siging for er.

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- 'as registered as a !ysics st(dent only for one year. - registered in te fall of 19?% and o#tained my

doctorate on +(ly 1J, 19?N. Beca(se - ad already st(died engineering for fo(r years, Cor#ino andermi sortened my formal st(dy !eriod in !ysics as m(c as !ossi#le. 2e most im!ortant s(#ect -st(died in class tat year 'as teoretical !ysics 'it ermi. ;is co(rse follo'ed is #ook "ntroduzione alla fisica atomica , 'ic e ad recently 'ritten. 2e #ook 'as not yet !(#lised, #(termi gave me a set of !roofs. -t is an elementary #ook, still treating te atom in terms of tesemiclassical BorSommerfeld a!!roac. nly in te last ca!ter is tere #rief mention of te recentnovelty )0(ant(m mecanics.) - st(died te #ook toro(gly and soon s(!!lemented it 'itinformation from Er'in ScrZdingers memoirs, 'ic ermi ad eA!lained to (s !rivately as teya!!eared.



- 'as re0(ired to !ass also an eAamination in );iger Pysics) as ta(gt #y Professor ntonino 7oS(rdo. ;e 'as ermis avo'ed enemy, and is feelings 'ere reci!rocated. ;e ad o!!osed ermis callto te 6ome cair, stating tat s(c a call 'as a !ersonal sligt to im. Scientifically, te man 'as #adly o(t of date. ;e kne' r(des o!tics and +. +. 2omsons gas discarge #ook, #(t e 'as a#o(ttirty years #eind is time, #ot in is teacing and in is anemic researc. -n class e so'ed #ea(tif(l eA!eriments, #(t is lect(res did not convey anyting of vital im!ort. Since e co(ld no

longer figt ermi, e took it o(t on me. s te -talian saying goes, );e #eats te donkey, #eing (na#leto it te master.)

s a tird re0(ired co(rse, - attended te lect(res on matematical !ysics given #y Kito Kolterra. -so(ld add tat te s(#se0(ent year - again attended is co(rse, #eca(se e canged s(#ect every yearand from im one learned interesting notions of classical matematical !ysics. Kolterras lect(res 'ere'ell organi*ed and te s(#ect matter 'as skillf(lly cosen 8as - reali*ed later, #(t is delivery, in atin and sligtly ig!itced or nasal voice, tended to !(t me to slee!. 2ere 'ere no teAt#ooks, andone ad to take notesD - terefore asked maldi to 'rite for #ot of (s, since e 'rote faster tan -, andalso to 'ake me (! if - fell aslee!. Kolterra (sed to close is eyes 'ile

@ 3 @lect(ring and some#ody said tat tis 'as #eca(se, #eing kindearted, e did not 'ant to see test(dents s(fferings. EAce!t for tese s(!erficial sortcomings, te lect(res 'ere !rofita#le. nelearned te mysteries of te 7a!lacian, =reens f(nctions, Poisson #rackets, and similar to!ics. -tseemed sometimes tat Kolterra did not 'ant to reveal te !ysics (nderlying te e0(ations and teanalogies #et'een different teories. fter taking a co(rse on elasticity and one on analyticalmecanics, - !assed te eAam 'it te igest grades. - remem#er tat to so' my !roficiency -mentioned te analogy #et'een some elasticity coefficients and te ca!acity coefficients ofelectrostatics. - so(ld not ave done it. Kolterra c(t me sort, remarking tat e ad not mentioned tisin is lect(res, almost as if e disliked my revealing a secret.

Kolterra al'ays treated me very kindly. - visited im in is residence in a !ala**o at te center of6ome. ;e received me in is magnificent li#rary and gave me some re!rints of is !a!ers on tea!!lications of matematics to #iological !o!(lation !ro#lemsD later e el!ed me to sec(re a6ockefeller fello'si!. ;e 'as, o'ever, far removed from c(rrent !ysics, 'ic did not seem tointerest im. Cor#ino, in one of is sar! remarks, once said tat matematical !ysics as !racticed in-taly 'as te )teoretical !ysics of 1N3$.)

University r(les re0(ired !reliminary disc(ssion 'itin te de!artment of ones doctoral dissertation !rior to te final !(#lic eAamination. - !resented a modest !iece of eA!erimental 'ork on anomalo(sdis!ersion in merc(ry and in liti(m va!or.13F -t 'as certainly no great sakes, #(t it 'as a#ove teaverage ten !revailing at 6ome. &en - 'ent for te disc(ssion, - fo(nd a committee com!osed ofermi, 6asetti, and 7o S(rdo. 7o S(rdo immediately s'am!ed me 'it 0(estions on all !ossi#le ty!es

of interferometers, 'ic - did not kno', alto(g, of co(rse, - ad mastered te ins and o(ts of te+amin interferometer - ad (sed. ;e ten !assed to o!tical feat(res of crystalline 0(art*, alto(g myo'n a!!arat(s ad an o!tics of amor!o(s f(sed 0(art*. - correctly told im tat my 'ork 'as notaffected #y te !ro!erties of crystalline 0(art*. 7o S(rdo concl(ded, o'ever, tat -

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did not kno' 'at - 'as doing, tat - 'as s(!erficial and ignorant. 2is #eavior 'as !ec(liar and



(n!recedented. - 'as f(rio(s, and after te eAamination - 'aited (ntil 7o S(rdo ad left te #(ildingand ten 'ent to is office, 'ere - fo(nd (st 'at - ad eA!ected. Piled on is desk lay a co(!le of #ig =erman treatises, o!en at te !ages dealing 'it interferometers. 2e good man ad !re!ared forte occasion in order to make a fool of me.

fe' 'eeks later, on +(ly 9t, te formal disc(ssion of my tesis took !lace, 'it eleven !rofessors inattendance, among tem Severi, 7eviCivita, Kolterra, ermi, and te yo(ng Beniamino Segre,

s(#se0(ently a 'ellkno'n matematician. Cor#ino 'as a#sent. - disc(ssed as a s(#ordinate s(#ect,given to me #y Kolterra, some !ro!erties of !artial differential e0(ations of te second order, 'ic arem(c more !rofo(nd tan - reali*ed at te time. inally, - 'as eAc(sed and left te room, #(t -overeard te follo'ing eAcange:

SEKE67 K-CES : );e did 0(ite 'ell. 7et (s give im te maAim(m.)

SEKE6- 6 7EK-C-K-2 :

)es, for s(re, #(t - !ro!ose also c(m la(de.)

77 2=E2;E6 : )Kery 'ell, ten let it #e no c(m la(de.)

7 SU6 : )/o, - o#ect.)

SEKE6- : )B(t 'e are ten to one in favor.)

7 SU6 : )es, #(t te reg(lations re0(ire (nanimity.)

SEKE6- : )2e reg(lations are idioticO 2oo #adO)

- m(st say tat te eAcange - eard com!ensated me for te la(rels - missed. ifty years later,Beniamino Segre, #y ten a famo(s !resident of te ccademia dei 7incei, still c(ckled 'enreminding me of te scene.

fter com!leting my doctorate, - ad to satisfy te military o#ligations !rescri#ed #y la', 'ic - didat a recently instit(ted army officers training scool in S!oleto, an ancient to'n in Um#ria, no' #estkno'n for its s(mmer festivals. /ot long #efore - 'ent tere, - met 7o S(rdo in te street one day. ;esto!!ed me, in0(ired 'at - 'as doing, and commented: )SoD yo( 'ill go to serve in te army.

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&ell, yo( 'ill forget everyting. rdinarily it is a fatal interr(!tion in ones scientific career. fter yo(rdiscarge it 'o(ld #e #etter for yo( to look for anoter !rofession.) - tanked im for te friendlyadvice and to(ced 'ood 8-talian style one to(ces someting else. -n o(r love for te gentleman, 'ead given im a re!(tation of casting te evil eye, and 'e ad am!le corro#oration of tisHforeAam!le, of an a!!arat(s #lo'ing (! 'it catastro!ical conse0(ences as soon as e looked at it.

7o S(rdo occ(!ied a 'ing of te !ysics #(ilding on te same floor as (sD e also ad an assistant,



(s(ally an insignificant fello'. ;e treated im in a 'ay no scientist, even a #eginner, 'o(ld avetolerated. 7o S(rdos researc is insignificant, 'it te eAce!tion of a metod for o#serving tes!litting of s!ectral lines 'en te so(rce is in an electric field. 2e !enomenon is te electric analogof te magnetic Leeman effect and is (s(ally called te Stark effect. -t is likely tat 7o S(rdo ado#served it #efore Stark, #(t certainly e did not (nderstand 'at e sa', !ossi#ly conf(sing it 'it ao!!ler effect. &en, a co(!le of monts later, Stark anno(nced is discovery, 7o S(rdo 'as dee!ly

disa!!ointed at aving missed te #oat and tried to esta#lis is !riority on saky gro(nds. Cor#ino adfavored 7o S(rdos call to 6ome o!ing e 'o(ld el! to raise te level of te !lace. ;is eA!ectationscame to noting, and several years later Cor#ino #et on ermi 'it te same aim. ;e 'as disg(sted #yte ealo(sy so'n #y 7o S(rdo and on f(rter !rovocation gave im a memora#le lesson.1JF

n Cor#inos deat in 193%, 7o S(rdo 'as a!!ointed director of te Pysics -nstit(te in !reference toermi. - do not kno' o' e 'angled te a!!ointment. fter te !rom(lgation of te infamo(s racialla's, e so'ed (n(s(al and (nnecessary antiSemitic *eal. or instance, e locked te venera#leProfessor Casteln(ovo, is colleag(e for many years, o(t of te li#rary of te !ysics de!artment. ;eearned Edoardo maldis gratit(de, o'ever, #y el!ing im to ret(rn from military service in 7i#yad(ring &orld &ar --.

t te end of te 'ar, 7o S(rdo 'as dismissed from te ccademia

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dei 7incei and eA!erienced some retri#(tion for is fascist *eal. &en - ret(rned to -taly for te firsttime in 19J%, e asked to see me. 2e (ndignified and servile manner in 'ic e greeted me did notim!rove my o!inion of im. - told im coolly tat - kne' o' e ad #eaved d(ring te 'ar, tat -ad a good memory, and tat e did not need to !ay is res!ects to me. ;e died a#o(t a year later. 7etim rest in !eace. ;e ad #een genero(s to me in letting me (se is s!ectrosco!es at te #eginning ofmy career.

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C%a*ter Fo3r+

S(ienti&i( S*ringtime -"#780"#$92,

Smell o& Amsterdam:s Canals

Ci lasciaron tal(ne (na fragran*acos[ tenace ce !er (na interanotre avemmo nel c(or la !rimavera

e tanto a(liva la solinga stan*ace foresta da!ril non !i\ dolce era.

8Some of tem left (s a fragranceso lingering tat 'e ad s!ringin o(r earts for a 'ole nigtDand te lonely room 'as so !erf(medtat no forest in !ril 'as s'eeter.



=a#riele nn(n*io, )7e mani,) from Poema !aradisiaco8trans. 7o(ise =eorge Cl(##

2e laurea tat entitled me to call myself r. Segrè com!leted my formal scolastic career, #(t myst(dy of !ysics 'as to #e a lifelong occ(!ation. -n fact, most of te !ysics tat 'as to form tes(#ect of my later 'ork did not eAist 'en - 'as at (niversityD not even in an em#ryonic state. 2ene(tron and artificial radioactivity 'ere far in te f(t(re, not to mention !article !ysics.

;aving finised (niversity, - 'as tinking of te neAt ste!, 'ic - o!ed 'o(ld #e an assistantsi! at6ome. - did not ave to 'orry a#o(t earning money, #eca(se my fater co(ld s(!!ort me 'ito(t anysacrifice and 'o(ld do so gladly, #(t - 'anted a salary as an ackno'ledgment of my 'ork, alto(g notat te !rice of taking a o# tat migt endanger my scientific !ros!ects.

or te !resent, f(lfilling my military o#ligations 'o(ld give me

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time for reflection. t te officers training scool in S!oleto to 'ic - 'as sent, - entered a 'orld(tterly ne' to me. 4y ne' comrades came mostly from te -talian #o(rgeoisie, from every region of-talyD most of tem 'ere la'yers, literary men, small #(sinessmen or lando'ners, 'it very fe'engineers or tecnicians.

isci!line 'as strict and (nreasona#le. ne of te main occ(!ations 'as canging ones (niform atig s!eed many times a day. 2ere 'as eno(g food, #(t it 'as of !oor 0(ality. &e 'ere ta(gtmainly #y noncommissioned officers, 'o 'ere a!!y to dis!lay teir a(tority and *eal, (singmetods reminiscent of te Catolic catecism, occasionally !e!!ered 'it cr(elty. - 'as assigned tote artillery section, and a maor gave (s teoretical g(nnery co(rses, 'ose content 'ent #ack to a#o(t1N9$.

ne of my comrades 'om - vividly remem#er 'as a 4ar0(is 7ignola, 'o #elonged to anaristocratic /ea!olitan family. ;e considered te Bo(r#ons, o(sted from /a!les in 1NG$, to #e islegitimate r(lers and regarded te ;o(se of Savoy as (s(r!ers. 7ignola 'as small and some'atcl(msy. 2e oter st(dents !rovoked im into eA!ressing is eAtreme o!inions and ten sc(rrilo(slymade f(n of im. 2e victim t(rned is eyes to eaven and )offered is s(fferings to +es(s,) so'ingco(rage, eAtreme firmness in is o!inions 8te !o!e ad erred in dealing 'it te (s(r!er, and strengtof caracter. Soon is tormentors started to res!ect im and left im in !eace.

2e strictly disci!lined military life and lack of freedom 'ere #oring, #(t restf(l, #eca(se one did notave to tink of anyting or make any decisionsD te sergeants !rescri#ed all o(r activities. - ad taken'it me several #ooks: Co(rant and ;il#erts Methoden der mathematischen -hysi/& scar &ildes The

-icture of )orian 0ray& and similar esoteric reading. - (sed to read tem d(ring a com!(lsory siesta

!eriod after l(nc, lying on my field #ed. 2e #ooks, in foreign lang(ages to #oot, allo'ed me to !(ton airs 'it my comrades, #(t also s!irit(ally trans!orted me far from my military s(rro(ndings. fe''eeks after te #eginning of instr(ction, 'e ad a free S(nday, and a comrade and - (sed te sortf(rlo(g #y going to =(##io and oter !laces near S!oleto. - still remem#er te eAilarating im!ressionof aving regained

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o(r freedom, al#eit only for a sort time. &e manifested it #y carrying o(r eavy army s'ords on o(r



so(lders like oes. -t 'as a cildis gest(re, 'ic co(ld ave #ro(gt (n!leasant !(nisment ifdetected. little later - 'as called to ead0(arters and given tree or fo(r days f(rlo(g for omMi!!(rD - did not kno' - 'as entitled to tis leave and 'as !leasantly s(r!rised. Several of mycomrades !ro!osed converting to +(daism if tat !rod(ced leaves of a#sence. - 'ent to 6ome #y train, !(t myself in m(fti, reoicing in contact 'it te soft flannel of my elegant tro(sers, and, 'ellgroomed, 'ent to co(rt 6enata +.

V(ite (neA!ectedly one day, ermi and is 'ife 7a(ra so'ed (! in S!oleto in teir small yello'Pe(geot car. 2e visit greatly raised my s!irits #eca(se it gave me an o!!ort(nity to res(me contact'it !ysics and #eca(se it demonstrated tat my Pysics -nstit(te friends remem#ered me.

t te officers training scool - ad my dose of small advent(res, s(c as falling off my orse rigt infront of an ins!ecting general. - immediately got to my feet, (narmed, and gra##ed te orse #y its #it.2e good general kindly commented to me tat any#ody co(ld #e tro'n #y a orse, and tat e ada!!reciated te 'ay in 'ic - ad done te correct ting #y !reventing te animal from r(nning a'ayO- noted tat 'enever tere 'as an ins!ection #y some visiting #ig'ig, - 'as al'ays called (!on to aimte g(ns. 4y s(!eriors ad soon discovered tat - 'as to #e tr(sted to make te re0(ired sim!lecalc(lations correctly, 'ito(t sign errors, 'ic occasionally !ointed te g(ns #ack'ard.

- grad(ated from te officers training scool on +an(ary --, 19?9, and res(med 'ork at te la#oratory(ntil te follo'ing +(ly 1, 'en - 'as commissioned a second lie(tenant in te antiaircraft artilleryand stationed at orte Brasci, very near 6ome, as - ad re0(ested. n tis assignment, - did not avem(c to do. - sle!t at ome, going to te #arracks early in te morning 'it some #ook on !ysics tost(dy. ;o'ever, in my military service, - learned many oter tings #esides !ysics. 4y ca!tain ta(gtme a card game called scopone , 'ic - greatly enoyed, and also revealed to me novel attit(des tolife. - ad #een #ro(gt (! 'it te idea tat - so(ld 'ork, tat everyting ad

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to #e taken serio(sly, and tat - 'as eA!ected to eAcel, or at least to do 'ell. rom my ca!tain - learned

tat *eal 'as a grave fa(ltD tat many !ro#lems took care of temselves !rovided tey 'ere left aloneDand tat 'en one received an order, contrary to 'at 'e ad #een re!eatedly told, !rom!t eAec(tion'as im!r(dent, and tat it 'as advisa#le to a'ait its co(ntermanding. (rtermore, contact 'it tesoldiers gave me a cance to get to kno' contem!oraries of very different ed(cation and from diversesocial and economic conditions. - co(ld also see firstand te differences #et'een soldiers from tevario(s -talian regions. 2e (nomogeneo(sness of -talys !o!(lation 'as s(c tat soldiers often didnot ave a common lang(age, (sed as tey 'ere to s!eaking dialect. &e ad orders, moreover, to see toit tat soldiers from te riceeating nort and tose from te !astaeating so(t did not tro' a'ay teirrations on alternate days, 'en te food (n(s(al for tem 'as served.

s a commissioned officer, - #o(gt myself secondand a gorgeo(s #l(e ca!e, 'ic, alto(g not a

very efficient !rotection against cold, 'as certainly elegant. &en - finised my service - sold it toEdoardo maldi, ten also an officer.

(ring my service in 6ome, - managed to go once in a 'ile to te la#oratory and kee! in to(c, #(t -did not ave time for eA!erimental 'ork. ne day - 'as (rgently called from te #arracks at orteBrasci to te Pysics -nstit(te at Kia Panis!erna. or some reason, all te scientists 'ere a'ay, and tefactot(m of te instit(te, 'o did not kno' Englis, 'as faced 'it an o#vio(sly im!ortant -ndianvisitor 'it 'om e co(ld not comm(nicate. - r(sed do'n and fo(nd tat te visitor 'as none lesstan Sir Candrasekara Kenkata 6aman 81NNNQ19%$, 'o in 193$ received te /o#el Pri*e in !ysics for is 'ork on te diff(sion of ligt and te discovery of te 6aman effect, on 'ic 6oman



!ysicists ad done im!ortant 'ork. - did te onors as 'ell - co(ld, (neA!ectedly el!ed #y #eing indress (niform, 'it a #l(e sas and cons!ic(o(s gold e!a(lettes. 6aman #elieved tat - ad dressedlike tis to onor im and tanked meD - did not disill(sion im #y revealing tat te tr(e reason 'as;.4. te V(eens #irtdayO

(ring my military service, - 'as once (n(stly !laced (nder arrest

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for someting - ad not done. By cance, - mentioned tis to a friend of mine, 'o 'ito(t mykno'ledge s!oke a#o(t it to is fater, a !o'erf(l general. &it s(r!rising s!eed, my !(nisment 'ascomm(ted to a m(c ligter !enalty, and te colonel 'o ad condemned me 'ito(t even talking tome m(st ave fo(nd imself in serio(s tro(#le. - 'as discarged as a second lie(tenant on e#r(ary 1,193$, and !laced in te reserve.

-n 19?N - ad !(#lised my first !ysics !a!er ointly 'it Edoardo maldi, a sort note in te endiconti of te ccademia dei 7incei, introd(ced #y Cor#ino, s(mmari*ing my doctoral tesis.1F2e follo'ing year, maldi and - !(#lised a second !a!er, dealing 'it te 6aman effect.?F - did

m(c early 'ork 'it maldi, #(t #eca(se te r(les ten !revailing in (niversity com!etitions !enali*ed colla#orative efforts, 'e often divided te 'ork in a friendly fasion after 'e ad finised ittogeter.

/eAt - 'rote a !a!er on anomalo(s dis!ersion in molec(lar #and s!ectra. 2e ensem#le of tea#sor!tion lines near te ead of a #and gives a !ec(liar variation of te refractive indeA, 'ic -eA!lained 'it ermis el!.3F -n a#o(t te same !eriod, maldi and - !rod(ced a co(!le of !a!ers inte 'ake of ermis st(dy on 0(ant(m electrodynamics. 2ey contained res(lts similar to tose of afamo(s and often 0(oted !a!er #y E(gene &igner and Kictor &eissko!f. (r 'ork 'as done earlier,alto(g less detailed.JF

ermi o#served strict r(les concerning te !(#lication of is 'ork and tat of is st(dents. ;e did not

!ermit !(#lication of com!letely insignificant res(lts. 6es(lts of little im!ortance a!!eared only in-talian. ;e allo'ed !(#lication in te 1eitschrift f2r -hysi/& or as a letter to 3ature& only of !a!ers econsidered im!ortant. 2is 'ise !olicy 'as motivated #y is desire to esta#lis an internationalre!(tation for o(r 6ome gro(!. ;e did not 'ant any foreign reader ever to #e disa!!ointed in readingone of o(r !a!ersD tere so(ld al'ays #e someting interesting in tem. ;e a!!lied tis r(le strictly,and is (dgment on te 0(ality of an investigation rarely erred.

(rtermore, 'en ermi develo!ed a teory ca!a#le of many a!!lications, s(c as is 0(ant(m teoryof radiation, e eA!lained te

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!rinci!les to (s, gave some eAam!les, and ten left to (s te satisfaction of finding f(rter a!!lications. /ot a little of te 'ork of tis !eriod started o(t like tis.

)o( live off ermis cr(m#s,) my fater, 'o kne' no !ysics, #(t 'as a sre'd o#server and kne'men, once told me. 2is 'as 0(ite tr(e, and - did not forget it. nly later 'as - a#le to do sometingtr(ly my o'n. 4y moter, 'o 'anted to kno' 'eter my st(dying !ysics 'o(ld lead any'ere,once asked ermi 'at e to(gt of my a#ility. 2e evertr(tf(l ermi ans'ered, correctly ando#ectively, tat it 'as too early to !ass (dgment and make !redictions. - 'as not !resent at tisconversation, #(t kno'ing #ot !arties, - am s(re tat my moter contin(ed 'orrying a#o(t te



!erfectly onest ans'er se received.

-n te late 19?$s and early 193$s, 'e 'orked intensely, #(t in a relaAed 'ay. &e (sed to read te mostim!ortant o(rnals, s(c as te 1eitschrift f2r -hysi/& 3ature& and te -roceedings of the oyal Society& eclectically, (nting for eA!erimental ins!iration. 4y official o#Ha relic of times !astH'as tat of)Conservator of te 2(ning ork,) a sinec(re tat amo(nted to an assistantsi!. &en st(dents camelooking for researc s(#ects, even in teoretical !ysics, tey 'ere often referred to me, #eca(se -

(s(ally ad a good s(!!ly of ideas. - 'o(ld s(ggest a !ro#lem and eA!lain it to te st(dent in detail.;o'ever, 'en it came to tecnical details, - often ad to send te st(dent to ermi, 'o instantly gavete key to te sol(tion. 2e !ro#lems - set 'ere (s(ally in atomic !ysics or connected 'it it. - askedermi 'y e did not give o(t te !ro#lems imselfD e ans'ered tat tose e to(gt of 'ere (s(allytoo diffic(lt for st(dents, and tat tose at teir level did not interest im. &en ermi and - coa(tored !a!ers, - 'as often entr(sted 'it te 'riting. - did not mind 'riting, and - 'as !ro(d of teassignment. )-t is clear tat since yo( 'ill never get te /o#el Pri*e for Pysics, yo( are !re!aringyo(rself for te 7iterat(re Pri*e,) my friends teased.

2e st(dy of teoretical !ysics at 6ome !rogressed (nder f(ll sail. ermi 'as o#vio(sly not only afirstclass teoretician #(t a s(!er# teacerD one co(ld not ask for more. ;e ad contacts tro(gconfer

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ences and visits 'it te !rinci!al teoreticians of is o'n age, as 'ell as 'it rnold Sommerfeld,Pa(l Erenfest, and some oters of te !revio(s generation. Soon !ostdoctoral fello's from a#roadstarted to come to im, to learn and 'ork (nder is ins!iration. mong te first to arrive 'ere ;ansBete, 6(dolf Peierls, and =eorge Plac*ek, 'o acclimati*ed imself to 6ome #etter tan te oters,learning -talian and striking (! a solid !ersonal friendsi! 'it maldi and myself. ters 'ofollo'ed incl(ded Ed'ard 2eller, rit* 7ondon, eliA Bloc, . 6. -nglis, and E(gene een#erg, 'o #ecame 4aoranas !artic(lar friend.

2e sit(ation in eA!erimentation 'as different. ne cannot learn te eA!erimental art from #ooks, and'e felt te need to go see 'at a!!ened else'ere and to learn tecni0(es on te s!ot 'ere tey'ere !racticed. ranco 6asetti 'as te first to take off, in 19?9, going to te California -nstit(te of2ecnology at Pasadena, ten dominated #y 6. . 4illikan. - do not kno' 'at infl(enced is coice.2e 6ockefeller o(ndation granted im a fello'si!.

2e 6ockefeller o(ndation 'as a great #enefactor of !ysics in tat !eriod, el!ing it tro(g tegeneral economic de!ression and, later, ;itlers !ersec(tions. sre'd and farsigted coice ofello's 'as at te #ase of te o(ndations s(ccess. 7ooking today at a roster of ello's of tat !eriod, one 'onders at te sagacity of te selection, and te 'onder gro's 'en one considers tatello's 'ere a!!ointed at an early age, often #efore te 'ork tat later disting(ised most of tem.

2e selection occ(rred on te #asis of recommendations #y t'o or tree esta#lised !rofessors 'omte o(ndation tr(sted, mostly in te a!!licants co(ntry of origin. -n -taly, it seems tat tese advisors'ere Kolterra, 7eviCivita, and Cor#ino, a coice tat in itself so's te o(ndations sagacity. lltree 'ere onest, eA!erts on teir s(#ects, and 'ell informed a#o(t te local sit(ation. 2ey 'ere notin te good graces of te ascist government, #(t if tis 'as resented in -talian ig !laces, it did notmatter to te o(ndation.

6asetti did very 'ell scientifically and !ersonally at Caltec. ;e accom!lised im!ortant 'ork on te6aman effect in gases and fostered



a 'eek later - received a letter anno(ncing te grant of te fello'si!. lto(g e never told me so, -s(s!ect tat Leeman may ave ad a and in it. &en - left msterdam to ret(rn to 6ome, Leeman toldme tat 'enever - 'anted to come #ack to 'ork in is la#oratory, - 'o(ld #e 'elcome. - s(#se0(entlytook advantage of tis cordial invitation, ret(rning to st(dy different ty!es of for#idden lines, al'aystogeter 'it my original co'orker and friend, Bakker. Leeman also gave me a !ict(re of imself 'ita 'arm inscri!tion. ;e 'as not far from retirement and !ossi#ly to(gt of me as one of is last

disci!les.(ring my stay in ;olland, - #ecame ac0(ainted 'it its cigars. Leeman invited me to a co(!le of veryformal and elegant dinners at is ome, on te occasion of 'ic e offered is g(ests eA0(isite cigars,'ic - liked. - noted te #rand and ke!t #(ying it, alto(g - later s'itced to tto Sterns favorite #rand, 'ic 'as availa#le in =ermany and 'as e0(ally good.

4any monts after !(#lication of o(r !a!ers on 0(adr(!ole radiation, - received Backs res!onse to mya!!lication to 'ork in is la#oratoryD in re!ly - sent im a re!rint of o(r 'ork.

-n te s(mmer vacation of 1931, - 'ent to England for te first time. Bet'een te day Leemans la#closed for te s(mmer vacation and a date - ad 'it maldi and 6asetti for a iking to(r in /or'ay,tere 'as time for a sort visit to 7ondon. - #oarded a si! and sa' a yo(ng man, a#o(t my age, 'it

skis. -t occ(rred to me tat e 'as !ossi#ly a st(dent 'o ad s!ent te 'inter in =ermany at some(niversity and

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'as no' ret(rning ome. ;a*arding a 'ild g(ess, - asked im 'eter e ad #een st(dying 'itSommerfeld. -ncredi#ly, my s(rmise t(rned o(t to #e rigt, and te yo(ng man 'as a#sol(telyfla##ergasted. ;e 'as very friendly, fo(nd me a s(ita#le otel in 6(ssell S0(are, and offered to el!me to orient myself in 7ondon. -n eAcange, e asked tat - oin im for my first Englis #reakfast, #eca(se e 'anted to see my reactions. Undeterred, - ate !orridge and addock and drank tea, all of'ic - liked, m(c to my ne' friends s(r!rise.

4y first im!ression of England in 1931 'as of a great im!erial !o'er at s(nset. s - 'rote ome, onesa' a to(sand signs tat te co(ntry ad !assed its *enit. 4y !arents ad 'itnessed te coronation ofEd'ard K-- in a very different, s!lendid !eriod. &ile in England, - visited Cam#ridge, 'ere - sa' +.+. 2omson #(t did not talk to im.

Soon tereafter, - met maldi and 6asetti in slo. &e ad !lanned a long iking tri! on /or'aysglaciers. &e left slo #y train and aligted at ? .4. at insoe in dayligt. &e started 'alking on te;ardanger ell (ntil 'e reaced te sea. 7ater 'e eA!lored oter fords #y #oat and on foot.

n my ret(rn to 6ome, - ke!t 'orking on for#idden lines and fo(nd oter interesting feat(res of teirLeeman effect, revealing teir origin, in cases 'ere tey co(ld not #e te res(lt of 0(adr(!oleradiation. (rtermore, teory indicated tat tere so(ld also #e for#idden 0(adr(!ole lines in Yrays!ectra. - made a systematic searc of te literat(re to see if #y cance some#ody ad o#served tem'ito(t (nderstanding teir origin. 2o my oy, - fo(nd tat tat 'as indeed te case.1$F ll tis 'ork'as noted, and - ad te satisfaction of seeing myself 0(oted in a ne' edition of Sommerfelds famo(streatise, Atombau und Spe/trallinien .11F Sommerfeld 'as al'ays ready to el! yo(ng scientists andad eAcellent relations 'it te 6ome gro(!.

-n line 'it o(r !rogram of learning ne' eA!erimental tecni0(es a#road, ermi s(ggested - s!end my6ockefeller fello'si! in ;am#(rg, 'ere - 'o(ld #e a#le to st(dy vac((m tecni0(e 8one of o(r'eaknesses and molec(lar #eams (nder tto Stern.1?F ;e made te necessary arrangements 'it



Stern, and at te end of 1931, - set o(t.

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ermi and oter friends ad descri#ed ;am#(rgs 'retced climate and dark, 'et 'inters to me, and -fo(nd tat tey ad not eAaggerated 8tey did not, o'ever, kno' 'at came afterHtat is, te long,

#ea(tif(l nortern s!ring, (nkno'n in -taly. - installed myself satisfactorily in a rented room in a !rivate o(se. 2e 6ockefeller fello'si! sti!end of ]1$ !er mont made me ric and, to satisfy te(s(al !ride of s!oiled cildren 8 figli di pap$ , - did not 'ant any s(!!lement from ome. Soon aftermy arrival at ;am#(rg, follo'ing ermis advice, and as an act of co(rtesy, - visited te -talian cons(l.2is gentleman o!ened my eyes to te =erman !olitics of te time, and even more so to -talian foreign !olicy, giving me a 'ellreasoned lect(re on antiascism. -t seems tat among -talian officials tere'ere some 'o to(gt inde!endently and ad te co(rage of teir o'n convictions.

Stern 'as ten in te !rocess of making im!ortant discoveries and 'as entirely s(#merged in is 'ork.;e (sed to arrive at te la#oratory every morning at a#o(t 1$ oclockD at noon e ad l(nc 'it isassistants and g(est 'orkers, ten ret(rned to te la#, if necessary (ntil late in te evening. 2esced(le de!ended considera#ly on te #eavior of te instr(ments and te vagaries of te vac((m.

Stern s(ggested tat - finis an eA!eriment on te dynamics of s!ace 0(anti*ation and eA!lained temotivation and teory #eind it to me, as 'ell as te details of te eAisting a!!arat(s. 2is ad #een #(ilt #y my !redecessor, te merican 2. E. Pi!!s, 'ose fello'si! ad eA!ired #efore e co(ldo#tain res(lts. - asked Stern to teac me some !ysicocemistry, and in several conversations e gaveme interesting ill(minations of termodynamics.

fter a 'ile e left me to myself. - tried to learn tecni0(es #y 'atcing Stern, as 'ell as yo(nger !eo!le s(c as . Mna(er, tto risc, 6. Scn(rmann, and B. +ose!y. Sterns instit(te 'as small insi*e and in n(m#er of scientists, #(t in s!ite of tis tere 'ere not many eAcanges #et'een its'orkers. Scn(rmann 'as te most o!en, and e introd(ced me a little to =erman life. ters ad teirgirlfriends or oter concerns, and as soon as te days 'ork 'as done, tey left on teir o'n !rivate

#(siness. risc served as Sterns !ersonal assistant

@ %$ @

at tat time and 'as involved in t'o maor eA!eriments, a demonstration of de Broglies 'aves 'iteli(m atoms, and te meas(rement of te magnetic moment of te !roton.13F

Stern ta(gt me a 'ay of eA!erimenting tat - ad not seen #efore. ;e calc(lated everyting !ossi#lea#o(t is a!!arat(s, s(c as te sa!e and intensity of te molec(lar #eams e eA!ected to generate,and did not !roceed (ntil !reliminary eA!eriments 'ere in com!lete 0(antitative agreement 'it iscalc(lations. 2is mod(s o!erandi slo'ed do'n te !reliminary 'ork, #(t it sortened te total time #y

making it !ossi#le to avoid errors and 'as a#sol(tely necessary for te eAtremely diffic(lt eA!erimentsStern 'as cond(cting. 2e metod allo'ed im to locali*e so(rces of mis#eavior in is a!!arat(s andof fail(res, and to come to a firm decision as to 'eter tere 'ere ne' and (neA!ected res(lts, 'icocc(rred re!eatedly. -t 'as a rigoro(s and most (sef(l scooling, very different from Leemans, #(t (stas valid. - learned m(c from #ot, more in te !iloso!y of eA!erimentation tan in tecnical details.ears later, - sa' te totally different, m(c more !ragmatic and em!irical, a!!roac taken #y Ernest7a'rence. 2(tte le strade !ortano a 6oma.

2ere 'as also an active teoretical seminar at ;am#(rg. Pa(li ad #een tere (ntil recentlyD &illiamE. =ordon and later ;. . +ensen follo'ed im. ;ermann 4inko'ski, 'o later #ecame a noted



astronomer, 'as a lively mem#er of te com!any. &. 7en* 'as older, and e seemed to me lessinterested in c(rrent !ro#lems.

s to my o'n 'ork, aving toro(gly st(died te a!!arat(s - ad inerited, - concl(ded tat to makeit 'ork, tere needed to #e a radical cange in te metod (sed for !rod(cing certain magnetic fields,alto(g - ad no idea o' to acieve tis. - ad long admired +ames Clerk 4aA'ells Treatise on

Electricity and Magnetism 81N%3, o'ever, and one day, 'ile looking at an ill(stration in it of te

magnetic field !rod(ced #y a rectilinear c(rrent in a omogeneo(s magnetic field, - immediately sa'te sol(tion to my !ro#lem 'it molec(lar #eams. 2e teoretical analysis ad to #e canged, #(t tatseemed to me more feasi#le tan follo'ing Stern and Pi!!ss original eA!erimental !lan.

Stern a!!roved my idea as soon as e eard it, got me te fe' eAtra

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!arts - needed, and told me to re#(ild te a!!arat(s in te 'ay - !ro!osed. s to teory, - kne' 'omto look to for el!. - 'rote a letter s(#mitting my !ro#lem to Ettore 4aorana in 6ome, and soonreceived te ans'er - needed. By ten it 'as s!ring, and over te Easter vacation - 'ent to 6ome,

'ere - re!orted all - ad seen and disc(ssed at ;am#(rg. 2ere 'as eno(g to kee! my teoreticalfriends #(sy, and 4aorana, =ian Carlo &ick, and Ugo ano 'ere soon str(ggling 'it tree different !ro#lems strictly connected 'it te ;am#(rg eA!eriments.

- longed to find a girlfriend in =ermany 'it 'om to esca!e from my !riestly -talian life. 4yeA!eriences 'it girls of )good family) in -taly ad on te 'ole #een negative, and - ad reaced teconcl(sion tat if - 'anted to lead a normal life, - ad #etter look f(rter afield. nce in ;am#(rg, -got #(sy in tat direction, #(t it 'as not easy for a foreigner 'o s!oke te lang(age im!erfectly, 'odid not kno' local (sage and c(stoms, and 'o 'as not a#le to (dge !eo!le from s(#tle signs andgest(res, 'ic ad different meanings in =ermany and in -taly, to make te necessary contacts. -re!rod(ce ere some notes - made in 193?:

)1?, 13$O))Ein 4omentO 7angsamO)

Sterns im!atient voice, emerging 'it effort from te crevice left in is mo(t #y te largecigar e is smoking, recalls me to my d(ties. =alvanometers are insensitive to teim!atience of teir (sers, and one as to 'ait 1G seconds #et'een readings, even 'enone is in a (rry.

6eading te ligt s!ot of te reflecting galvanometer, Stern t(rns is #ack to me. - sitiger tan eD in te semidarkened room - can see only te ligt s!ot of te instr(mentand is sining sk(ll. - take advantage of my !osition to look at te clock: %:J? P.4. - m(starrive at te ;otel Es!lanade #y ND - am meeting a girl for a #lind date. 4y (!#ringing and

a certain sense of civalry (rge me not to #e late, not even one min(te, es!ecially in tis'intery 'eaterHit is f(ll e#r(ary in ;am#(rg. -n eigt min(tes at te latest - m(st geta'ayD no easy matter, #eca(se 'en ent(sed 'it is meas(rements, te #ossH)teCef,) as tey say ereH#ecomes intracta#le and does not recogni*e tat tere may #eo#ligations more !ressing tan molec(lar #eams. )-f te

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a!!arat(s so(ld s(ddenly fail<) - ardly dare to let te to(gt emerge to conscio(sness,



m(c less s(rre!titio(sly to t(rn a sto!cock and violently end te evenings 'ork. -n temeantime, - t(rn my !ointer too fast and earn a second scolding. -f Stern t(rned aro(nd, e'o(ld detect my im!atience.

fe' more !oints and te c(rve is com!leted. . . . &ill it s(ffice for te evening< - kno'te scene too 'ell, and - kno' 'at to eA!ect. 2ere is no !oint in del(ding myself. fterone meas(rement, anoter. 2is co(ld go on (ntil --. 2is time, o'ever, - 'ill overcome

my syness. t %.$, - ave decided, -ll 0(it.Stern t(rns aro(nd eAactly at %.JN. )Eno(g for te eveningO) &ito(t anoter 'ord, estands and eAits te la#. 2ele!aty< !atron saint< - s'itc off siA circ(it #reakers and t(rnfo(r or five sto!cocks to sec(re te a!!arat(s. - !(t on my overcoat, 'as my ands8Sterns fine Cologne soa! as an eAcellent fragrance, and - (se it 'it !leas(re, des!ite tefree*ing 'ater, take a last look at te vario(s dials, and r(s a'ay.

(tside, te free*ing air #lo's on me and - 'ant to r(n. - cross te s!ace to te Es!lanadetrotting.

)&ite gloves, a #lack at, a f(r overcoat, rater tall.) rom tis descri!tion - am s(!!osedto recogni*e te Unkno'n. ;o'ever, in tis cold and at tis o(r, tere 'ill #e fe' !eo!le.

-n fact, as soon as - arrive at te designated s!ot, - see a girl ste!!ing off a streetcar. Sea!!roacesD it is se.

)=ood evening, r^(lein .<)

)+aO)

)Segrè.)

)O)

fe' !erf(nctory sentences. -t is coldD 'e ave to decide 0(ickly 'ere to go. Ses(ggests te lster Pavilion, and - acce!t 'it alacrity. - ave already noted tat se s!eaksclearly eno(g for me to (nderstand er =erman easily. 2ank =od.

&e (rry to te lster Pavilion and take selter in te coffee o(se. 4y glasses, as (s(al,immediately fog (!D - #arely ave te time to notice tat te !lace is nearly em!ty. ll te #etter: 'e 'ant !rivacy and a minim(m of noise, not te cro'ded freedom of dancingfloors. 2e !lace is elegant, #(t almost deserted, 'ic makes me s(s!ect its !rices. - kno'from eA!erience 'at dangers l(rk in men(s. 2e to(gt is (n'orty, #(t - cannot ide itfrom myself. 'aiter a!!roaces to take o(r orders. Se orders a c(! of tea. - ask forcocolate, #eca(se tea gives me insomnia. 2e finance minister smiles. 2ea and cocolateare

@ %3 @economical, a good omen. =erman girls kno' te val(e of money in tese days ofde!ression. 4any str(ggle ard to make a livingH'o can forget te faces in testreetcars, morning and evening, d(ring te r(s o(r< ter girls ave learned te re'ardsof fr(gality from te movies. -n movie romances 'it a!!y endings, te eroine al'aysdrinks lemonadeD cam!agne is reserved for tose tat end #adly. Pleased #y er fr(gality, -s(ggest se try te cakeD se ref(ses and - insist, #(t to no avail.

-n te meantime, 'e ave started a conversation and - see er for te first time, or rater -



look at er caref(lly, !era!s 'it snakes eyes, as 'e okingly say of 6asetti. Se is'earing a #l(e s(it, of no !artic(lar distinction, as most middleclass girls ere do. - st(dyer face. Se is definitely !retty, - decide, #(t a fe' seconds later - cange my mind. 2isreversal occ(rs several times more, and - feel te need to find te reason for it. -t is teeAtreme mo#ility of er face, its most o(tstanding caracteristic. smile, a movement ofer mo(t, a #link of er eyes, canges er eA!ression !rofo(ndly.

ter'ise se as indifferent teet 8o, memories of te B(dden#rooks, a some'at largenose, vivid, sortsigted eyes, sort #lack air, !arted in te center, com#ed 'it a certainco0(etry. Se looks almost -talian, - tell er. - s(s!ect se migt #e +e'is, #(t - do not ask.- ave learned to ask as little as !ossi#le and to 'ait for information to emerge #y itself.-ndiscretion is te most direct ro(te to aversion.

2e conversation #egins 'it easy s(#ects: travel and #ooks, and - (nderstandimmediately tat - ave to do 'it an intelligent !erson. &e come to !oliticsH(s(ally it'o(ld #e te inconcl(sive, disorgani*ed, internal =erman !olitics, #(t tis time 'e start'it foreign !olitics. 4y !acifist remarks meet 'it cold and ske!tical ans'ersD in !art o(tof conviction, in !art o(t of contrariness, - eatedly insist. - receive a declaration of fait in /ational Socialism. -t is not an ardent declaration, #(t - am glad - did not ask 'eter se'as +e'is. 87ater - 'as to learn tat - 'o(ld not ave #een te first to in0(ire. =lad also #eca(se te same 0(estion 'o(ld ave #een #o(nced #ack at me.

Politics is al'ays dangero(s gro(nd, es!ecially in foreign co(ntries. - t(rn te conversationto a safer s(#ect: travel. By no' - kno' alf E(ro!e and it is not diffic(lt to find !lacesfamiliar to #ot of (s. &e talk of /or'ay. -taly is neAt, or rater te -taly se kno's, 'icis te 7ago di =arda region. - try to recall my memories of =ardone, 6iva, Sirmione, #(t -soon !erceive tat er im!ressions and recollections are more vivid and !recise tan mine.Se visited =argnano t'o years earlier 'it an a(nt and someone else. - #elieve =argnano, #(t te com!any is

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not clear to me. Eyes do not sine at te recollection of landsca!es only, nor a(nts ins!ires(c strong emotions. motorcycle seems to ave !layed an im!ortant !art in tis tri!. B(tte events at =argnano are no concern of mine, and it is getting late.

- !ro!ose to accom!any er ome. &e start on foot. &e !retend not to notice tat streetcarsare availa#le. -nstead, 'e 'alk te dark and nearly deserted streets. &e say little to eacoter as 'e 'alk: - imagine o' tese streets 'o(ld a!!ear in te s(mmer, 'it teirflanking trees in f(ll leaf.

&e say goodnigt at er door. - ret(rn #y streetcar on an itinerary destined to #ecome

disagreea#le to me from seer re!etition. S(ddenly - note tat in te long ride - ave landedin an (nfamiliar !art of ;am#(rg. - am angry at my mistake. - tink of te 6ockefellero(ndation tat !ays me, of ermi, of my 'ork, and - discover - am m(rm(ring to myselfin a dee! voice 8a so(venir of ermi, )&at a life, my son, 'at a life.)

/o' 'e meet fre0(entlyD going to te movies, to te teater, to dances, or at oter !laces'ere 'e can #e togeter 'ito(t too m(c talking and 'ito(t #oring o(rselves. Slo'ly'e start saring eac oters lives. Sometimes - recogni*e names tat rec(r in er talk. - tryto remem#er tem and to connect different facts. nce in a 'ile, - discover someting,and invol(ntarily my face ligts (!. 2e !eriod is interesting, to(g 'ito(t event. -t



resem#les te o(r #efore s(nrise, 'ic seems to contain te f(t(re of te neAt day,alto(g one is ignorant of 'at 'eater to eA!ect. - reali*e tat no' 'e are seeding tes(#conscio(s, for te f(t(re, and tat - m(st #e delicate, agreea#le, and avoid o!ening(n#ridgea#le casms. /ot everyting is am(sing, #(t occasionally a small accident, a sorteAcange, an a!!arently meaningless fact, make (! for te great sacrifice: te loss of slee!.- dimly feel tat te ten(o(s tie #inding (s is #ecoming stronger. . . .

ne evening 'e ret(rn ome a#o(t midnigtD it is not very cold, #(t 'indy and it issno'ing eavily, (n(s(al 'eater for ere. /o living so(l is on te streetD only 'e !ersist in'alking. 2e sno' sli!s off er !onyskin, #(t sticks to my overcoat and canges me into asno'man. - feel elated, enoying te cold air, t(rning my face to'ard te sno'. S(ddenly -remem#er te (ge 'ite dogs, gigantic see!dog !(!s, tat, many years ago, accom!aniedme to te Se#astiani ;(t in te #r(**i

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and d(g teir den in te sno' to slee! at nigt. - recall also te 'olf dogs - sa' in /or'ay,and - reoice almost 'it animal !leas(re. - take er arm and try to eA!lain my to(gts andsensations to er. Com!arisons 'it animals do not !lease erD se m(st ave somemeta!ysical idea of te s(!eriority of man in creation tat - do not sare. ;o'ever, tecarm of te (nct(re does not esca!e er, and - s(s!ect se m(st sare my mood.-nadvertently, - stroke te !onyskinD it as sort air, almost saved, and - feel tat, in tis'eater, it m(st #e comforta#le. ny'ay 'e kee! close to eac oter, so tat 'e feel o(r #odily 'armt. &e contin(e 'alking in silence from te center of te city, al'ays tro(gne' streets 8in o' many 'ays can one go from te center to er ome<. &e arrive, agreeting, a 'arm andsake, and ten - r(n off. nly no' do - #ecome a'are tat sno'consists of 'ater, and tat my overcoat as #ecome (n!leasantly 'aterlogged. 2e eat of astreetcar finises melting te sno' and, almost, te !oetry attaced to it. 2is eveningsometing ne' 'as in te air, and may#e te first s!ring flo'ers 'ere #looming (nder tesno'.

ne dance more. - ave arrived at te )Boccaccio) on te r(n, directly from te la#, and(ngry. 2e all is still em!ty, and 'e coose a good ta#le 'it te (tmost care. - look forsometing to eatD se takes er (s(al tea, #(t it is early, te orcestra does not !lay, and o(rmood is not (#ilant. Conversation lang(ises. - tell some of my (s(al stories, and inres!onse - ear some more tales of 7ake =arda. By no' - kno' tat a romantic interl(deand someting im!ortant in er life occ(rred tere. By no' it is also !lain tat te !artici!ants in tat eA!edition 'ere t'o and not tree. 2e a(nt as vanised into tinair. . . .

/o' 'e so(ld dance. - regret my !oor dancing and esitate to ask er. or te !resent, 'e

are good eno(g friends to sit at a ta#le 'ito(t #oring eac oter, and dancing 'it a !artner like me migt not #e !leasant. - tell er all tis frankly, and se re!lies, e0(allyfrankly, tat se 'ill tell me 'en se is ready to dance. - am reass(red.

#and !lays )=ood nigt, s'eeteart, all my !rayers are 'it yo(.) . . . -ts effect ismanifest: se asks me to dance. -t is already late, and - 'as tinking of going ome, #(t itno' seems tat a mood is 'aking (! in te all, and - find myself committed to a foAtroton a sining, overcro'ded floor, in a ot all. Someo' te first ro(nds of te foAtrot'ake me (!. S(ddenly - reali*e tat - like dancingD - like it more tan - ever liked it #efore.



antici!ate my ret(rn. - am a!!y, 'it a dee!, serene oy tat #rings a smile to my face andfits 'ell 'it te s!ring.

lto(g my girlfriend lived at ome 'it er !arents and 'orked in an office and - 'as #(sy atSterns instit(te, 'e 'ere occasionally a#le to meet d(ring te 'eek, and 'e al'ays tried to s!end te'eekends togeter. &e did not ave a car, #(t 'e did not miss one. P(#lic trans!ortation 'as efficientand took (s 'erever 'e 'anted to go. nce 'e crossed te 75ne#(rger ;eideH'ose vegetation,

ciefly (ni!er, called ,acholder , greatly resem#led te !i`ones - 'as to see later in /e' 4eAicoHonfoot.

-t 'as nat(ral tat 'e so(ld tink of marrying, #(t tere 'ere tremendo(s o#stacles, and as time 'enton, tey #ecame an ins(rmo(nta#le 'all. Se 'as a =erman nationalist and 'as #ecoming more andmore of a /a*i. - kne' eno(g of /a*i ideas to reali*e teir 'ickedness, #(t 'e avoided te s(#ect.&e !referred to live from day to day, enoying 'at 'e #ot kne' 'as one of te ricest !eriods of o(rlives. &e also felt, at least s(#conscio(sly, tat te o(r of reckoning 'o(ld come. -n an al#(m segave me at te end of 193?, se co!ied Scillers lines:

reifac ist der Scritt der LeitLZgernd kommt die L(k(nft erge*ogen,

Pfeilscnell ist das +et*t entflogenE'ig still stet die Kergangeneit.

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82reefold is te marc of time:&ile te f(t(re slo' advances,7ike a dart te !resent glances,Silent stands te !ast s(#lime.1JF

(ring te s(mmer 'e fo(nd some eAc(se for a vacation togeter in England. &aiting for er, - sa'

some more of 7ondon, and from tere 'e 'ent first to te so(t coast at Brigton. Soon 'e moved tote 7ake istrict, near &indermere, romantic !laces f(ll of literary reminders. &e serio(sly to(gt ofgoing on to =retna =reen and taking advantage of te local !rivileges allo'ing a fast and sim!le'edding. - did not kno' of te eAistence of te !lace and of its traditions, a#o(t 'ic se informedme. ter co(nsel !revailed, o'ever, and 'e did not !roceed 'it te !lan.

- ten ret(rned to ;olland and my for#idden lines, to 'ic - 'as attaced, alto(g - ad dro!!edtem d(ring my stay 'it Stern. 4y mood at te time is reflected in a diary entry - made in Se!tem#er193?:

/o' - am #ack in old msterdam, in te same room 'ere - read )ie 5atrin wird Soldat .1F . . . (t(mn is starting in Kondel!ark, and te first yello' leaves ave fallen to tegro(nd. 2e city . . . s!eaks to me of te !ast: 4oses en aron StraatD Sar!atistraatD&erteim!arkD tis . . . occidental +er(salem as a fascination . . . and S!ino*a as !era!sim!arted a . . . !iece of is so(l to me. B(t anoter image is m(c more vivid . . .D all tatas a!!ened since 4ay fills . . . my eart. . . . - !ossess an indestr(cti#le and incalc(la#letreas(re, #eca(se - ave no' ad my sare, and a ric one, of te s'eets of life. - avelived . . . 'at - desired in vain for years, and no' it is fair tat - s(#mit, #(t it 'ill not #e'ito(t a str(ggle, to a!!roacing fate.

U!on my ret(rn to 6ome - contin(ed asking myself 'at 'e so(ld do. n intense corres!ondencefollo'ed, and as soon as - co(ld, in +an(ary 1933, - ret(rned to ;am#(rg. &e s!ent more delicio(s



days togeter, #(t te fatal +an(ary 3$ on 'ic ;itler came to !o'er 'as a!!roacing.

E(ro!e no' seemed to me to #e destined for catastro!e. /at(rally - did not ac0(ire tis fore#oding inone dayD it gre' slo'ly. lready

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in 19?9, d(ring a tri! to =ermany 'it ngelo and 6asetti, - 'as dismayed #y te fanatic ent(siasm'it 'ic a gro(! of cildren on a #oat on te 6ine 'ere singing )e(tscland, e(tscland, 5#erlles.) 7ater events, my life in ;am#(rg in te last years of te &eimar 6e!(#lic, and conversations'it colleag(es convinced me of te deadly serio(sness of te /a*i menaceD tey 'ere a #and offanatics ready for anyting. - co(ld not antici!ate 'at )anyting) meant, #(t - incl(ded in it a maor'arHtat is, a 'orld 'ar, or at least a E(ro!ean 'ar.

-talys !osition seemed to me am#ig(o(s, and - did not kno' on 'ic side of te fence se 'o(ldcome do'n. - reali*ed tat te (ces #ig talk 'as mostly em!ty #om#ast. 4y !rofession fosteredcosmo!olitan attit(des and relations. Bot ermis and 6asettis ori*ons consistently eAtended #eyond-taly, and tey often considered emigration. -t 'as f(ndamental for me tat my 'ife sare my mo#ility,

#eca(se - migt find emigration from -taly desira#le or, =od for#id, necessary. ny f(t(re 'ife m(stagree 'it me on tis in advance. - sometimes to(ced on tis iss(e 'it my !ysicist friends, and -s!oke freely a#o(t it to 6iccardo 6imini. t tat stage, - 'as not tinking of te dangers of antiSemitism, #(t rater of te sit(ation as a 'ole.

t ome my !arents reali*ed te o#vio(sHtat tere 'as a =erman girl in te offing, and tat - 'as inlove 'it er. 2ey 'anted to avoid eA!eriences like tose tey ad ad 'it ngelo, 'ic 'ere aca(se of contin(ing 'orry to tem. s early as 4ay ?%, 193$, my moter ad 'ritten a #rief note to mea#o(t coosing a 'ife, a most (n(s(al !reca(tion for er. -t reflected er !references or !re(dices, #(tin te end it left te final say to me.

2ere are traces of te !revailing conflict #et'een reason and feelings in many of te letters -

eAcanged 'it my girlfriend in 1933. Se nicknamed me )t.d.,) te do(#ter, #eca(se - 'as addicted todo(#ting. - 'as not te first in my family to deserve s(c a nickname. 4y (ncle =ino 'as d(##ed)Cacad(##i) #y is #roters, #(t is do(#ts 'ere legal s(#tleties, and, - so(ld add, m(c a!!reciated #y is !eers.

-n te end, 'it 6iccardos s(!!ort, - faced (! to te fact tat my c(rrent relationsi! co(ld not #econd(cive to a!!iness, and tat marriage 'o(ld #e foolis. s(dden, final #reak 'o(ld ave (rt (stoo

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m(c, and - sa' my =erman girlfriend once more in ;am#(rg in 193% on my ret(rn from a !ysicsconference in Co!enagen. /oneteless, te end of te affair 'as dismal and left its marks.

Pera!s a little cynically, - decided to ado!t te !rinci!le )2e king is deadD long live te kingO) 2esooner - fo(nd someone else, te #etter. 2is 'as easier said tan done, o'ever. - did not eA!ect toom(c from -talian girls. -ndeed, !era!s - eA!ected too little of tem. 4y !arents on te oter and'ere eager to see me married to an -talian +e'is girl and s(ggested - meet some yo(ng 'omen 'olooked s(ita#le to tem. ne 'as in errara, 'ere 6iccardo 'as ten 'orking in a os!ital. n te !reteAt of visiting im, - met te girl, #(t - #arely remem#er er. fter te 'ar, - learned tat se ad #een m(rdered #y te /a*is.



7ater it 'as te t(rn of a /ea!olitan #ea(ty, 'o ad many advantages. &e 'ent for a 'alk togeterand - said someting like: )/eiter of (s is a cild, and 'e #ot kno' !erfectly 'ell 'y 'e are on tis'alk togeter. - 'ill s!eak o!enlyD #eca(se of my !rofession and oter circ(mstances, it is !ossi#le, oreven !ro#a#le, tat - sall end #y emigrating. &at do yo( tink of it< Co(ld yo( ada!t to life o(tsideof -taly<) 2e girl 'as some'at taken a#ack and altingly said tat se co(ld not live far from ermoter and from /a!les. 2at ended te conversation.

2ere 'as anoter -talian girl, 'om - ad loved for over ten years, and a#o(t 'om - ad to(gtserio(sly many times. 2e tro(#le 'as tat - did not s(cceed in con0(ering er eart in s!ite of manyefforts and great s(fferings on my !art, and se married some#ody else. - ave remained er constantfriend.

2e first (niversity com!etition - entered 'as s!onsored #y te University of errara and decided oncto#er 31, 193?. 2ere 'ere many com!etitors older and more ignorant tan -. mong mycontem!oraries, Br(no 6ossi already ad a re!(tation for is 'ork on cosmic rays. 2e (dges 'ereV(irino 4aorana, lfredo Pocettino, Carlo Somigliana, 7(igi P(ccianti, and ermi, 'o 'as te onlyone 'o (nderstood contem!orary !ysics. ermi, !reserving te secrecy de

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manded of te !anel, never told me 'at a!!ened, #(t - learned a#o(t it from oter so(rces. -t seemstat te maority of te committee said someting like: )&e ave te votes to do 'atever 'e 'ant, nomatter 'at yo( may say, Professor ermi. &e are, o'ever, considerate, and 'e sall !ermit yo( tocoose one candidate. &e sall coose te oter t'o.) nd tey selected . S!eccia and C. Kalle.ermi !ondered te sit(ation and cose 6ossi. - 'as t(s not one of te tree 'inners. ermi did notkno' it, #(t #y not selecting me, e ad conferred (!on me an inestima#le #enefit. -t 'as a tr(e #lessing in disg(ise, not te last of my life.

2is did not !revent me from s(lking for a 'ile. 6ossi and - 'ere virt(ally te same age, and o(r !a!ers, alto(g in very different fields, migt ave #een seen as of com!ara#le 0(ality. -t 'as noted

tat ermi ad !referred a lorentine to a 6oman, and to is !(!il. - am s(re tat ermis vote reflectedis dee!ly considered eval(ation of merit, and today, so many years later, - tink e 'as !ro#a#ly rigt.t te time, o'ever, ermi sa' tat - 'as angry and (na!!y. &it a rare so' of solicit(de andaffection, e told me tat - so(ld not #e angry, tat tere 'o(ld #e oter com!etitions, tat - 'asyo(ng, and tat 'at co(nted a#ove all 'as to do good !ysics.

;e !ro!osed tat 'e do some researc togeter, 'ic 0(ickly c(red my s(llenness. &e investigatedy!erfine atomic str(ct(res 'it a vie' to so'ing tat tey co(ld #e com!letely eA!lained #y ten(clear magnetic moment, and tat tere 'ere no oter n(clear forces at !lay. 2e !a!er 'es(#se0(ently coa(tored contains te standard ermiSegrè form(la.1GF (ring tis 'ork 'e la#oredtogeter for o(rs on end, and on a co(!le of occasions - fell aslee! o(t of eAa(stion 'ile ermi 'as

talking to me.-n te s(mmer of 1933 - visited merica for te first time. fter is 19?9 eA!eriences, 6asetti adst(ffed o(r eads 'it fa#(lo(s descri!tions of te United StatesHte !romised land, according to im.;e declared e co(ld not drive -talian cars anymore and im!orted a ord 4odel , in 'ic 'etraveled eAtensively. 6asettis tales !ers(aded ermi to go and see for imself, taking advantage of aninvitation in

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193$ from te University of 4icigan at nn r#or, 'ic eld famo(s s(mmer scools on teoretical !ysics. -nvitations 'ere eAtended to yo(ng E(ro!ean l(minaries, as 'ell as to a#o(t tirty mericanst(dents and !ostdoctoral fello's, and ermis old friend =. E. Ulen#eck, 'o 'as on te 4iciganfac(lty, al'ays attended. -n 6ome, ermi ad reform(lated P. .4. iracs 0(ant(m teory of radiationin a form m(c easier to (nderstand tan te original !a!ers and ad made many ill(minatinga!!lications of te teory. -n is co(rse at nn r#or, e re!orted on tis investigation 'it

eAtraordinary s(ccess. ;e 'as reinvited many times later, and 'enever e co(ld, e acce!ted. ermiloved te merican atmos!ere, and in !artic(lar nn r#or and its stim(lating scool. -n fact, e #ecame one of its mainstays.

-n 1933, ermi s(ggested tat - accom!any im, and - gladly acce!ted. - first sto!!ed at te 7ong-sland ome of =. 4. =iannini, a contem!orary of mine 'o ad also st(died !ysics in 6ome. 2en -moved to nn r#or, 'ere - sared a room in a filty fraternity #(ilding tat ad #een vacated for tes(mmer.

Bot ermi and - 'ere eager to im!rove o(r Englis !ron(nciation, and 'e asked some of te st(dentsto !oint o(t 'ere 'e 'ere 'eakest. -t seems tat o(r !ron(nciation of te letter r 'as !artic(larly #ad.- accordingly invented te eAercise )6ear dmiral Byrd 'rote a re!ort concerning is travels in teso(tern !art of te Eart,) 'ic 'e declaimed at least t'elve times a day, if !ossi#le in te !resenceof some#ody 'o co(ld correct (s. ermi and - #o(gt a secondand car from . 6. -nglis, 'ic 'enamed )2e lying 2(rtle) #eca(se of its !erformance, and to(red te state of 4icigan in it, eatingvery 'ell as te !aying g(ests of local farmers. &e t(s discovered delicio(s r(ral merican dises,'ic are diffic(lt to o#tain in te cities #eca(se tey re0(ire very fres vegeta#les.

2o (stify my !resence at nn r#or, - tried doing some eA!erimental 'ork, #(t te (mid eat of te !lace !revented me from 'orking efficiently and - did not get any'ere. -n trying to fit a r(##er t(#eonto a glass t(#e, - #adly c(t my left middle finger. - 'ent to te os!ital,

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and as soon as e sa' te 'o(nd, #efore - co(ld o!en my mo(t, te doctor said )o( ave #een tryingto fit a r(##er t(#e to a glass one.) 7ater - sa' oter victims of te same accident.

n my ret(rn to -taly, - felt tat alto(g - ad s!ent a year learning a#o(t molec(lar #eams, and adeven !erformed a credita#le eA!eriment 'it tem, - 'as more interested in for#idden lines, 'ic ada s!ecial attraction for me. fter te st(dy of 0(adr(!ole radiation, it 'as clear to me tat tere 'erealso oter mecanisms !rod(cing for#idden transitions, among tem te !resence in a discarge of ionstat created random electric fields. - devised a sim!le teory to eA!lain tis effect and verified it 'itBakkers el! #y st(dying te Leeman effect in a s(ita#le case.1%F

Besides (sing te field !rod(ced #y ions in te discarge, one co(ld tink of (sing an eAternal electricfield, (nder more controlla#le conditions. Bakker and a colleag(e named M(n !erformed tis

eA!eriment, 'ile =. C. &ick and - develo!ed te teory. 2ere 'ere some reasons for tinking tatte #eavior of !otassi(m and sodi(m 'o(ld #e different. Bakker ad st(died !otassi(m. maldi and -eA!erimented on sodi(m. (ring tese eA!eriments 'e o#served ig 0(ant(m states, corres!onding toenormo(s or#its. - called tem )s'ollen atoms)D today more scientifically, #(t less !ictorially, tey arecalled )6yd#erg states.)

&e noted ten tat te foreign gases 'e ad introd(ced into o(r a#sor!tion t(#es to !revent distillationdid not #roaden te lines as m(c as 'e ad feared, #(t rater, to o(r s(r!rise, sifted tem. &ementioned tis (neA!ected !enomenon to ermi, 'o to(gt a#o(t it a little and ten said tat it 'as !ro#a#ly #eca(se of te dielectric constant of te gas 'e ad added to te alkali va!or. 2is effect ad



to #e reckoned 'it, and e calc(lated it at once. ;o'ever, for some gases te o#served effect ad tesign o!!osite to tat eA!ected. S(r!rised, 'e 'ent #ack to ermi 'it te !(**le. 2is time it tookermi several days to come (! 'it an additional ca(se of level sifts, and e 'rote an im!ortant !a!eron te s(#ect, 'ic for te first time introd(ced te idea of 'at is no' called a )!se(do!otential.)S(#se0(ently - noted tat s'ollen atoms so(ld so' a term in teir Leeman

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effect, 0(adratic in te a!!lied field. -n te (s(al teory, tis term is (stifia#ly neglected, #(t -eA!erimentally so'ed its im!ortance in s(ita#le cases.1NF

2e 0(adratic Leeman effect, te sift of te lines, and te effect of te electric field on lines near teseries limit ave #een eAtensively investigated and no' form a s(#division of s!ectrosco!y. maldiand - s(mmari*ed o(r investigations in a revie' article tat a!!eared in a festscrift for Leemansretirement.19F

t a#o(t tis time my fater made an im!ortant decision tat 'as to affect te f(t(re of everyone in o(rfamily. ;e 'as over seventy years old and 'as increasingly inclined to leave te management of te

!a!er mill to 4arco, #y no' is (ndis!(ted s(ccessor, #eca(se ngelo 'as #(sy 'it com!letelydifferent matters and - 'as committed to !ysics. -n is #(siness, my fater caref(lly o#serveddevelo!ments, gave general directions, and as te sole stockolder ad te final say on everyting, #(te left te daytoday management to 4arco, 'om e tried to groom as is s(ccessor.

2e !a!er mill ad !ros!ered s(#stantially, #(t es!ecially in later years, ater ad cosen to invest !rofits in real estate rater tan in enlarging and moderni*ing te mill. - do not kno' 'yD !ossi#lytere 'as a certain amo(nt of tacit mistr(st of ascism and its economic !olicies. ;e also !lanned tedis!osition of is estate, 'ic e 'anted to divide into tree !arts of e0(al monetary val(e. ;eto(gt te mill so(ld go to 4arco, 'o 'orked tere, and tat ngelo and - so(ld receive assets 'eco(ld easily administer inde!endently of 4arco. -n recent years - ad #een a#road for eAtended !eriodsand ad often inted tat - migt emigrate. (rtermore, - ad seen /a*ism 'it my o'n eyes and ad

no ill(sions on te s(#ect.U! to 1933 - ad not !aid any attention to financial !ro#lems. Pa!T andled tem 'it m(c greatera#ility tan - co(ld o!e to m(ster, and - ad no money of my o'n. - ad occasionally intervened in !ersonnel 0(estions at te !a!er mill, in !artic(lar defending Bindo 6imini, 'o ad #een attacked #y4arco. -n tis connection - once made a tri! to lorence to investigate certain !a!er sales, and !rovedtat 4arco

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ad #lamed Bindo (n(stly. Bindo remained dee!ly gratef(l to me for my el!. - also introd(ced my

friend =iovanni erro7(**i at te !a!er mill, o!ing e migt kee! an eye on 'at 'as going on.-n years !ast, is foreign #(siness ad !rod(ced some assets o(tside of -taly, and my fater ad lefttem tere, as 'as legally !ermitted at te time. #o(t 1933, o'ever, te ascist government !rom(lgated ne' la's demanding te re!atriation of foreign money, 'it severe !enalties fortransgressors. 2ese la's 'orried my fater, and one day in te fall of tat year e invited a !rominent #anker 'o 'as is friend and advisor to is office, along 'it 4arco and myself, and asked for o(ro!inions on te s(#ect. 2e #anker at once said someting along te lines of: )o( did not leave tisnest egg overseas for times in 'ic te eA!ort of assets 'as !ermitted. o( left it tere for times likete !resent. 2e ne' la's are te #est !roof of te im!ortance and !r(dence of kee!ing s(c a



reserve.) ;e also !ointed o(t tat tere 'as c(rrently a fl(rry of ca!ital eA!orts on te !art ofind(strialists, !rofessionals, and !eo!le of means. &y so(ld my fater give (! is o'n safety net<2e arg(ment convinced me at once. (r friend ad it te nail on te ead.

ater said tat at is age e 'anted a 0(iet life. 4arco signaled is o'n im!ortance, saying 'at -eA!ected of im: e 'as in te limeligt and co(ld easily #e s(#ected to an investigationD e ad afamily to !rotect, and #eing s(c a !rominent ind(strialist, e ad to #e !r(dent.

-t 'as my t(rn to s!eak, and - said someting like: )- am a !ysicist 'o often 'orks a#road, and -migt emigrate. - am not a !erson in te !(#lic eye. o( may transfer te f(nds to my name, and - sallkee! te money for te #enefit of te 'ole family. - insist o'ever in #eing te only one 'it accessto te acco(nt.) Pa!T agreed on te s!ot and told me to make te necessary !rovisions for dis!osal ofte money in te event of my deat. ngelo 'as not cons(ltedD my moter 'as not !resent, #(t - ams(re tat my fater ad informed er.

2o make te necessary arrangements, - needed to go to S'it*erland 'ito(t attracting attention, so overte Cristmas vacation - 'ent skiing near te -talian #order 'it some friends, incl(ding te !ysicist

@ NG @=i(lio 6aca. &e enco(ntered fo(l 'eater, and, 'at 'it storms and avalances, - ad several closesaves. Esca!ing 'it noting 'orse tan a #roken ski, o'ever, - 'as a#le to enter S'it*erland'ito(t seeing any !olice or c(stom official. 2ere - transferred te money to my name and de!osited'it a notary a letter, to #e delivered only (!on !resentation of my deat certificate, giving access tomy acco(nt. -n tis 'ay 'e created a secret f(nd tat 'as to #e !rovidential five years later 'en -talystarted its racial !ersec(tions.

rom S'it*erland - ret(rned to -taly #y train and ten 'ent to te Kal =ardena to oin some !ysicistfriends 'o 'ere tere for a Cristmas skiing vacation. Several days ad !assed since my advent(ro(scrossing of te l!s, and as a res(lt of my falls on te fro*en sno', my #(ttocks ad ac0(ired

im!ressive green and #lack s!ots, of (es rarely seen. - co(ld not de!rive my friends of te f(n of s(ca sigt. 7ater, ermi, sitting on a #ed in te small otel room, eA!lained to (s is ne' teory of #etadecay, as yet (n!(#lised.

Pysics in te meantime 'as taking an im!ortant ne' t(rn for (s. or some time ermi, and 'e as aconse0(ence, ad #een making longrange scientific !lans. ermi felt tat te golden age of atomic !ysics 'as coming to an end, and tat te f(t(re lay 'it n(clear !ysics. -n a letter dated Se!tem#er9, 193?, e 'rote to me: )- ave no !rogram for neAt years 'ork: - do not even kno' 'eter - sallstart fooling aro(nd 'it te &ilson Clo(d Cam#er again, or if - sall again #ecome ateoretician. . . . 2e !ro#lem of e0(i!!ing te -nstit(te for n(clear 'ork is certainly #ecoming evermore (rgent if 'e do not 'ant to fall into a state of intellect(al sl(m#er.)

4y !ersonal reaction 'as tat 'e ad (st learned s!ectrosco!ic tecni0(es, 'it 'ic 'e 'ererea!ing good res(lts, and tat 'e migt !ersist in tat field a little longer. - 'as, o'ever, o!en toermis arg(ments. maldi and 6asetti also ad teir !oints of vie', and 'e ad long, livelydisc(ssions on te s(#ect. s 'as to #e eA!ected, ermis ideas !revailed, alto(g every#ody 'as leftfree to do 'at e liked #est. 2(s - contin(ed to 'ork eA!erimentally on s!ectrosco!y (ntil 'e startedo(r ne(tron 'ork. ;o'ever, 'e all increased o(r reading on n(clear s(#ects. s a #ridge #et'eens!ectrosco!y and

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so(rces emitted al!as, te m(c s(!erior efficiency of ne(trons overcom!ensates tis andica!. 2isis #eca(se te al!as are re!elled #y te n(clear carge and do not !enetrate te n(cle(s. 2e ne(tronson te oter and al'ays end #y !enetrating a n(cle(s.

2anks to te !revio(s years 'ork, 'e ad all te tools ready for testing tese ideas. 6asetti, 'o adcontri#(ted so m(c to it, 'as in 4orocco, 'ere te king 'as decorating im 'it some order. ermi

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recalled im #y telegram, #(t e ans'ered tat e did not 'ant to #e dist(r#ed. ermi !roceeded aloneand, (sing a 6n Be so(rce, tried to form ne' radioactive isoto!es in all elements, in order ofincreasing atomic n(m#er. ;e first s(cceeded 'it fl(orine 8L W 9.

2e neAt ste! 'as to try to activate all te elements, and to st(dy all te radioactive isoto!es formed.2is formida#le task 'as #eyond te ca!a#ilities of a single !erson, even of a ermi. ;aving str(ckscientific gold, e most genero(sly invited 6asetti, maldi, and me to take !art in its eA!loitation.

&e 'ere talking a#o(t te need for !rofessional cemical el! 'en scar gostino so'ed (! atte Pysics -nstit(te. ;e 'as a grad(ate of te de!artment of cemistry at te University of 6ome and

'as s!ending a !ostdoctoral fello'si! in 4arie C(ries la#oratory in Paris learning radiocemistry. ;ead ret(rned to 6ome for te Easter vacation. &e told im o(r !ro#lems, and ermi invited im to el!(s. ;e !ost!oned is ret(rn to Paris, and te delay eAtended indefinitely.

-n te ne(tron 'ork, eac of (s ass(med s!ecial d(ties, alto(g 'e colla#orated on all te !ases ofte investigation. ermi 'as te nat(ral cief, not in te sense tat e told (s 'at to do on a detailed #asis, #(t rater in tat e set te general g(idelines. -f tere 'as any !ro#lem, 'e talked it overtogeter, and it is not diffic(lt to g(ess 'ose 'ords carried most 'eigt. nce te !rogram 'asesta#lised, eac of (s took res!onsi#ility for some !art of it.

rom te very #eginning of te eA!eriments, 'e sa' tat 'e needed a minim(m amo(nt of money #eyond te Pysics -nstit(tes reg(lar endo'ment. ermi ad good relations 'it te Consiglio

na*ionale delle ricerce. ;e ad #een its secretary for !ysics, and - is assistant secretary. t te !resent (nct(re, ermi asked for el! from te C/6 and immediately o#tained ?$,$$$ lire 8ten a#o(tU.S. ]1,$$$. - do(#t 'eter any scientific grant as ever #een more fr(itf(l.

- 'as carged 'it !roc(ring 'at 'e needed for o(r 'ork. 7(ckily, tere 'as no #(rea(cracy. - co(ldcarry o(r money in my !ocketD it 'as not m(c, #(t - co(ld !ay cas on te #arrel. &it tis freedom,money m(lti!lied its !(rcasing !o'er in an asto(nding 'ay. or cemicals, - t(rned to a Signor2roccoli, an old and eA!erienced mercant

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'o took !ride in stocking a most eAtensive s(!!ly of cemicals. -n is yo(t e ad st(died in aseminary, and e liked to s!eak 7atin, once in a 'ile offering me some cemical tat ad #een on isselves for years )gratis et amore ei.) fter - eA!lained to im 'at 'e 'ere doing, te 'ortygentleman el!ed me in any 'ay e co(ld. ;o'ever, 'en, in my ignorance, - asked im for a sam!leof mas(ri(m, e ans'ered, )/(n0(am vidi) 8- ave never seen it. fe' years later - reali*ed 'y.4as(ri(m did not eAist.

or some a#sor!tion meas(rements, 'e needed a gold ingot. - 'ent to te firm of Staccioli, 'o 'eredealers in !recio(s metals, and 'ito(t any diffic(lty, on te #asis of a sim!le recei!t, tey loaned mete ingotD - ret(rned to te instit(te loaded 'it gold. - !(rcased necessities tat co(ld not #e fo(nd at



6ome tro(g my friend Bakker in ;olland.

&ork !roceeded ra!idly. (r gro(! reminded me of a 'ellreearsed orcestra, and its cond(ctor,ermi, got s(!er# m(sic from it. &e all o(tdid o(rselves, eac acieving more tan any of (s co(ldave done on is o'n. 2e 'ole 'as definitely greater tan te s(m of its !arts, ermi incl(ded.

(r comm(nications 'ere !(#lised in La ricerca scientifica& te #(lletin of te C/6, 'ere maldis'ife 'orked, and it is easy to follo' te daily !rogress of o(r 'ork in it.??F &e sent re!rints to'ellcosen, strategically located corres!ondents 'o co(ld read -talian, and o(r re!orts soon attractedte (niversal attention of n(clear !ysicists. Cor#ino ke!t in close to(c 'it (s tro(g fre0(ent visitsto o(r la#oratory.

&e systematically !roceeded to irradiate all te elements 'e co(ld find, trying to (se o(r so(rces asefficiently as !ossi#le. &e !re!ared tem once a 'eek, #eca(se te radon tey contained ad a alflifeof 3.N? days. 2e o!eration 'as delicate, #(t 'e !roceeded ca(tio(sly, and no#ody got (rt.

Soon 'e identified te t'o reactions, ne(tron ca!t(re follo'ed #y !roton or al!a!article emission, or,in te (s(al notation, 8n,! and 8n,a . &e also fo(nd tat fre0(ently ne(tron #om#ardment !rod(ced aradioactive isoto!e of te target, #(t 'e did not kno' 'eter tis

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'as o'ing to ne(tron ca!t(re follo'ed #y gammaray emission or #y emission of t'o ne(trons: 8n, g or 8n,?n. t te time 'e #elieved tat te more energetic te #om#arding ne(tron, te more efficient it'o(ld #e in !rod(cing n(clear reactions. nly monts later did 'e find o(t o' erroneo(s tisass(m!tion 'as.

Contin(ing o(r #om#ardments #y increasing te atomic n(m#er of te targets, 'e arrived at tori(mand (rani(m.?3F 2e activities 'e co(ld !rod(ce 'ere 'eak com!ared 'it te nat(ral activity of tetargetsD ence it 'as necessary #efore #om#ardment to remove from tem te different radioactives(#stances tey contained in radioactive e0(ili#ri(m 'it te !rimary s(#stance. 2is 'as a long and

delicate o!eration, and te s(#stances removed gre' again after some time. &e to(gt tat inca!t(ring a ne(tron, (rani(m and tori(m 'o(ld form a #eta emitter tat decayed into trans(ranicelements, for 'ic 'e antici!ated cemical !ro!erties similar to tose of reni(m, osmi(m, andiridi(m. 2e n(clear !rocesses occ(r, #(t te s(!!osed cemical resem#lance is false. &e erred in te'ay 'e eAtra!olated te !eriodic system of te elements. ;an and 4eitner fell into te same tra!, asdid te +oliotC(ries. nly after several years 'as it reali*ed tat trans(ranic elements form a familysimilar to te rare earts.?JF

-n 193J, at 6ome, 'e !roved tat some of te activities formed in (rani(m #om#ardment 'ere notisoto!ic 'it elements #et'een lead and (rani(m, #(t 'e dre' te 'rong concl(sion tat tey 'eretrans(ranic. 7ike oter investigators of tis !eriod, 'e noticed tat te total activity !rod(ced 'asm(c larger tan tat of te !rod(cts 'e 'ere isolating, and 'e so(ld ave f(rter investigated itsnat(re. &e did not serio(sly entertain te !ossi#ility of n(clear fission, alto(g it ad #een mentioned #y -da /oddack, 'o sent (s a re!rint of er 'ork.?F 2e reason for o(r #lindness, sared #y ;anand 4eitner, te +oliotC(ries, and every#ody else 'orking on te s(#ect, is not clear to me eventoday.

2rans(ranic elements !resented a diffic(lt eA!erimental !ro#lem, f(ll of !itfalls (nless one ad terigt ideas or im!ecca#le tecni0(es. -n fact, in ecem#er 193N, tto ;an and rit* Strassmann fo(ndte sol(tion to te !(**le tro(g an ironclad eA!eriment !roving te for



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mation of radioactive #ari(m in ne(tron #om#ardment of (rani(m.?GF

2e o(t!o(ring of 'ork mentioned a#ove occ(!ied te s!ring of 193J. (ring te s(mmer, te Pysics-nstit(te 'as closed, and ermi 'ent to So(t merica on a lect(re to(r. maldi, is 'ife, and - 'ent tote Cavendis 7a#oratory in Cam#ridge. n te 'ay, 'e sto!!ed in 7ondon to meet rit* Panet, from'om - 'anted to learn some cemical tecni0(es, as 'ell as 7eo S*ilard, 'it 'om 'e ad adsome corres!ondence and 'o seemed to #e, in more tan one 'ay, an interesting fello'. &e made ana!!ointment for a certain time in te afternoon, #(t no#ody so'ed (!. ro(nd 1$ P.4. , 'e fo(ndPanet 'it tears in is eyes and S*ilard o#vio(sly saken. &e did not talk science. ;itler adattem!ted a co(! in (striaD Cancellor Engel#ert ollf(ss ad #een m(rdered, and no one kne' 'at'o(ld a!!en neAt. Panet 'as (strian and S*ilard ;(ngarianD te #lo' str(ck close to ome. -talianmo#ili*ation, ordered #y 4(ssolini, foiled ;itlers !lan. 2e attem!ted !(tsc so(ld ave forcedrenc, Britis, and oter E(ro!ean !oliticians to o!en teir eyes. Pera!s 'at tey did not 'ant tosee 'as too (gly to contem!late. 2ey esitated and missed anoter o!!ort(nity of !(tting an end to;itler.

maldi and - #ro(gt 'it (s te man(scri!t of a !a!er s(mmari*ing te ne(tron 'ork done in 6ome,

'ic 'e delivered to 7ord 6(terford at te Cavendis 7a#oratory, #egging im to comm(nicate it tote 6oyal Society. ;e so'ed keen interest in o(r !a!er, took it ome, and ret(rned it te neAt day 'itsome corrections to te Englis, saying tat e 'as for'arding it immediately to te -roceedings of the oyal Society .?%F im!r(dently recommended !rom!t !(#lication, 'ere(!on e ans'ered, 'eterin est or annoyance - co(ld not tell: )&at do yo( tink - am !resident of te 6oyal Society for<)6(terford s!oke 'it is !i!e in is mo(t, and - ad diffic(lty in (nderstanding im. nce in a 'ilee made okes and la(ged alo(d at tem, #(t fre0(ently - missed te !oint. ;e invited (s to tea at iso(se, 'ere 'e met 7ady 6(terford. &e sa' im every day in te la#oratory, 'ere e 'ent aro(nddisc(ssing te c(rrent 'ork, recalc(lating res(lts 'it a !encil st(m! e carried in a 'aistcoat !ocket.;e 'as o#vio(sly igly res!ected and listened to, !ossi#ly 'it some a'e. - ad te

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im!ression tat 'en e addressed some#ody, te !erson (nconscio(sly stood at attention. lto(g6(terford 'as most a!!roaca#le, 'e talked more 'it te ane 2. Berge and ;. C. &estcott, o(rcontem!oraries, 'o 'ere 'orking on ne(tronind(ced radioactivity. 4a(rice =olda#er so'ed (ste eA!eriments e and +ames Cad'ick ad done on te !otodisintegration of te de(teron andinvited (s for dinner at Cai(s College, 'ere e lived. &ynn &illiams so'ed maldi, 'o 'ases!ecially interested in tem, several electronic devices, incl(ding is linear am!lifier. &e also metPeter Ma!it*a, 4arc(s li!ant, +ames Cad'ick, +on Cockcroft, and several oter !ysicists 'om -teenco(ntered later. rom te !oint of vie' of o(r immediate 'ork, o'ever, te most interestingeAcange 'as 'it Berge and &estcottD it allo'ed (s to esta#lis a clearc(t case of te 8n, g reaction

in sodi(m, 'ic 'as to !rove im!ortant a co(!le of monts later in te discovery of slo' ne(trons.t Cam#ridge 'e lodged as !aying g(ests in a !rivate ome. 2e food 'as so #ad tat - still remem#erit. =inestra maldi 'as eA!ecting er first cild, Ugo, and er dimensions 'ere gro'ing accordingly.-n order to get to te la#, 'e ad to !ass #et'een t'o #ollards tat formed a #arrier in te street.Edoardo decided tat 'en se co(ld no longer !ass freely #et'een tem, it 'o(ld #e time to go ome.;e follo'ed tis !rescri!tion, and Ugo 'as #orn a fe' days after teir ret(rn to 6ome.

'eek or t'o later, maldi and -, alone in 6ome, res(med te ne(tron 'ork. ne of te first tings'e did 'as to re!eat te #om#ardment of l?%F in order to verify a 8n, g reaction similar to te one



o#served #y Berge and &estcott in sodi(m. &e fo(nd tat te !eriod of te isoto!e formed 'as indeedtat of l?NF formed in oter reactions, t(s demonstrating anoter case of 8n, g reaction. &eimmediately comm(nicated tis interesting res(lt to ermi, 'o, on is 'ay #ack from So(t merica,ad sto!!ed in 7ondon for an international !ysics conference, and e mentioned o(r findings at it.?NF-n te meantime - ca(gt a cold and co(ld not go to te la#oratory for a fe' days. maldi tried tore!eat te eA!eriments 'e ad !erformed a fe' days earlier and o#tained a different decay !eriod.

&en ermi got #ack to 6ome,

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te res(lts 'ere conf(sed, and e scolded (s for aving irres!onsi#ly given im erroneo(s data. -resented te acc(sation #eca(se - 'as s(re of o(r !revio(s eA!eriments, #(t - co(ld not fatom 'at'as going on. -n addition, Edoardo 'as no' finding ineA!lica#le ne' !enomena.

&itin a fe' 'eeks, mysteries m(lti!lied. &e fre0(ently fo(nd irre!rod(ci#le effects, s(c as differentactivations of sam!les tat ad #een #om#arded (nder 'at 'e to(gt 'ere te same conditions.7ater 'e fo(nd o(t tat te difference 'as tat on some occasions 'e ad !laced o(r so(rce on a'ooden ta#le and on oters on a mar#le oneO

n te morning of cto#er ??, 193J, after several eA!eriments in 'ic a silver foil 'as irradiated(nder different conditions, !erformed mainly #y maldi and Br(no Pontecorvo, so(rce and silver target'ere s(rro(nded 'it !araffin. - 'as #(sy 'it eAaminations, #(t aro(nd noon - 'as called to see testrange !enomenon occ(rring. Paraffin greatly enanced ne(tron activation. t first - to(gt tatsome co(nter ad gone a'ry, as occasionally a!!ened, #(t it did not take m(c to !ers(ade all !resent Htat is, ermi, maldi, 6asetti, Pontecorvo, and myself, as 'ell as Br(no 6ossi and Enrico Persico,'o a!!ened to #e visitingHof te reality of te effect. &e re!laced te !araffin 'it a co(!le ofoter s(#stances, #(t it 'as a!!arent tat tey 'ere not effective.

t tis !oint, rater conf(sed #y te mornings o#servations, 'e 'ent ome for l(nc, and after te(s(al siesta, 'e ret(rned to te la#oratory aro(nd 3 P.4. -n te meantime, ermi ad come (! 'it an

eA!lanation for te !araffins action. ;e y!otesi*ed tat te ydrogen atoms of te s(rro(nding !araffin slo'ed do'n te ne(trons from te so(rce #y elastic collisions, and tat slo' ne(trons co(ld #e more easily ca!t(red tan fast ones. -t is easy to see tat in an elastic collision 'it ydrogen, ane(tron loses on average alf its energyD te idea tat a slo'er ne(tron 'o(ld #e more effective tan afaster one in !rod(cing n(clear reactions 'as s(r!rising to (s. &e 'ere (sed to tinking (st teo!!osite. 2e effect, o'ever, so(ld #e limited to 8n, g reactions, and not involve 8n,! or 8n,a reactions. -f ermis s(rmise 'as correct, 'e ad to retink many of o(r o#servations, taking it intoacco(nt.

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&e r(sed to re!eat some sim!le eA!eriments and 'e recogni*ed at once tat !(**les s(c as te #eavior of al(min(m co(ld easily #e eA!lained. -n forming l?NF , 'e ad an 8n, g reaction,enanced #y slo'ing do'n te ne(trons. -n o(r eA!eriments, 'e ad (n'ittingly sometimes (sed slo'ne(trons and sometimes fast ones, de!ending on te o#ects near to o(r so(rce, o#taining a !revalenceof 8n, g or 8n,?n reactions. &it tis eA!lanation - gave a sig of relief, #eca(se, after all, ermisstatement at te 7ondon conference, s(ggested #y maldi and myself, 'as vindicated, and ermirecogni*ed tat 'e ad not #een careless.

ermi 'ent to te limit of s(!!osing tat ne(trons 'o(ld #e slo'ed do'n to te energy o'ing to



termal agitation of te molec(les of te medi(m, a#o(t $.$3 eK at room tem!erat(re. 2is !rocess isno' called moderation. t te time 'e tested tis y!otesis, 'ic is correct, #y trying to slo' do'nte ne(trons 'it !araffin at different tem!erat(res, #(t tat day 'e co(ld not see any difference.

2at same evening, at maldis ome, 'e !re!ared a sort letter to La ricerca scientifica . ermidictated 'ile - 'rote. 6asetti, maldi, and Pontecorvo !aced te room eAcitedly, all makingcomments in lo(d voices. 2e din 'as s(c tat 'en 'e left, maldis maid discreetly asked 'eter

te evening g(ests ad all #een ti!sy. =inestra maldi anded te !a!er to er #oss at La ricerca scientifica te follo'ing morning.?9F

2e discovery of slo' ne(trons o!ened (! a ost of !ro#lems and made (s reorient o(r entire researc !rogram, incl(ding o(r neglect of te (rani(m investigation. &e meas(red 'at 'e called tecoefficient of a0(aticityHtat is, o' m(c te immersion in 'ater, (nder standard conditions, 'o(ldincrease te activityHfor many s(#stances. 2is meas(rement confirmed tat te 8n, g reaction 'aste only one sensitive to ydrogen. By early /ovem#er 'e 'ere s(re tat te slo'ingdo'n y!otesis'as correct, and o(r attention t(rned more to te slo'ingdo'n !rocess tan to te s(#stances !rod(ced. &e tried re!eatedly, #(t (ns(ccessf(lly, to see 'eter cold or ot moderators #eaveddifferently. Ultimately, P. B. 4oon and +. 6. 2illman in England demonstrated a termal effect, and 'eastened to re!eat teir eA!eriments.

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&e soon fo(nd tat some s(#stancesHfor instance, cadmi(mHgreatly a#sor#ed slo' ne(trons and 'ecr(dely meas(red an a#sor!tion crosssection for tem. &e detected te gamma rays emitted onne(tron ca!t(re, and 'e started cr(de meas(rements of te density of slo' ne(trons as a f(nction of tedistance from a so(rce immersed in 'ater. inally, 'e tried to slo' do'n ne(trons 'it s(#stancesoter tan ydrogen and fo(nd some effect of inelastic collisions. ll tis 'ork ad !rod(cedsignificant res(lts #y ecem#er 193J, siA 'eeks after te first discovery.

f co(rse, 'e ad immediately informed Cor#ino of o(r findings, and e at once (rged (s to a!!ly for

a !atent on slo' ne(trons, 'ic e considered !otentially of great !ractical im!ortance. - sall ret(rnto tis later.

n my ret(rn from =ermany, - ad disc(ssed my romantic diffic(lties 'it 6iccardo 6imini, my mostintimate advisor. ;e t(rned o(t to ave similar !ro#lems, and talking to eac oter frankly 'as a greatrelief and #enefit to #ot of (s. &e concl(ded tat as tings stood, - so(ld look for anoter =ermangirl, !ossi#ly one living in -taly, and certainly not a /a*i.

- met Elfriede S!iro early in 193J. t te time, se did not kno' -talian very 'ell, #(t tis 'as notim!ortantD on te contrary, it gave me some advantage, since - s!oke =erman fl(ently. - 'anted to #es(re a#o(t /a*ismD se 'as !r(dent and avoided talking !olitics, #(t - soon t'igged tat - did not aveanyting to fear on tat score. Se ad left =ermany #eca(se se ad #een fired from er o#, and it did

not take m(c imagination to g(ess 'y. - m(st add tat te name S!iro so(nded =reek to me, (st asSegrè so(nded renc to erD a #it more +e'is c(lt(re 'o(ld instantly ave revealed o(r roots to #otof (s.

)7a S!iro,) as - called er, 'as andsome, of a some'at =ermanic ty!e, f(ll of vigor, and intelligent.Se needed to s(!!ort erself financially, and tis 'as er first !reocc(!ation. Se ad no !re(diceagainst any onest 'orkD at first se canged o#s several times, #(t tanks to er good office training,er neat a#its, and er eagerness for 'ork, se soon fo(nd a satisfactory o#.



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Elfriede 'as #orn on cto#er ?, 19$%, in stro'o, ten a small =erman to'n in East Pr(ssia. ;erfamily, of solid +e'is #o(rgeois stock, ad =erman feelings and s!oke =erman. Elfriedes fater,4aA, 'as a first co(sin of te famo(s cemist rit* ;a#er 81NGNQ193J,3$F 'ose 'ellkno'n=erman !atriotism 'as ty!ical of te S!iro family #efore te advent of /a*ism. fter &orld &ar -,stro'o 'as anneAed #y a re#orn, anti=erman, and antiSemitic Poland, 'ic virt(ally eA!elled te

S!iros. 2ey ten moved to Bresla(. -n te !rocess, Elfriedes fater lost a good !art of is fort(ne.Elfriedes moters maiden name 'as =ertr(de scert, and =ertr(des #roters 'ere (dges andla'yers. Elfriedes older sister married an ed(cation !rofessor, Peter Scir#el, an eAcellent !erson, anti /a*i alto(g of )!(re =erman race,) and one of te fe' =ermans 'o contri#(ted, #y is #eavior, tosaving =erman onor in te orrors to come. Elfriedes yo(nger sister, 7illi, #ecame a n(rse, first inEngland and later in Berkeley.

-n =ermany, Elfriede ad 'orked as secretary to a socialist !olitician, ;ermann 7(edemann.31F -n(g(st of 1933, forced to emigrate, se came to -taly, 'ere er fater ad some connections, 'ic,o'ever, !roved (seless. Elfriede 'as not disco(ragedD se ad s!irit, 'as determined to make acareer, and 'as eager to 'ork. fter several !ositions, se #ecame secretaryinter!reter for te )Y-

congresso interna*ionale dellacetilene, della saldat(ra a(togena e delle ind(strie relative) tat took !lace in 6ome in +(ne 193J, a !osition se eld (ntil after te !(#lication of te conferences !roceedings, 'en te organi*ation dissolved.

-n te s!ring of 193J, 'e 'ere #ot eAtremely #(sy, - 'it ne(trons and Elfriede 'it te conference, #(t tis did not !revent (s from visiting some of 6omes immediate s(rro(ndings, incl(ding Palestrina,ogliano, 2erracina, and Kiter#o. n my ret(rn from Cam#ridge, 'e fo(nd time for a sort to(r of teolomites, 'ere 'e #ack!acked from one mo(ntain (t to anoter. ne day 'e arrived ot ands'eaty at a little mo(ntain lake, 'ose dee! trans!arent 'ater 'as decorated 'it small ice floes.Elfriede did not tink t'iceD se donned er s'ims(it and (m!ed in. /ot 'anting to #e to(gtinferior, - follo'ed er,

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#(t almost dro!!ed dead from te cold, 'ile se s'am merrily a#o(t. t Paneveggio - ta(gt Elfriedeto !lay bocce& a game se immediately liked. Se remem#ered tis at 6ecanati 'en 'e !layed tegame tere on te last day of er life.

n o(r ret(rn to 6ome, Elfriede lived on Kia YY Settem#re, not far from te &ar 4inistry, and - often'ent to !ick er (!. ne day - sa' er at a distance on te side'alk across te street. n old general'as follo'ing er 'it a #o(ncing gait and seemed to #e !aying er com!liments, 'ic - tr(st se didnot (nderstand. - looked more closely and recogni*ed no less tan ;is EAcellency Emilio e Bono, a0(adr(mvir of te 4arc on 6ome and one of te very igest officials of ascism. Elfriede ad no

idea of 'o e 'as. - teased er a#o(t te #ig fis se ad landed.-n cto#er, at te eigt of te ne(tron 'ork, 'e again ad a fe' great 'eeks. - 'as alone in 6ome,and te city 'as in all its a(t(mn s!lendor. &e often ate in small old inns on te Kia rattina, no'vanised or degraded to to(rist tra!s, 'ere 'e fo(nd eAcellent fr(it, es!ecially marvelo(s treeri!enedyello' !eaces. &it l(ck, after l(nc 'e 'o(ld even find time for a s'im at te Piscina dello stadio.Elfriedes office 'as on Kia S. Cla(dio, in te same #(ilding as te office of my faters com!any, teSocietT cartiere ti#(rtine 8SC2. ne day, se met my co(sin Bindo 6imini in te elevator tere, andtey recogni*ed eac oter and introd(ced temselves on te #asis of my descri!tions. (ring te lastmonts of 193J, - eA!lained te im!ortance of te ne(tron 'ork tat ke!t me so #(sy to Elfriede and



introd(ced er to my !ysicist friends.

Unfort(nately, Elfriedes o# came to an end, and se ad to find anoter one. Se and anoter =ermangirl, a friend and office colleag(e, fo(nd 'ork in a Landschulheim& a scool for +e'is cildren, mostlyref(gees from =ermany, 'o 'ere !re!aring to go to Palestine. mong te teacers at te scool 'ereseveral 'o later #ecame disting(ised, among tem te !iloso!er P.. Mristeller, a !rotRgR of teascist senator =iovanni =entile and s(#se0(ently a !rofessor at Col(m#ia University in /e' ork.

Elfriede took oter tem!orary 'ork too, for

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instance, as an acco(ntant in a otel at Sestri 7evante, a seaside resort near =enoa tat ad many=erman visitors.

2e #etter - kne' Elfriede, te more - fo(nd in er all te 0(alities - desired in a 'ife. - ten introd(ceder to my !arents. 2ey ad certainly got 'ind tat someting 'as afoot, and tey ad learned, from !revio(s eA!erience 'it ngelo, to #e !r(dent and avoid landing in (n!leasant sit(ations. Elfriede andalso 'ent to see da 6imini, te moter of 6iccardo and Bindo, 'o 'as most cordial, immediately

took a liking to Elfriede, and tereafter fre0(ently invited (s to l(nc or dinner. Soon my !arents, too,started to a!!reciate Elfriede, and (ltimately tey came to love er and treated er as a da(gter.Elfriede f(lly reci!rocated. Elfriedes !arents also came to -taly for a visitD - met tem and - o!e -made a good im!ression on tem.

2(s 'e started serio(sly to tink a#o(t marrying. - 'as tirty #y ten, and se 'as t'entysevenD 'e #ot kne' 'at 'e 'anted and fo(nd a solid #asis for marriage in o(r common &eltansca((ng.Before marrying, o'ever, - 'anted to ave a settled !osition, s(c as a cair at an -talian (niversity.n te oter and, te !ast fe' years ad convinced me of te insta#ility of te E(ro!ean sit(ation, andtat anyting co(ld a!!en. lto(g - loved my co(ntry, 'e ad to look f(rter afield, 'eter 'eliked it or not.

-n 4ay 193 - 'ent to ;olland for Leemans retirement ceremonies. &ile tere, - eld a series ofconferences on o(r ne(tron 'ork, visiting te Pili!s Com!any at Eindoven, 'ere Bakker ad takena o#, among oter !laces. -n my s!eec - told te Pili!s scientific leaders 'at - to(gt te !racticala!!lications of n(clear !ysics 'ere likely to #e. 4y s!eec m(st ave #een convincing, #eca(seBakker 'rote to me a fe' 'eeks later tat Pili!s ad decided to form a ne' n(clear researc gro(!and ad recr(ited im to itD e added tat tis 'as o'ing, in good !art, to my visit.

-n ;olland - also came across te famo(s =erman teoretical !ysicist rnold Sommerfeld, 'o ad #een 'ell !aid for lect(ring tere. ;e took me aside and told me o' glad e 'as to ave te money,saying, )- sall send it to 6(terford for dis!laced scolars i.e., ;it

@ 1$$ @lers victimsF rigt a'ay. - cant contri#(te from 4(nic, #(t from ere - can.) - ad some time earliersent a ceck, large for me, from -taly to te same organi*ation in 7ondon, taking only te !reca(tion ofre0(esting tat my name not #e mentioned. - 'o(ld not ave dared to do so from =ermany.

(ring te same visit - met my former ;am#(rg colleag(e B. +ose!y on a streetcar in msterdam. -n1933, to esca!e te /a*is, e ad acce!ted a o# in te Soviet Union. &e looked at eac oter 'its(r!rise, #eca(se - kne' e 'as in 6(ssia and e kne' - 'as in -taly. fter a 'ile 'e decided 'e'ere not !rey to all(cinations and talked to eac oter. +ose!y told me tat in 6(ssia e ad ad a



contract for te !re!aration of certain ormones. fter a fe' monts te a(torities, 'o ad not givenim te e0(i!ment e needed for is 'ork, acc(sed im of sa#otage for not aving !rod(ced teormones and treatened im 'it dire !enalties for tis crime. ;e ad saved imself #y referring tois 'ritten contract, 'ere, l(ckily for im, is e0(i!ment needs 'ere s!ecified in detail. Since e adnot received te !romised centrif(ges, eAtractors, and so on, e co(ld not #e eld lia#le. /oneteless,e 'as fort(nate not to ave #een sent to Si#eria, or 'orse. 2e Soviet a(torities eA!elled im from

te co(ntry and sent im #ack to =ermany. )-magineO) e said. )&en - sa' te s'astika, - reoicedO);e crossed =ermany and 'as a#le to eAit on te oter sideD no' e 'as 'orking in a ormone factoryin ;olland. 2ese e!isodes el!ed me to get an increasingly clear !ict(re of te ill 'ind tat 'as #lo'ing.

-t seemed likely tat tere 'o(ld #e a com!etition for an eA!erimental !ysics cair in 193G. 2eUniversity of Palermo ad a vacancy, ca(sed #y te deat of Professor 4icele 7a 6osa. - ad met 7a6osa years #efore: one day Cor#ino ad called me to is st(dy and so'ed me a !otogra! of as!ectr(m, asking 'at - to(gt it 'as. - eAamined te !late and ans'ered tat it 'as a merc(rys!ectr(m, tat te !late m(st ave #een develo!ed at too ig a tem!erat(re, softening te gelatine andmaking te lines (n(s(ally #road.

)Co(ld yo( !re!are a similar !late for me #y tis afternoon<) Cor#ino asked.

)Certainly,) - said.

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gentleman in an elegant #l(e s(it 'om - did not kno' 'as sitting neAt to Cor#ino, 'o no'introd(ced im to me as Professor 4icele 7a 6osa. - sensed at once tat - 'as in ot 'ater. Cor#inoadded tat 7a 6osa imself ad !re!ared te !late e ad so'n me and tat e to(gt e ad made adiscovery. 7a 6osa 'as a #ig sot, and te fig(re e 'as c(tting 'as none too #rilliant. -t 'as t(sim!ortant for me to s(#stantiate 'at - ad said. - accordingly made a !late of te merc(ry s!ectr(mand delivered it to Cor#ino. fe' days later, 7a 6osa 'rote to me a friendly letter, 'it some

#itters'eet (ndertones. ;e tanked me for aving ca(gt is mistake and )o!ed tat e co(ld at te !ro!er time reci!rocate 'it some similar service.) 2is so(nded a #it omino(s.

&o(ld - 'in te fortcoming Palermo com!etition< es, if (stice !revailed 8in my immodest o!inion, #(t one co(ld never #e s(re. ;o!ing for te #est, - !re!ared te necessary doc(ments and filed mya!!lication.

(ring te s(mmer of 193, - again ad an o!!ort(nity of visiting te United States 'it ermiD my !lans 'ere to ret(rn to -taly if - 'on te com!etition for te Palermo cairD oter'ise, - 'o(ld try tofind a o# in merica and remain tere. -n eiter case, Elfriede and - 'o(ld marry. &e 'ere #ot dee!ly'orried #y te !olitical sit(ation, and te diffic(lties involved in rene'ing Elfriedes !ass!ort ando#taining a U.S. immigration visa 'ere steadily increasing.

&en - left for te United States, - gave Elfriede all my li0(id assets, to #e (sed in an emergency. tsome !oint te (ce did someting, - do not remem#er 'at, tat convinced me tat te #est ting -co(ld do 'as to s!end all my cas immediately, and - told Elfriede to #(y a ty!e'riter, a 7eica, and agold 7ongines cronogra! for me, and to take te rest of te money and go to te e'eler Sette!assi inlorence and #(y erself a diamond !in, 'ic se did.

-n te United States, as (s(al, ermi and - first 'ent to nn r#or for a 'ile. ermi ret(rned to -taly atte end of (g(st, and - acce!ted an invitation from ean =. B. Pegram, 'it 'om - ad !revio(slycorres!onded, to transfer to Col(m#ia University, 'ere tere 'as a gro(! in te !ysics de!artment



actively engaged in ne(tron 'ork,

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consisting of +. 6. (nning, . P. 4itcell, =. . ink, and Pegram imself.3?F 2eir ne(tron so(rces'ere similar to o(rs, #(t as detectors tey (sed ioni*ation cam#ers connected to linear am!lifiers,

'ic 'ere s(!erior for some !(r!oses to o(r (s(al e0(i!ment. (rtermore, tey ad m(c #ettermacine so!s tan 'e ad in 6ome.

-. -. 6a#i, 'o 'as also at Col(m#ia, 'as an interested s!ectator of te ne(tron 'ork, alto(g e adstrained relations 'it (nning. - kne' 6a#i 'ell #eca(se of is molec(lar #eam 'ork, and tro(gim - met is !(!ils +. Lacarias, S. 4illman, /. . 6amsey, and oters. ne day a visitor 'o 'as'ell kno'n to me arrived at 6a#is office. ;e 'as 4oise ;aissinsky, 'o ad st(died cemistry at6ome and ad later gone to 4arie C(ries la#oratory in Paris. 6a#i and ;aissinsky co(ld not find acommon lang(age, and tey asked me to inter!ret for tem, #eca(se ;aissinsky s!oke -talian. - lookedat tem for a moment and ten s(ggested: )&y dont yo( try iddis<) 2ey 'ere off like a sot anddid not need my el!.

- took (! residence at Col(m#ia Universitys Casa -taliana and s!ent most of my time in te la#oratory.Soon 6asetti oined me tere, and togeter o(r gro(! !erformed several eA!eriments 'it a ne(tronvelocity selector #ased on fast rotating 'eels. &e also #(ilt a cadmi(m 'eel trying to verify tat tea#sor!tion cross section varied as 1"v. &e made an error in !redicting te o(tcome of tis eA!erimentand got a res(lt different from 'at 'e ad eA!ected. n second to(gts, - discovered a mistake ino(r reasoning and eA!lained it to 6asetti, enoying #ot is s(r!rise and te o!!ort(nity to teac my)Kenerated 4aster,) as - (sed to call im, someting.33F

2e !olitical sit(ation 'as deteriorating #adly, and if - ad fo(nd 'ork in te United States, - migtave transferred at once, #(t o#s 'ere as rare as 'ite flies. 2e effects of te =reat e!ression 'erestill #eing felt and tere 'as also a certain amo(nt of more or less o!en Aeno!o#ia and antiSemitismin merica. or instance, - 'as dismayed 'en 6asetti so'ed me a letter from a reno'ned cemist at

te University of Cicago offering im a o# !rovided e 'as not +e'is.- decided to a'ait te o(tcome of te University of Palermo com!etition in /e' ork. -n 193, are!etition of te 1933 com!etition 'as

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ardly !ossi#le. By no' ermi 'as a !o'er to #e reckoned 'it, and one co(ld also eA!ect to find atleast one oter !ysicist of te yo(nger generation among te (dges. 2e decision 'as (neA!ectedlydelayed, and only at te end of cto#er did - receive ermis ca#le telling me tat - ad !laced first,follo'ed #y ntonio 6ostagni and =. 2odesco. 8-n indsigt - tink maldi and =il#erto Bernardini

so(ld ave #een cosen, #(t te set#ack for tem 'as, as it ad #een for me, a #lessing in disg(ise,es!ecially for maldi. -n addition to ermi, te (dges 'ere . Cam!etti 8cairman, 7a(reto 2ieri, U.Cr(deli, and ntonio Carrelli. mong tem, only ermi and Carrelli, a minority, kne' modern !ysics.

n /ovem#er 1G, 193, - em#arked for -taly. 2e Etio!ian Cam!aign 'as raging, and te l(A(ry-talian liner 'as em!ty eAce!t for a fe' do*en -talians 'o ad vol(nteered for te frican 'ar. 2esi! ran into a maor tlantic storm, and many tr(cks sec(red on te deck 'ere cr(sed #y te 'aveslike matc#oAes. n o(r arrival at /a!les, te !oor vol(nteers disem#arked, kissed teir native soil,listened to a #and !laying in teir onor, eAcanged 6oman sal(tes 'it ascist #ig'igs, and end(reds(ita#le retorical s!eeces. - 'atced, more and more convinced tat tey 'ere cra*y.



n my arrival in 6ome, - contacted Elfriede in lorence, #(t ad to !roceed immediately to Palermo totake (! my d(ties.

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C%a*ter Fi'e+ On My Own, ro&essor at alermo -"#$90"#$82,

S(ent o& Orange ;lossoms

/on sien le genti, ancor, tro!!o sic(re a gi(dicar, s[ come 0(ei ce stima le #iade in cam!o !ria ce sien mat(reDci o ved(to t(tto l verno !rima lo !r(n mostrarsi rigido e feroceD !oscia !ortar la rosa in s( la cimaD

e legno vidi giT dritto e veloce, correr lo mar !er t(tto s(o cammino, !erire al fine a lintrar de la foce.

87et not te !eo!le #e too selfass(red -n (dging early, as 'o so(ld co(nt te ro's f green #lades in te field ere tey mat(red.or - ave seen o' first te 'ild#rier so's ;er s!rays, all 'inter tro(g, torny and stark, nd ten (!on te to!most #ears te roseD

nd - ave seen ere no' a s!eeding #ar0(e 6(n all er seaco(rse 'it (ns'erving stem nd close on ar#o(r go do'n to te dark.ante, Paradiso 13.13$Q3N 8trans. 7a(rence Binyon

4arriage and transfer to Palermo signaled significant canges in my life. rom #eing a yo(ng manliving in is !arents ome, - no' #ecame te ead of a ne' familyD from #eing a s(#ordinate in tePysics -nstit(te in 6ome, - #ecame cief of an instit(te of my o'n in Sicily. t te University ofPalermo - 'as a yo(ng, #(t im!ortant, ten(red

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!rofessor, and my career seemed esta#lised, inasm(c according to te -talian la' ten !revailing,f(rter advancement occ(rred mostly #y seniority. - 'anted to give te #est of myself. - o!ed to set aneAam!le of rene'al and moderni*ation in teacing and also to initiate some meaningf(l researc in ane' -talian center. - felt li#erated from te need to 'rite !a!ers for my advancementD only scienceco(nted. Similarly, o(r ne' family 'o(ld #e o(rs aloneD - loved my !arents and tradition, #(t tefamily Elfriede and - esta#lised 'o(ld differ from teirs in many 'ays.

t te #eginning of my stay in Palermo, - lodged in te Pensione 7incoln, on Kia rcirafi, near te



Pysics -nstit(te. 2e !ension 'as comforta#le in its sim!licity. 2e instit(te 'as located in a ne' #(ilding, 'it very large rooms and m(c 'asted s!ace. 2e eAisting a!!arat(s dated from tenineteent cent(ry. 2o offset tis, tere 'as a #ron*e ead of Professor 7a 6osa, my !redecessor. 2e !ersonnel consisted of a middleaged assistant, 'o seemed to me (nretrieva#le for (sef(l 'ork, an oldmecanic, com!etent 'itin is limitations and f(ll of good 'ill, and some more tan ade0(ate anitors.

n te floor a#ove te Pysics -nstit(te, occ(!ying territory tat in teory #elonged to !ysics, 'as te4ineralogy -nstit(te. Since - did not need more s!ace, tere 'as no conflict. n te contrary, te !rofessor of mineralogy, Carlo Perrier 81NNGQ19JN 'as a nice fello', a tr(e Piedmontese gentleman,and an antiascist.1F ;e 'as a #acelor, a#o(t t'enty years older tan -, and 'ell versed in classicalmineralogy and analytical cemistry. Soon 'e #ecame close friends, and tis friendsi! later #ro(gtits fr(its. ;e also efficiently g(ided me tro(g te soals of Palermos (niversity !olitics.

4y first !riority 'as to organi*e te im!ortant service co(rses for engineersD my second, to !rovideinstr(ction on more advanced !ysics 8 fisica superiore , 'ic ad also #een entr(sted to meD mytird, to start some researc.

- am(sed myself #y ins!ecting old teacing a!!arat(s, as - ad done in 6ome once 'it maldi 'en

'e 'ere still st(dents. t tat time, 'e ad discovered several !ieces of e0(i!ment dating from tesecond

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alf of te nineteent cent(ry, among tem a gadget for demonstrating conical refraction, 'icre0(ired some to(gt #efore 'e co(ld fig(re o(t 'at it 'as. t Palermo - fo(nd !ieces going #ack tote times of (g(sto 6igi, amiano 4acal(so, . 4. Cor#ino, and oter of my !redecessors. 2eli#rary 'as devoid of modern #ooks and o(rnals. n te oter and, - ad a #ea(tif(l office 'itelegant f(rnit(re, and a letteread tat !ossi#ly 'ent #ack to Ming Um#erto - 8assassinated in 19$$,'ic - enoyed (sing. or te rest, te Pysics -nstit(te 'as a desert.

t te first fac(lty meeting, 'it a#o(t a do*en !rofessors sitting aro(nd a ta#le, - co(ld see tat tere'ere no #ig figts afoot. 2e matematicians 4icele de rancis and 4icele Ci!olla 'erea(torities in teir fields. 2e #otanist 4ontemartini 'as confined to Palermo #eca(se e 'asnotorio(sly antiascist, and te *oologist =iardina, alto(g no' very old, ad once #een #rilliant.2e cemists did not seem eAactly at te level of teir great !redecessor, Stanislao Canni**aro, andneiter did te astronomer a!!ear to #e te e0(al of is great !redecessor, =i(se!!e Pia**i. ll 'eregood !rofessors, o'ever, 'it 'om it 'as easy to agree !rovided one maintained !olite #eavior andd(e res!ect for t(rf.

- clearly stated tat - ad no intention of #eing a #ird of !assage. - 'o(ld do my #est to im!rove !ysics and - 'o(ld not s!end day and nigt !lanning o' to contrive a transfer, as many !rofessors

from te mainland (sed to do. &en my Sicilian colleag(es !erceived tat - tr(ly meant 'at - said,tey el!ed me in 'atever 'ays tey co(ld and ado!ted me as one of tem. 2(s my (niversityrelations 'ere eAcellent.

Palermo 'as not, in fact, one of te minor !osts (s(ally conferred at te start of a (niversity career,s(c as Camerino, or Sassari, #(t neiter 'as it one of te maor seats in 'ic one landed at te end ofa meritorio(s career, s(c as 6ome, Bologna, Pisa, or 2(rin. t Palermo tere 'ere a good manySicilians, for 'om it 'as te seat of coiceD some notorio(s antiascists, s(c as Perrier and4ontemartini, 'o 'ere not in te good graces of te minister and 'o(ld not #e transferred even iftey 'anted to #eD and some yo(ng !rofessors at te #eginning of teir careers.



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s soon as !ossi#le after my ret(rn from merica, - ad oined Elfriede in lorence, and 'e startedmaking detailed !lans for o(r imminent 'edding. Elfriede ordered linens for o(r ome from te o(seof Pini in lorence. Se #o(gt an elegant dress at Lecca in 6ome and stocked (! on to!0(ality

o(seold items and cloting, destined to last a long time. 2is fitted o(r !iloso!y, as 'ell as tat ofmy !arents. ;o'ever, 'en te #ills arrived, some 'ere !retty stiff. -m!r(dently, my fater or - 8- donot remem#er 'o made some comments on tis. Elfriede immediately started cryingD er #itter and(n(s(al tears startled me even more #eca(se tey so'ed a s(r!rising mis(nderstanding. /o criticismof er ad #een im!liedD on te contrary, every#ody 'as satisfied tat se ad done very 'ell.

Elfriede and - decided to marry on S(nday, e#r(ary ?, 193G. 2o o(r great regret, Elfriedes !arentsco(ld not come to te 'edding, #(t tey visited (s later 'en 'e 'ere settled in Palermo. - 'ent to te6ome synagog(e to make arrangements for te 'edding ceremony and told te ra##i tat - 'anted tesim!lest and cea!est 'edding availa#le, te more so as te !arents of te #ride co(ld not attend. 2era##i 'inced, and - added tat - fo(nd it ina!!ro!riate to s!end money on ceremonies 'en tere 'ereso many tragic sit(ations tat needed el!. 2o dis!el any do(#ts in is mind - added: );o' m(c does

a l(A(ry 'edding cost<) ;e told me, and - gave im te s(m, saying tat e so(ld arrange te sim!lest !ossi#le ceremony for (s, as - ad re0(ested, and s!end te difference for =erman ref(gees. 2is 'aste agreement. n te day of te 'edding, o'ever, te 2em!le 'as f(ll of flo'ers and ta!estries 'itgreat !om!. 2e ra##i gave (s a sort omily. )SeeO donai. . . . Before yo(rs, tere 'as a l(A(ry'edding ceremony and tere 'as no time to cange te decorations. 2(s yo( too 'ill ave a l(A(ry'edding.) rece!tion at te old ;otel de 6(ssie follo'ed. -t 'as attended #y friends and relatives,incl(ding Cor#ino, 7eviCivita, and my !ysicist friends.

rom 6ome, in terri#le 'eater, 'e 'ent to te ;otel Kes(vio in /a!les, and as te rain !ersisted, 'e'ent to visit my friend Carrelli, !rofessor of !ysics at /a!les, 'o so'ed (s a s!lendid calcitecrystal, a !resent of resnel to 4elloni, from is m(se(m. Bad l(ck ad it tat

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it sli!!ed from Elfriedes and and 'as ci!!ed in one corner. (r em#arrassment is ard to descri#e.

t Palermo 'e lodged at te ;otel EAcelsior in Pia**a della 7i#eftT. Pa!T ad commanded me not toret(rn to Pensione 7incoln #(t to find te #est !ossi#le accommodation. 2e EAcelsior 'as ten aneAcellent otel, 'it a firstclass cef and an a#le manager, 'o 'as st(ck in Palermo #eca(se e 'ass(s!ected of antiascism. ;e took a liking to (s and treated (s as is !rotRgRs, giving (s te #estrooms of te otel and kee!ing tem al'ays at o(r dis!osal.

Before o(r de!art(re from 6ome, my fater, (n#ekno'n to me, ad taken Elfriede aside and given er

a small s(m, telling er tat se so(ld (se it for !ostage stam!s to 'rite to #ot families. 2e money'o(ld ave s(fficed for 'riting #y s!ecial delivery all er life and more. Elfriede dee!ly a!!reciatedte gest(re.

2is and similar e!isodes m(st #e seen in relation to my 'is to live 'itin my !rofessorial salary ofa#o(t t'o to(sand lire a mont. 4y fater, 'o 'as more !ractical, decided to add a s(#stantialmontly s(!!lement to my salary. &en - ref(sed to acce!t tis, e instr(cted Bindo 6imini: )=o toyo(r co(sin and tell im e is not only a fool, #(t also r(de.) 4y fater 'as 0(ite rigt. 2e s(m 'astrifling for imD it !leased im to give it to (s, and it el!ed to make o(r life more !leasant.(rtermore, neiter Elfriede nor - 'as la*y or s!endtrift. fter a 'ile, - reali*ed tat instead of



#eing a(gty 'it my fater, - so(ld #e gratef(l and tank im.

-mmediately after o(r arrival in Palermo, 'e started eA!loring its s(rro(ndings. -t 'as an eAce!tionallycold s!ellD tere 'as even sno' on some of te mo(ntains, a most (n(s(al condition. 7ater, o'ever,'e #ecame f(lly ac0(ainted 'it te eAtraordinary #ea(ty of tat !art of Sicily.

n o(r first vacation, 'e decided to go on a tr(e oneymoon tri!, skiing in te olomites. t tat timetere 'ere no ski lifts, and one clim#ed (sing sealskinsD #(t 'e really enoyed o(r avocation ofcrossco(ntry skiing. &e 'ent aro(nd te Sella gro(! carrying o(r r(cksacks and slee!ing in smallotels or (ts. -n one of tem, o(r room remained 0(ite cold in s!ite of an electric eater. - eAamined itand canged te

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connections of its resistors from series to !arallel, 0(adr(!ling te eat o(t!(t. Elfriede admired te !o'er of !ysics, #(t te neAt day te innkee!er made a scene #eca(se 'e ad (sed too m(c !o'er.

inally, 'e ret(rned to Palermo to stay for a longer !eriod. &e started #y making an official ro(nd ofvisits to te dean and te rector, 'o 'as most cordial. 2e dean 'as not at ome, #(t is 'ife 'as,

and se received (s in a friendly 'ay. &e noticed er cons!ic(o(s #ea(tif(l and #rilliant red air and #egan a !olite social conversation. fter s(ita#le !latit(des, se offered (s some /ar/ade& an inf(sionof an Etio!ian !lant tat in tose times of sanctions #y te 7eag(e of /ations 'as s(!!osed to re!lacetea. -t 'as dee! red and ad a flavor ne' to (s. Ca(gt #y s(r!rise, 'e fo(nd it ardly drinka#le. look #et'een (s so'ed (s tat 'e ad ad te same to(gt: !era!s it 'as (sed to dye o(r ostesssair.

/o less tan mine, Elfriedes life ad canged radically 'it er marriage and coming to Palermo. Se'as no more )7a S!iro,) #(t Signora Segrè. ;o'ever, 'e ad not canged o(r f(ndamental a#its offirst 'orking ard and ten finding o(r recreation in te mo(ntains or in to(ring. -n te #eginning 'edid not o'n a car, #(t 'e soon ac0(ired one and drove it do'n from 6ome to Palermo. - ad t(s

re!eated a good !art of te itinerary - ad covered 'it 6asetti in 19?9, #(t 'e co(ld not enter tePala**o Cim#rone at 6avello #eca(se =reta =ar#o and 7eo!old Stoko'ski ad rented it and lockedtemselves (! in it.

2e Palermo of 193G 'as a #ea(tif(l cityD des!ite its location, it 'as not !rovincial. t te #eginning ofte cent(ry, it ad enoyed a great c(lt(ral and arcitect(ral flo'ering. -t ad so!s com!ara#le to toseof te greatest -talian cities, an eAcellent o!era o(se, and magnificent villas flanking te Kiale della7i#ertT, not to mention te anti0(ities, ra#, /orman, and #aro0(e, tat testified to its millennialistory. ll told, one co(ld recogni*e a ca!ital, !era!s sligtly Bo(r#on, of te Mingdom of te 2'oSicilies. S(rro(nded #y 4onte =rifone, 4onreale, 4onte Pellegrino, and 4ondello like !recio(sstones set in a ring aro(nd a central diamond, te city offered s!lendid o(tings. -n te s!ring 'e co(ldsmell te scent of orange #lossoms, 'ic #ecame

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more !(ngent at s(nset. &ar and (ncontrolled !o!(lation infl(A ave r(ined Palermo, as tey avemost -talian cities.

&ile very #(sy organi*ing te Pysics -nstit(te, - started teacing te elementary eA!erimental !ysics co(rse, !erforming many demonstrations 'it a!!arat(s tat ad #een o(t of (se for !era!sfifty years. - also !re!ared a fe' instr(ments in te o!e of #eing a#le to #egin some researc. s a



start, - #(ilt one of o(r standard ioni*ation cam#ers and ordered a Per(ccaty!e electrometer and otere0(i!ment needed for radioactive 'ork. - o!ed someo' to sec(re longlived radioactive isoto!es forst(dy. - asked my !ysicist friends to s(ggest names for a co(!le of vacant assistant !rofessorsi!sa(tomatically !lacing former !(!ils of te Sc(ola normale at Pisa ig on my list. - t(s met B. /.Caccia!(oti and 4anlio 4andI, 'om - 'as s(#se0(ently a#le to ire. ears later, te one #ecame a !rofessor at Pisa, and te oter, after a long !eriod as a !risoner of 'ar in -ndia, at lorenceD 4ariano

Santangelo, an a#le yo(ng st(dent at Palermo, #ecame !rofessor at 4odena.mong te st(dents 'as a yo(ng lady, =inetta Barresi, related to te Crocco amily, famo(s in -talianaviation. Se 'as an (n(s(al !ersonD most intelligent, 'it dee! Sicilian roots, sincerely religio(s andlearned in Catolic doctrine. -n tose days a 'oman !ysics st(dent 'as a rarity, and in Palermo se'as te only one. =inetta ad no 0(alms a#o(t te matterD se st(died er cosen s(#ect !roficientlyand if !eo!le 'ondered, se let tem 'onder. ;er (n(s(al c(lt(re eAtended to literary s(#ects and 'asal'ays very solid and 'ell digested, never s(!erficial. Se #ecame o(r dear friend and el!ed (sadmira#ly in te diffic(lt times tat 'ere to follo'.

-n kee!ing 'it tradition, - started 'riting lect(re notes for my co(rse in eA!erimental !ysics. -com!leted and !(#lised te first vol(me,?F and - started te second #(t co(ld not finis it #efore mydismissal. or fisica superiore& - ta(gt electricity. - introd(ced 'ritten eAaminations, a novelty in-talian (niversities. 2e attem!t !rod(ced a certain ferment, #(t (ltimately te st(dents #ecameresigned to tis innovation, alto(g it 'as d(#io(s 'eter 'ritten eAaminations 'ere legal. ty!ical0(estion for s(c eAams 'as: Calc(late te 'eigt of

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a merc(ry s!ere of 3 cm radi(s. Unfort(nately, te ans'ers 'ere not edifying.

Since te maority of !ysics st(dents #ecame ig scool teacers, - to(gt it 'o(ld #e (sef(l to'rite a #ook on )elementary !ysics, from a iger !oint of vie',) modeled on te similar ones formatematics, edited #y eliA Mlein in =erman and #y ederigo Enri0(es in -talian. - 'orked serio(sly

on te !roect, 'riting a detailed !rogram for te 'ork. -t 'as to consist of a series of articles, and -looked for colla#orators, and for a !(#liser. 2is last 'as to #e Sansoni of lorence, 'o #elonged tote =entile family. 2e racial la's !(t an end to my endeavors, #(t =iovanni =entile, +r., contin(ed te !roect (ntil e died !remat(rely in 19J?. fter te 'ar, =il#erto Bernardini res(med te initiative, andte first vol(me a!!eared in 19J%. Bernardinis !reface s(mmari*es te istory of te #ook. - #elievetat te idea as still some merit.3F

-n 193G - co(ld not yet assem#le te minim(m e0(i!ment necessary to start researc at Palermo, #(t -took advantage of vacations to do some eA!eriments in 6ome. - fo(nd maldi and ermi dee!lyeng(lfed in teir f(ndamental investigations on te slo'ing do'n of ne(trons in ydrogeno(ss(#stances. - ad te im!ression tat tey did not 'ant to 'aste time even 'it an old friend like

myself. - s!oke to &ick, 'o 'as in 6ome, and did someting #y myself 'it te instr(ments andso(rces availa#le.

ll told, te scool year 193G !assed 0(ickly and !leasantly. or te s(mmer - to(gt of going to avea look at te United States 'it Elfriede. t te #eginning of te s(mmer, it t(rned o(t tat se 'as !regnant, #(t since se ad no com!laints 'atever, 'e decided to go any'ay. 7ater, 'it a smallcild, it 'o(ld #e m(c more diffic(lt to travel, ence tis 'o(ld #e o(r last cance, at least for severalyears, to visit merica. 4oreover, 'e 'ere dist(r#ed #y te steady do'nill trend of events. lto(g'e !ersonally ad !ros!ered, 'e 'ere convinced of te !recario(sness of te sit(ation, and tis 'asone more reason for kee!ing in contact 'it merican !ysicists and for so'ing (! in te United



States.

or me, te nat(ral !lace to visit 'as Col(m#ia UniversityD - ad

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#een tere #efore, ad ra!idly done good 'ork tere, and ad str(ck (! a friendsi! 'it te Col(m#iane(tron !ysicists. - kne' teir instr(ments, and 'e ad common scientific interests. - t(s 'rote toean Pegram !ro!osing to go tere, and on +(ly ?, 193G, 'e landed in /e' ork. maldi, too, came to /e' ork in te same !eriod.

&e ad not, o'ever, reckoned 'it /e' orks ot, (mid 'eater and 'it te s(ffering it 'o(ld #ring to a !regnant 'oman. Elfriede co(ld not slee! 'ell for te eatD se got (! at nigt to takeso'ers to cool offD it 'as clear tat te eat 'as not only (n!leasant #(t (nealty. 2(s, as soon as !ossi#le, 'e de!arted for #etter climates.

tto Stern ad eAtolled te f(t(re of Ernest 7a'rences cyclotron to (s in !revio(s years. -n 193,'en 'e 'ere in nn r#or, ermi and - ad corres!onded 'it 7a'rence. t tat time, - do notremem#er for 'at reason, e offered ermi a millic(rie of radiosodi(m. o(#ting Berkeleys

radioactivity meas(rements, ermi re!lied s(ggesting tat 7a'rence ad !era!s made a mistake andact(ally meant a microc(rie, a to(sand times less. -n ans'er, e received a letter containing amillic(rie of radiosodi(m. &e 'ere d(m#fo(nded. By ten - 'as s(re - 'anted to go to see tecyclotron. 7ater, 'en - kne' te 6adiation 7a#oratory from te inside, - co(ld imagine te effect tatermis letter m(st ave !rod(ced and 7a'rences reaction.

t 6ome 'e ad disc(ssed te !ossi#ility of #(ilding s(c a macine, and 'e ad even tried to locate amagnet similar to te one (sed for te 3%inc cyclotron in Berkeley 84arconi ad (sed it in te radiostation at Coltano many years earlierD in fact, - #elieve it 'as te one - ad seen tere as a cild #efore&orld &ar -. Ultimately, o'ever, te !lan came to na(gt, and in 193G, cyclotron and climateattracted me to Berkeley.

&e left /e' ork #y train and sto!!ed for a fe' days in nn r#or, 4icigan, 'ere Elfriede startedfeeling #etterD ten 'e crossed te continent on a famo(s train called )2e Callenger,) reacingBerkeley in tree days. &e ad t'o o#ectives: learning a#o(t te cyclotron and visiting California andte &est. &e rented a ord car for one mont,

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o!ing tat it 'o(ld also serve Elfriede to learn to drive. - ten !l(nged into te 6adiation 7a#oratoryfor several days.

7a'rence 'as most cordial.JF -t 'as my first meeting 'it im and - 'as not (sed to is !ersonality,

so different from tat of any oter !ysicist - kne'. ;e invited (s to is ome for dinner, 'ere - ateavocado for te first time. 8- did not like it ten, #(t - do no'.

Besides 7a'rence, - s!oke 'it Ed'in 4c4illan,F on Cooksey, ran* M(rie, Pili! #elson,GFand oters - do not remem#er. +. 6o#ert !!eneimer also invited (s for dinner.%F - gave a co(!le oflect(res on ne(trons and made a detailed to(r of te 6ad 7a#, s!eaking eAtensively 'it #elson, tena grad(ate st(dent 'orking on (rani(m. - told im tat tere 'as (ndo(#tedly a mystery in (rani(m #om#arded #y ne(trons. &it a so(rce as !o'erf(l as te cyclotron, te Berkeley researcers ad teinestima#le advantage of #eing a#le to generate an activity tat 'as large com!ared 'it te nat(ralactivity of (rani(m. 2is so(ld ena#le tem to see tings idden from every#ody else. s a first ste!, -



!ro!osed tey see 'eter tere 'as a difference #et'een te activity !rod(ced #y fast and slo'ne(trons. f co(rse, - ad no idea of te nat(re of te mystery !resented #y (rani(m, #(t - kne' it 'astere. #elson 'orked a little on te s(#ect and gave me te decay c(rves e o#tained, #(t at te timee 'ent no f(rter.

- also rene'ed my ac0(aintance 'it Co(nt 7oren*o Emo Ca!odilista. - ad kno'n im since isst(dent days in lorence, 'ere e ad 'orked 'it te local cosmicray gro(!. ;e ad lost is moter

'en still very yo(ng and cerised is 'ealty grandmoter, a 4rs. Parris of Piladel!ia, 'o 'asa tr(e lady, remarka#le for er vigor, intelligence, and im!osing a!!earance. 7oren*o ad a eart ofgold and 'as a 'ise man and a tr(e gentleman, #(t not a ra#id !ysicist like most of is colleag(es.Possessing inde!endent means and eAtended interests #eyond !ysics, e tended to enoy life. Elfriedeliked im at once, too, and e later #ecame one of o(r closest friends.

-n visiting te 6ad 7a#, - noticed tat tere 'as a lot of radioactive metal scra! lying aro(nd. /o#odykne' 'at it contained. - asked for some sam!les to take 'it me to Palermo. 2e radioactivities (n

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do(#tedly ad long !eriods, and - 'o(ld #e a#le to st(dy tem at leis(re (!on my ret(rn. &it l(ck,tere migt #e someting interesting. - took several !ieces of metal tat ad #elonged to cyclotron !arts. 7a'rence 'as very kind and genero(s in giving me tis materialD e said e 'as a!!y - co(ld(se it and glad to #e a#le to el! so !en(rio(s a !lace as Palermo.

&en - ad concl(ded my scientific visits, Elfriede and - drove off to see te marvels of te &est. &e'ere convinced tat tis 'as a (ni0(e o!!ort(nity to do so, and some fifty years in fact ela!sed #efore- ret(rned to some of te !laces 'e visited. ter !laces, on te contrary, #ecame fre0(ent destinations'en 'e settled in Berkeley.

6asetti, as (s(al, ad lect(red (s on te !laces 'e m(st see, and is g(idance from afar 'as very (sef(lto (s. &e 'ent to osemite and eat Kalley, contin(ing to some tr(ly 'ild deserts in /avao co(ntry,

#(t missed te Canyon de Celly, 'ic 6asetti ad rated a m(st. &e visited Bo(lder am still alfem!ty, and te Uta national !arks, #o(gt cact(s seeds for 4ontemartini and Palermos #otanicalgarden, and 'ent to 4o(nt &ilson #servatory and to te movie st(dios in ;olly'ood. ;a!!y 'ito(r tri!, 'e ret(rned to Berkeley, 'ere - collected my radioactive material. n cto#er 1$t, 193G,'e landed in /a!les.

n my ret(rn to Palermo - immediately started 'ork on te material - ad o#tained in Berkeley. 2einstr(ments - ad !re!ared te !revio(s year 'ere !erfectly s(ited to my !rogramD f(rtermore, - ad #(ilt a cemical ood and ad fo(nd glass'are and cemical instr(ments in te la#, 'ic !era!s'ent #ack to te time of Canni**aro. - 'as t(s a#le to start cemical se!arations (sing te (s(alradiocemistry tecni0(es.

- soon discovered tat - ad taken 'it me a tr(e mine of radioactive s(#stances. 2e cyclotron ad #een (sed for #om#arding a little of everyting, alto(g mainly !os!or(sD no s!ecial !reca(tionsad #een taken, so - fo(nd many different s(#stances tat ad va!ori*ed from te target. -n addition to !os!or(s, a !reliminary s(rvey revealed radioactive co#alt, *inc, !era!s silver, and oter activities -co(ld not ascri#e to any kno'n element.

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- first recogni*ed a large 0(antity of P3? , 'it a alf life of a#o(t t'o 'eeks. - to(gt immediately



tat tis migt #e (sef(l for #iological eA!eriments, #(t nat(rally, not #eing a #iologist, - did not kno's!ecifically 'at to do 'it it. - eA!lained te tracer tecni0(e, ten relatively ne', in detail to mycolleag(e Camillo rtom, !rofessor of !ysiology, and offered im te radioactive !os!or(s and tenecessary tecnical el! 'it radioactive meas(rements. rtom at once gras!ed te tecni0(e and te !ossi#ilities it offered, and immediately to(gt of some interesting a!!lications to !os!oli!idmeta#olism. 2(s #egan a fr(itf(l colla#oration, 'ic !rod(ced good res(lts. ;aving learned a

minim(m of !ysiology and #iocemistry, - tried to make a r(dimentary matematical model of amo(se, descri#ing its meta#olism #y s(ita#le coefficients. Some of te ideas 'ent #ack to Kolterras oldst(dies, 'ic - ad read as a st(dent.NF - #elieve tat tis ty!e of investigation, greatly refined andeA!anded, as develo!ed into a fasiona#le endeavor.

-n e#r(ary 193% - received a letter from 7a'rence containing more radioactive st(ff. -n !artic(lar, itcontained a moly#den(m foil tat ad #een !art of te cyclotrons deflector. - s(s!ected at once tat itmigt contain element J3.9F 2e sim!le reason 'as tat de(teron #om#ardment of moly#den(m8atomic n(m#er J? so(ld give isoto!es of element J3 tro(g 'ellesta#lised n(clear reactions. 4ysam!le, te moly#den(m deflector li!, ad certainly #een intensely #om#arded 'it de(terons, and -noted tat one of its faces 'as m(c more radioactive tan te oter. - ten dissolved only te materialof te active face, in tis 'ay acieving a first im!ortant concentration of te activity.

By no' - 'as more so!isticated tan - ad #een in 6ome in 193J, and - kne' tat te )mas(ri(m)anno(nced #y -. &. and &. M. /oddack in 19? 'as !ro#a#ly a mistake. mong oter reasons, n(clearsystematics raised strong s(s!icions a#o(t its sta#ility. - t(s ad to !rove tat - really ad in and ane' element, created artificially and devoid of sta#le isoto!es. 2e metods for s(c an investigationad #een !ioneered long ago #y . -. 4endeleyev and 4arie C(rie. ne !redicts te cemical !ro!erties to #e eA!ected for te ne' s(#stance #y criteria similar to tose (sed #y 4endeleyev, andten one tries to

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verify te !redictions #y radiocemical metods, taking into acco(nt tat te #eavior of trace amo(ntsof a s(#stance can #e different from tat of matter in #(lk.

or tis investigation - enlisted te coo!eration of Carlo Perrier, 'o ad more eA!erience in cemistrytan -. irst 'e se!arated te activity 'e 'ere st(dying from all kno'n elements to make s(re tat it'as not isoto!ic 'it any of tem. /eAt 'e esta#lised several of te cemical !ro!erties of elementJ3. Se!aration from reni(m 'as te most diffic(lt !ro#lem, #(t in te end 'e s(cceeded in t'odifferent 'ays: #y !reci!itation as a s(lfide in a very acid sol(tion and #y distillation in a c(rrent ofgaseo(s ydrocloric acid. ll tis 'ork 'as most am(sing and of o#vio(s im!ortance.1$F

By follo'ing te radioactive decay of o(r sam!les and #y meas(ring te a#sor!tion in al(min(m of teelectrons emitted, B. /. Caccia!(oti and - fo(nd tree decay !eriods: 9$, N$, and $ days. 7ooking

#ack on te data fifty years later, - see tat in effect 'e ad only t'o radioactive isoto!es: tecneti(m9, 'it a !eriod of G1 days, and tecneti(m 9%, 'it a !eriod of 9$ days. 2ey are #ot n(clearisomeric states 'it com!leA electronic radiations, o#tained #y de(teron #om#ardment of severalmoly#den(m isoto!es.

-n tis 'ork 'e ad discovered te first cemical element created #y man.11F Perrier and - decided notto name te ne' element at te time, alto(g 'e received s(ggestions for names cele#rating ascismor Sicily, s(c as 2rinacri(m 8from 2rinacria, an ancient =reek name for te island, 'ic 'e did notlike. 4oreover, for (s to avoid controversy 'it &alter /oddack and -da 2acke/oddack, tey first adto retract teir claims, or tese ad to fall of teir o'n 'eigt, as later a!!ened. &e also kne' tat



many more elements ad #een named or anno(nced tan tr(ly eAisted. ;aste in naming did not seemlike good style to (s.1?F

=eorg von ;eresy, 'o kne' te /oddacks 'ork at first and, 'rote to me eA!laining its 'eaknesses.;eresy, a ;(ngarian ed(cated 'it all refinements of te old (strian Em!ire, 'as one of te greatestliving cemists and a close friend of /iels Bor. ;e and rit* Panet

@ 11% @

ad invented te radioactive tracer metod, and ;evesy and irk Coster ad discovered te elementafni(m, (sing Yrays as an analytical tool.13F

2e /oddacks 'ere cemists, igly res!ected for teir discovery of reni(m, 'ic tey detected inseveral ores in 19?. -n te same !a!er tey ad anno(nced te discovery of t'o elements: element %,'ic tey named reni(m 8from 6en(s, te ancient name for te 6ine, and element J3, 'ic teynamed mas(ri(m 8from 4as(ria, te easternmost !art of East Pr(ssia, 'ere =erman armies adre!eatedly defeated te 6(ssians in &orld &ar -. 6eni(m 'as soon confirmed, and te /oddacks !re!ared it in macrosco!ic amo(nts, #(t tey did not make any f(rter mention of mas(ri(m. -n 1933,

'en - #o(gt all te elements availa#le in 6ome for o(r ne(tron 'ork, - fo(nd a sam!le of reni(m, #(t not one of mas(ri(m.

-n 193%, after receiving te letter from ;evesy mentioned a#ove, - ad some do(#ts a#o(t te /oddacks res(lts and decided to visit tem and to o#tain firstand information on teir 'ork. #o(tSe!tem#er ?$, on my ret(rn from Co!enagen 8see !. 1??, - sto!!ed in rei#(rg, 'ere te /oddacksad teir la#. Professor &alter /oddack ke!t me 'aiting for a 'ile, #(t (ltimately e received me. -did not see is 'ife.

- so'ed /oddack te !roofs of o(r 7incei !a!er giving te !ro!erties of element J3 and asked im'eter is res(lts agreed 'it o(rs. )es,) 'as te ans'er. - asked im 'eter e ad fo(ndsometing on te cemistry of J3 #eyond 'at 'e ad, and e said, )/o.) - asked im o' m(c

mas(ri(m tey ad, and e ans'ered a#o(t 1 mg, 'ic to me seemed (nlikely. ;e told me e ad sentit to rancis ston at te Cavendis 7a#oratory for isoto!ic analysis, 'ic s(r!rised me. - asked to seesome of is Yray !lates, 'it te caracteristic s!ectr(m of J3. ;e ans'ered tat (nfort(nately te !lates ad accidentally #een #roken and ence 'ere not availa#le. &en - asked 'y e ad not mademore !lates, - co(ld not o#tain a clear ans'er. By ten - 'as tinking tat eiter tey 'ere del(dingtemselves or tey ad do(#ts a#o(t teir res(lts and o!ed tat f(rter 'ork migt resolve

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temD in te meantime tey did not 'ant to !re(dice te iss(e. -n any case it 'as (nlikely tat tey adclearc(t res(lts. ;aving formed tis o!inion, - took my leave.

- 'as s(r!rised 'en a co(!le of 'eeks later /oddack, is 'ife 8if - remem#er correctly, and a coortof assistants so'ed (! at my la# in Palermo. - so'ed tem 'at 'e ad. 2ese are te only !ersonalcontacts - remem#er aving ad 'it te /oddacks.

fter te 'ar, 'en n(clear reactors !rod(ced macrosco!ic amo(nts of element J3, - ad tesatisfaction of seeing, not only tat 'e ad made no mistakes, #(t also tat 'e ad fo(nd te main !ro!erties of te ne' s(#stance. nly ten did Perrier and - give it te name technetium tocommemorate te fact tat it 'as te first artificial element.1JF

ne day ermi came to visit me at Palermo and told me e to(gt o(r 'ork on element J3 'as te



#est !iece of 'ork in !ysics in te !receding year. Since ermi did not make s(c statements merelyto !lease, or 'ito(t d(e consideration, - 'as elated.

2e !rime necessity for f(rter 'ork 'as te s(!!ly of radioactive s(#stances. - asked 7oren*o Emo tosend me more material from Berkeley, 'ic e did, 'it 7a'rences !ermission. &en - received aletter from Berkeley, - meas(red its radioactivity #efore o!ening it. - also sent to Berkeley a collectionof test t(#es containing several s(#stances to #e !(t near te cyclotron target 'ere tey 'o(ld #e

ne(tronirradiated. mong tem - incl(ded some !(rified (rani(m and tori(m, #eca(se - 'as a'are ofte (rani(m mysteries, some ammoni(m nitrate, in te o!e of finding C1J , and s(ndry otermaterials. 2e cyclotron !rod(ced so many ne(trons tat if my sam!les 'ere sim!ly ke!t in a #oA nearte target, - co(ld o#tain !recio(s material tat 'o(ld kee! me #(sy for 0(ite a 'ileD or at least - soo!ed.

2e #eginning of te year 193% 'as darkened #y an (neA!ected tragedy. Cor#ino ca(gt !ne(moniaand died in a fe' days, on +an(ary ?3. ;is deat 'as a severe #lo'. ;e 'as only siAtyone, and 'e adall co(nted on is 'ise co(nsel and g(idance in te diffic(lt times 'e antici!ated.

- immediately sa' 'at te conse0(ences of Cor#inos deat 'o(ld #e, and - 'as soon !roved rigt.&en - 'ent to 6ome for te f(neral,

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- fo(nd tat is !ost, 'ic so(ld logically ave gone to ermi, ad #ecome te target of o#sc(reca#als. 2e end res(lt 'as 7o S(rdos a!!ointment as director of te Pysics -nstit(te. - co(ld not aveimagined a 'orse coice. mong oter tings it ens(red ostility, in !lace of #enevolence, to'ardermis gro(!, 'ic, in my o!inion, 'as eAerting a most sal(tary infl(ence on -talian !ysics.

noter s(r!rise follo'ed sortly after: maldi 'as a!!ointed !rofessor at 6ome. ;e ad com!eteds(ccessf(lly for a cair at Cagliari, in Sardinia, #(t ad reno(nced te a!!ointment in order not to aveto leave 6ome. -mmediately after'ard, e 'as called to te University of 6ome. 2e 'ole deal ad

very negative im!lications for me. - came from te same sta#le as maldi, ad #een first assistant toCor#ino, and ad seniority over maldiD nor co(ld it #e said tat is scientific 'ork oversado'edmine. #vio(sly my cances of ret(rning to 6ome and reoining te gro(! 'ere vanising. maldisa!!ointment at 6ome also meant tat ermi and 6asetti eiter co(ld not or did not 'ant to !(t (! afigt for me. ermi, as a matter of !rinci!le, avoided losing #attles, and te 'ole develo!mentsignaled to me tat my cances of #eing a!!ointed to a #etter cair tan Palermo 'ere slim indeed.lto(g te idea of remaining at Palermo for a long time 'as not disagreea#le !er se, - 'as concernedfor te f(t(re of my researc. -t 'as not easy for me to imagine o' - 'o(ld #e a#le to contin(e to dointeresting 'ork in Sicily. Ultimately, o'ever, maldis a!!ointment did me little arm and t(rned o(tto #e a stroke of good l(ck for -talian !ysics.1F

;aving assessed te sit(ation at 6ome, - !(t o(t some feelers for oter cairs, 'it disco(raging, even

(miliating, res(lts. or instance, - still regret aving asked ;is EAcellency Professor /icolaParravano, accademico d6"talia& to comm(nicate o(r note anno(ncing te discovery of element J3 tote ccademia dei 7incei as a gest(re of a!!easement. n tis occasion, - sa' manifest signs of antiSemitism, and tey 'ere not te first. ntiSemitism ad al'ays #een endemic in -taly, #(t it ad not !revented talented !eo!le from making teir 'ay. /o' one felt, o'ever, tat te disease 'as getting'orse.

4y fater #o(gt (s a #randne' modern a!artment on te Pia**a rancesco Cris!i in Palermo, 'icad 'indo's overlooking te



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#ea(tif(l =iardino -nglese. -t 'as f(rnised for (s #y te lorentine firm of =ori and 'it some !iecesdesigned #y an arcitect friend of mine, 'ic - ad #ro(gt from 6ome. fter fifty years of service, -can still admire teir 0(ality in my California o(se.

&e 'ere eA!ecting a cild in 4arc, and 6asettis moter and te maldis el!ed (s to find eAactly teel! 'e needed: 7ella, a 'oman from #r(**o, 'o ad never #een to scool, #(t ad (ncommonintelligence and !ersonality, and a s'eet n(rsemaid from Poggio, 'ere te maldi family ad anestate. Bot 'omen eAcelled in teir 'ork, 'ere of sterling onesty, and affectionateD tey remainedElfriedes lifelong friends.

n 4arc ?, 193%, =ori came from lorence to assem#le o(r f(rnit(reD e 'anted to do it !ersonally.t a#o(t 3 P.4. , 'en e ad (st finised is 'ork, Elfriede told me tat se to(gt it migt #e #etter to go to te os!ital, and a#o(t t'o o(rs later o(r son Cla(dio 'as #orn. 4y colleag(e te !rofessor of o#stetrics at te University of Palermo 'as in attendance, alto(g once in a 'ile e fellaslee!. fe' days later Cla(dio develo!ed a si*ea#le l(m! on is neck, m(c to o(r orror. 2e !ediatrician, a =erman doctor cosen #y Elfriede, 'o ad formerly #een er colleag(e at te Landschulheim in lorence, made an alarming diagnosis, #(t s(ggested 'e so' te cild to te(niversitys !ediatrics !rofessor. 2e latter, a very elegant Sicilian gentleman, 'ose looks remindedme of re(d, #riefly eAamined te infant and ten said: )o not 'orry. -t is noting serio(s. ;is neckas #een !(lled at #irt. ll e needs is to slee! for a fe' days 'it is ead tilted and e 'ill #e allrigt.) 2is t(rned o(t to #e te case.

&it te 193GQ3% scool year a!!roacing its end, 'e !re!ared for o(r s(mmer vacation. SinceCla(dio 'as only a fe' monts old, 'e co(ld not travel far, and 'e rented a o(se at l#a di Cana*eiin te olomites, 'ere 'e occ(!ied one floor and maldi anoter. &e also arranged lodgings in teimmediate vicinity for te families of Bakker from ;olland and of Bernardini from lorence.Unfort(nately, tis 'as to #e te last vacation - 'as a#le to enoy in te oldfasioned style familiar to

me from my cildood. &e collected large amo(nts of 'ild

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ras!#erries, from 'ic 'e made am, and of edi#le m(srooms 8'ic - learned to identify from a=erman #ooklet, t(s commencing t'o lifelong c(linary o##ies.

-n te middle of te s(mmer, - 'as called to te colors and ad to attend a military training scool inte ancient sea!ort to'n of Civitaveccia, nort of 6ome, for several 'eeks. &ile tere, - received atelegram from te rector of te University of Palermo (rgently recalling me, #eca(se -l (ce,4(ssolini, 'as a#o(t to visit and all te !rofessors ad to #e !resent. - took te telegram to te colonel

commanding te scool and a!!lied for leave. 2e colonel looked at me intently and asked: )-n tisseason is Palermo very ot<) - (nderstood at once te meaning of te 0(estion and ans'ered: )-t isterri#ly s(ltry.) 2o tis te colonel res!onded: )ns'er tat yo( are serving in te army and tat leaveas #een denied.) - m(st add tat te colonel gave me leave every 'eekend to oin my family at l#a diCana*ei, 'ere te 'eater 'as good.

&ile at Civitaveccia, in te dee! of nigt, - received a tele!one call 'it te ne's tat my fater,'o 'as at 2ivoli 'it my moter, ad #een taken gravely ill. Sortly tereafter Bindo 6imini arrived #y car and took me to 2ivoli, 'ere - fo(nd my moter, 6iccardo 6imini, and 4arco. 4y fater 'as ina coma, and according to 6iccardo, an eAcellent doctor 'om 'e all tr(sted, tere 'as little o!e of is



s(rviving. fe' o(rs !assed, and te sit(ation 'as (ncanged. Someo' r(mors of my faters states!read, and !eo!le from te !a!er mill and city a(torities made discreet, concerned in0(iries.Some#ody even started tinking a#o(t f(neral arrangements. /o signs of im!rovement a!!eared.

-n te afternoon, te !atient, still in a coma, !assed a lot of 'ind, and ten lo(dly and clearly s!okesome famo(s lines from 2or0(ato 2assos 0erusalemme liberata 8my translation:

2e ra(co(s so(nd of te 2artarean #(gleCalls te ina#itants of te eternal sado's.

4y moter, 'o 'as at er (s#ands #edside, almost fainted. &e all r(sed in, and to every#odysama*ement, my fater regained con

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scio(sness. -n a fe' o(rs e 'as greatly im!roved. or a#o(t a 'eek e sligtly dragged one leg in'alking, #(t soon e totally recovered, 'ito(t visi#le trace of 'at ad a!!ened in eiter #ody ormind. &e ad #een terri#ly scared. 4y faters comment 'as: )/o' - kno' 'at tere is in te #eyond: noting.)

Before te s(mmer vacation, Bor ad invited me to one of is ann(al conferences in Co!enagen,so'ing tat o(r 'ork at Palermo ad not esca!ed is attentionD - 'as igly !leased and immediatelyacce!ted. n te train to Co!enagen, - met ;ans von E(ler and several oter yo(ng !ysicists !roceeding to te same conference, 'ic t(s #egan en ro(te. 2ey eA!lained some of te mysteriesof te latest cosmicray o#servations, ar#ingers of 'at 'ere later called m(ons, to me.

t Co!enagen, te meetings 'ere eAtremely stren(o(s. -n s(c com!any, one tried to a#sor# as m(cas !ossi#le, and t(s one ad to concentrate 'ito(t interr(!tion for many o(rs at a time. - 'aseAa(sted #y te end of eac day.

Bors residence and lifestyle im!ressed meD tey 'ere tr(ly !rincely in te #est sense of te 'ord. &ealso made some of te (s(al eAc(rsions, #(t contin(ed talking !ysics all te time. - s!oke on te ne'element J3.

n my 'ay #ack - sto!!ed #riefly in ;am#(rg. rom tere, on Se!tem#er 1, 193%, - 'rote as follo'sto 6iccardo 6imini:

. . . esterday evening te Congress ended, 'it a (moro(s, #(t rater moving, feast. &eacted in a sort of variety so' s(mmari*ing Bors recent travels aro(nd te 'orld.2ro(g te okes one co(ld feel te res!ect and almost veneration tat every#ody feels forBor. - co(ld not a!!roac im very m(c, #(t - (nderstood tat e is one of te mostremarka#le !ersonalities !rod(ced #y mankind, and tat e overs in eigts incom!ara#lyiger tan tose reaced #y common mortals, #e tey even ermis. lso morally and froma (man !oint of vie' e m(st #e s(!erior to oters. -mmediately after te feast - left 'it&ernerF ;eisen#erg 'inner of te /o#el Pri*e in Pysics in 193?F and is 'ife.;eisen#erg . . . as #een a !(!il of Bors at Co!enagen for tree

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years, and e as done is #est 'ork tere. Bor said a fe' 'ords of good#ye to im andis 'ife tat 'ellnig made te com!any siver, and every#ody 'as clearly saken.

- ad a #ad train tri!, #eca(se 'e 'ere contin(o(sly dist(r#ed #y c(stoms agents, !olice,



and similar caracters. /eAt morning - arrived ere and lodged 'ere yo( see from teletteread te ;otel ContinentalF. - sle!t a little and ten !oned )-.) &e made ana!!ointment, - #elieve #y cance, on te s!ot 'ere 'e first met. -t 'as ten a 'intereveningD it is no' an a(t(mn morning. &ile 'aiting - to(gt of many tings of tat time,a#o(t !rogress made and canges since ten in myself and in te 'orld. - do not go intodetail so as not to annoy yo(. -n any case yo( kno' too many tings not to #e a#le to more

or less g(ess my to(gts.)-) is !ysically not m(c canged, alto(g se is 'it cild. 4orally se seems to me toave #ecome rater st(!id. Se as entered te mentality of te local lo'er middle class,'ic is rater (na!!eti*ing. 2e (s#and is a la'yer and notary and is J$ years old. Seas lost some of te vivacity and fleAi#ility se ad in years !ast. Se is simpatica& #(tcom!letely, irremedia#ly, foreign to me, and - ave no reason to see er any more in tef(t(re. lto(g 'e did not say it, te long !a(ses inters!ersing o(r conversation clearlys!oke for temselves. -n any case - 'o(ld not even ave gone to #ed 'it er 'it anyent(siasm. ter ties and interests are no' at te forefront and !era!s no', for te firsttime, Cla(dio ad signaled is eAistence. -n any case, as yo( kno', - dearly love Elfriede,and alto(g - am !erfectly a'are of te !ossi#ility of se!arating !ersons and affections, a

!ossi#ility tat, alto(g fre0(ently contested, in certain cases eAists, - do not 'antfoolisly to (rt er.

2e city of ;am#(rg and =ermany in general after s(c a long a#sence ave a c(rio(seffect on me. lto(g te eAterior as!ect as some'at canged, - co(ld not say tat teco(ntry looks different, in s!ite of te a#(ndance of soldiers, eac stiff as a ramrod. 2eso!s, 'it te eAce!tion of te #ooksellers, are te same, and so are te !(#lic !laces, #(tte 'ole looks to me like a sell 'ito(t te animal. or me, 'o kne' =ermany as tefreest co(ntry, as a fo(ntainead of c(lt(re for a !ysicist, as an (n!re(diced co(ntry forgirls, f(ll of ne' ideas and 'it a lively intellect(al life, it gives te im!ression of a totalvoid. Koid, void, and noting else. . . .

-n any case te res(lt of tis 'ole tri! and of tis eA!erience is

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rater to t(rn me to te f(t(re, and no' Bor and is disco(rses are more alive, or, #etter,more im!ortant to me tan memories of 1933.

s already descri#ed, - also sto!!ed on my 'ay ome at rei#(rg to see te /oddacks.

Sortly after te Co!enagen conference - attended a congress eld at Bologna to cele#rate te ?$$tanniversary of =alvanis #irt, #(t all - remem#er of it are visits to 6avenna, !revio(sly (nkno'n toElfriede and myself, and te general dismay at te anno(ncement d(ring te conference of 6(terfords

deat.ll told, 193% ad #een a good year for (s #ot !ersonally and scientifically, alto(g clo(ded #yCor#inos deat. Elfriede and - got along togeter #etter and #etter. Se !roved to #e an eAcellent 'ife,ever e0(al to te often diffic(lt demands !laced (!on er. Se took care of Cla(dio 'it good sense,el!ed meas(re radioactive !os!or(s in te la#, ran te o(seold, acted as a secretary, read on ero'n acco(nt, and gre' intellect(allyD in sort, se 'as an eAcellent com!anion in every res!ect. Sead also #ecome attaced to my !arents, 'o a#(ndantly reci!rocated er feelings.

(r 'eekend tri!s ad so'n (s a good !art of Sicily. grigento and Selin(nte 8te ancient Selin(s on



te so(t'est coast of te island in !artic(lar a!!ealed to my imagination, alto(g 'en 'e drove toSelin(nte, te local #oys scratced te !aint of o(r car and s!at on o(r r(cksacks o(t of !(re s!ite,'ile alternately #egging or vainly trying to sell to (s some fake old coins. ;iking in te Bosco dellaic(**a, 'e sa' 'ild !eonies for te first time. - did not kno' 'at tey 'ere, #(t g(essed,remem#ering tem from Cinese !orcelain. t te foot of 4onte Pellegrino, 'e fo(nd fo(rteendifferent kinds of 'ild orcids in an area of a#o(t five acres. nce in a 'ile, 'e 'ent to 4ondello to

#(y live lo#sters or s'im.-n s!ite of everyting, - 'as 'orried. - kne' tat te discovery of element J3 ad #een a stroke of l(ck,not likely to #e re!eated at Palermo, and do(#ted - co(ld develo! a s(stained researc !rogram 'ito(tradioactive so(rces and #etter instr(ments tan te sim!le ones - ad #(ilt. 2e (niversity ad assignedme t'o (ndred to(sand lire, a s(#stantial s(m, #(t a good !art of it 'as needed for a macine so!

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and for oter indis!ensa#le !lantD te f(t(re 'as not all rosy. By nat(re - 'as inclined to 'at - (sed tocall )!ysics 'ito(t a!!arat(s,) in 'ic ne' ideas make (! for te sim!licity of te tecni0(es. 2isattit(de derived #ot from my indifferent a#ility as an instr(ment #(ilder and from my ed(cation in6ome, 'ere teory !revailed over tecni0(e. ;o'ever, tere 'ere limits to 'at co(ld #e done tis'ay. - tried in vain to o#tain some money from te 6ockefeller o(ndation and from te -talianConsiglio delle ricerce.

2o invigorate !ysics in Palermo, - 'anted to esta#lis a cair of teoretical !ysics. 2ere 'as noscarcity of yo(ng candidates 'o co(ld #rilliantly fill itD first among tem =ian Carlo &ick and =i(lio6aca. - did not consider Ettore 4aorana #eca(se #y ten e ad #ecome a recl(se and never leftome. - co(ld co(nt on a good coice #eca(se ermis o!inion 'o(ld #e decisive.

- disc(ssed te s(#ect 'it te rector of te University of Palermo, te (rist Professor =. Scad(to. ;e'as most coo!erative and !romised to el! me o'ever e co(ld, #(t 'as 'orried tat te ne' !rofessor migt regard Palermo merely as a s!ring#oard and migt not stay long eno(g to eAert a tr(ly

#eneficial infl(ence. Scad(to 'anted a commitment on tis !oint.2e s(#se0(ent com!etition ad a !ec(liar istory. -nitially, - ad eA!ected tat te tree 'inners'o(ld #e &ick, 6aca, and =iovanni =entile, +r. - never dreamed 4aorana 'o(ld enter tecom!etition, #eca(se e ad lived in secl(sion for several years. Com!letely (neA!ectedly, o'ever, edid. 2e conse0(ence 'as clear: te tree 'inners 'o(ld #e 4aorana, &ick, and 6acaD =entile'o(ld #e left o(t. -n a teoretical !ysics com!etition, te o!inions of ermi and Enrico Persico 'o(ld #e decisive, and #ot 'o(ld onestly recogni*e merit.

2en someting (n!recedented a!!ened. 2e a!!ointment committee 8ermi, 7a**arino, Persico,Polvani, Carrelli met on cto#er ?, 193%, and !(t for'ard a most (n(s(al s(ggestion. -t !ro!osed toa!!oint 4aorana as a !rofessor for )eAce!tional merit) inde!endently of te Palermo com!etition, and

to s(s!end f(rter deli#erations (ntil te minister ad acted on tis !ro!osal.- #elieve, on good gro(nds, tat in order to avoid a defeat for is

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son, =entiles fater, a former minister of ed(cation and still a !o'er in -talian !olitics, ad conceivedtis !lan and s(ggested it to te committee. &it te com!etition eld in a#eyance, 4aorana 'asa!!ointed !rofessor at /a!les #ased on eAce!tional merit. la' allo'ed for tis !roced(re in s!ecial



cases involving ill(strio(s !ersons, and ad #een (sed, for eAam!le, in te case of 4arconi. fter4aoranas a!!ointment, te com!etition 'as reinstated, o#vio(sly 'ito(t 4aoranas candidacy. 2etree cosen 'ere &ick, 6aca, and =entile. 2o my deligt, &ick came to Palermo not long tereafter. /eedless to say, at te time - 'as com!letely in te dark a#o(t te mane(vers mentioned a#ove.

2is 'as not, o'ever, te end of te story. fter a fe' monts in /a!les, 'ere e ad started isco(rse in teoretical !ysics, 4aorana 'rote a s(icide note to is colleag(e Carrelli and took a #oat

for Palermo. rom tere e 'ired Carrelli tat e ad canged is mindD e also mailed im a letter onte 'riting !a!er of te ;otel Sole at Palermo, dated 4arc ?G, 193N, saying:

ear Carrelli,

- o!e my telegram and te letter arrived sim(ltaneo(sly. 2e sea as reected me and -sall ret(rn to te ;otel Bologna in /a!lesF tomorro', !era!s traveling togeter 'ittese lines. ;o'ever, - 'ant to give (! teacing. o not tink of me as a girl in an -#sen !lay, #eca(se te case is different. - am at yo(r dis!osal for f(rter details.

ffectionately, E. 4aorana.

-t is easy to imagine Carrellis alarm and dismay on receiving tese comm(nications. s 4aorana did

not so' (! in /a!les, Carrelli contacted 4aoranas family in 6ome, as 'ell as ermi. Ettores #roter, 7(ciano 4aorana, 'o ad also #een my scoolmate, r(sed to Palermo and came to see meDtogeter 'e tried to trace Ettores moves tro(g te !olice. &e fo(nd only tat e ad #een at te;otel Sole, as 'as clear, any'ay, from te 'riting !a!er e ad (sed. ermi immediately alerted tegovernment, and 4(ssolini !ersonally ordered te cief of !olice at Palermo to (se all is reso(rces tofind 4aorana. 2o no avail. ;e ad reem#arked from Palermo for /a!les, #(t after

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#oarding te si!, e vanised 'ito(t a trace. -n all !ro#a#ility, e (m!ed over#oard and 'as lost atsea. ;is #ody 'as never fo(nd.1GF

n my ret(rn to Palermo in te fall of 193%, Perrier and - rene'ed o(r investigation of element J3, #(tte cream ad already #een skimmed, and res(lts 'ere arder to get. /oneteless, 'e s(cceeded infinding interesting novelties. - ad set my o!es for te f(t(re on te !ackage, !revio(sly descri#ed,sent for irradiation at Berkeley. - also started #(ilding a linear am!lifier to detect te al!a !articles -eA!ected from te trans(ranic elements - o!ed 'o(ld #e !resent in irradiated (rani(m.

-n te meantime - ad #een asked to oin te 6otary Cl(# in Palermo. -talian 6otary Cl(#s are verydifferent from teir merican co(nter!arts. t Palermo, te cl(#s mem#ersi! 'as restricted toim!ortant local civic leaders. (rtermore, te cl(# 'as definitely not ascist. 4y fater (rged me to oin, and kno'ing me 'ell, strengtened is arg(ments #y offering to !ay te s(#stantial montly fee.

t te 6otary Cl(# - met several interesting and im!ortant !ersons, #ot visitors and local residents. -remem#er es!ecially te ins!ired face of te com!oser on 7oren*o Perosi, 'ic co(ld ave servedas a model for a sc(l!tor re!resenting )=eni(s.) 4y election to te cl(# 'as anoter sign tat Siciliansliked and acce!ted me. ne of te mem#ers 'as te eAcellent rector of te (niversity, scion of anill(strio(s family of la'yers. &e 'ere friends, #(t not intimates. ne day, o'ever, at te 6otary Cl(#,'en - 'ent to greet im 'it a andsake, e s(r!rised me #y em#racing me 'it o!en arms,'is!ering in my ear: )&atc o(t. o( ave #eind yo( te secretary of te ascio)Hte igest localascist a(tority. 4(ssolini ad (st for#idden saking ands as an (nascist gest(re.

-n 193N Elfriede ret(rned to =ermany for a visit. -t 'as te last time se sa' er !arents. &en se got



#ack to Palermo, - met er si! at te !ier 'it a #(nc of roses. 2ey did not s(ffice, o'ever, toco(nter#alance a scary !iece of !olitical ne's: ;itlers visit to 4(ssolini, of 'ic te !oet 2ril(ssa8Carlo l#erto Sal(stri so a!!ro!riately 'rote:

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6oma di travertino6ifatta di cartoneSal(ta lim#iancinoS(o !rossimo Padrone.

86ome of mar#le s!lendor Patced 'it card#oard and !laster &elcomes te o(se!ainter,;er neAt lord and master.

2e all(sion is to !atc 'ork ordered #y 4(ssolini along te ro(te to #e follo'ed #y im and is g(est.

- decided to s!end te s(mmer of 193N in Berkeley in order to st(dy sortlived isoto!es of element J3

tat co(ld not s(rvive te time it took to get from California to Palermo.

or tese s(mmer forays, - (sed a scientific strategy - ad s(ccessf(lly tested years earlier inmsterdam at te time of my first visit to Leemans la#. - !re!ared a detailed !lan of 'ork, reearsedte tecni0(es - 'o(ld (se, and kne' eAactly te instr(ments - needed. &it s(c !re!arations, onceon te s!ot, it 'as easy to o#tain good res(lts ra!idly. -n tis s!ecific case, - kne' o' to isolateelement J3 from a moly#den(m target, and - kne' 'at to meas(re in te ne' isoto!es, and o'.

t te time Cla(dio 'as a#o(t one year old, and it 'as not eA!edient to #ring im to te United Statesfor a fe' monts. &e t(s decided tat e and Elfriede 'o(ld stay in -taly, first in te l!s to esca!ete s(mmer eat and ten at 2ivoli. - 'o(ld ret(rn in cto#er for te #eginning of te scool year.

-n 193N it 'as very diffic(lt to get U.S. visas. U.S. cons(lates 'o(ld not give one a visa (nless ones-talian !ass!ort 'as s!ecifically validated for te United States, and te -talian government 'o(ld notvalidate a !ass!ort for te United States (nless it already contained a visa. -n teory, tis !recl(dedo#taining even a to(rist visa. -mmigration visas involved additional 0(ota diffic(lties, !racticallyeAcl(ding -talians and Poles. 2e last fact 'as im!ortantD Elfriede fell (nder te Polis 0(ota,

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alto(g se ad never #een a Polis citi*en. 6asetti ad, o'ever, told me tat te U.S. immigrationla' ten in force contained a Section J8d tat !ermitted entry, irres!ective of te 0(ota system, toartists, !riests, and !rofessors of a recogni*ed (niversity. t te time tis did not concern me, #eca(se -

only 'anted a to(rist visa, #(t it #ecame vital later.Under tese circ(mstances - 'ent, 'it my !ass!ort, to see an im!ortant official of te a!!ro!riatede!artment. s a lastmin(te ins!iration, - also st(ck Elfriedes !ass!ort in my !ocket. (rconversation !roceeded a!!roAimately as follo's:

)Commendatore, - am !rofessor of !ysics at te (niversity and - 'o(ld like to go, for te s(mmer, tost(dy in California. - ave a ret(rn ticket and - 'o(ld like to o#tain te validation of my !ass!ort.)

)o( kno' tat - cannot validate it 'ito(t a !revio(s U.S. visa.)



)es, - kno'D o'ever, 'it tis system no#ody can move any more.)

)O o( are te ne' !ysics !rofessor<)

)es.)

)2e nasty oneO - ave a ne!e' 'o is very scared #y yo(r eAam e as to !ass in cto#er.)

)Commendatore, 'at is yo(r ne!e's name< 2ell im not to 'orry.)

2e commendatore gave me te name, and - added, )- sall remem#er itD tell yo(r ne!e' e as !assed te eAam.)

&it tis, te commendatore took my !ass!ort, stam!ed, and signed it. - concl(ded: )4any tanks foryo(r kindnessD - sincerely a!!reciate it and sall not forget it. ;o'ever, - leave ere my 'ife and acild. ne never kno's. Co(ldnt yo( validate teir !ass!ort too<) nd - !(lled o(t of my !ocket teoter !ass!ort, 'ic 'as immediately validated. - still regret aving #een (na#le to re!ay te goodcommendatores kindnessD e may 'ell ave saved Elfriedes and Cla(dios lives. Unfort(nately,o'ever, - o#tained a U.S. visa only for myself, and not for Elfriede and Cla(dio.

Before de!arting for merica, - 'ent to 2ivoli to take leave of my

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!arents. -t 'as te last time - sa' tem. Pa!T took me aside and said to me: )o( are rigt in going. -f -'ere alf a cent(ry yo(nger, - 'o(ld do te same.) 2ese are te last 'ords - eard im s!eak. Elfriedeand - sto!!ed in 6ome and 'ent to see A7da at te 2erme of Caracalla, #(t 'e 'ere not in a ceerymood.

- em#arked for te United States at /a!les on +(ne ?, 193N.

1.Emilio Segrè 8Pi!!i at age 3, 19$N.

?.)ll te colors are: 2e colors are of te rain#o'.2ese colors can #e o#tained #y !assing s(nligt tro(g a !itcer filled 'it'ater or #y !assing s(nligt tro(g a !rism. ;o'ever, #y !assing te s(n tro(g te !itcer one does not o#tain te colors in col(mns #(t in arcs, one 'itin te oterF.) Emilio, age seven.

3.Segrè family on vacation in Castiglioncello, 191%.Back ro' from left: Egle Segrè 8=inos da(gter, =ino andCla(dio Segrè 8(ncles, ngelo 4arco and 4arco Cla(dio Segrè 8#roters, and=i(se!!e Segrè 8fater. ront ro' from left: Emilio #et'een Bice and a(sta Segrè8=inos da(gters, Cina Segrè 8=inos 'ife, and melia Segrè 8moter.



J. and .=i(se!!e Segrè and melia 2reves Segrè, 193%.

G.Emilio in artillery lie(tenants (niform at te Pysics -nstit(te atKia Panis!erna, on te day of Sir Candrasekara Kenkata 6amans visit, circa 193$.

%.-nternational Pysics Conference at Como, 19?%.Emilio is at te far left. 87a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory

N.Enrico ermi, a#o(t 19?N. Poto #y =. C. 2ra#acci.

9.ranco 6asetti 8nicknamed )Cardinal Kicar), Enrico ermi 8)Po!e), and

Emilio Segrè 8)Basilisk) in academic dress, 1931.

1$.Edoardo maldi, ranco 6asetti, and Emilio Segrè on a ike, 1931.87a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory

11.

)2e =ro(! of 6ome,) 193J. rom left: scar gostino, Emilio Segrè,Edoardo maldi, ranco 6asetti, and Enrico ermi.

1?.Elfriede Segrè, circa 193%.



Black#oard at te 7a'rence 7a#, cto#er ?J, 199,anno(ncing te ne's of te day. t left is te sced(le for ro(tine #lood tests,'it some (moro(s annotations. 87a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory

?9.Emilio Segrè receiving te /o#el Pri*e in !ysics from Ming =(stav of S'eden, 199.

3$.Emilio Segrès /o#el medal.

31.Cover of 2ime maga*ine, +an(ary ?, 19G1.

b 19G$ 2ime &arner, -nc. 6e!rinted #y !ermission.

3?.=lenn Sea#org and Emilio Segrè !resent te first sam!le of !l(toni(m?39 8teir colla#orative discovery, in te cigar #oA in 'ic it ad #een storedfor a 0(arter of a cent(ry, to te Smitsonian -nstit(tion in &asington, .C., 4arc ?N, 19GG.

33. Segrè family, 19N?. Back ro' from left: melias (s#and+ose! 2erkel, 6osa and Emilio Segrè, melia, Cla(dio, and La*a Segrèolding son +oel. ront ro' from left: mir 2erkel, =ino and rancesca Segrè, and Kivian 2erkel.

3J.6osa and Emilio near 7ocarno, S'it*erland, 19N%. Poto #y 6o#ert Scira.

3.Emilio Segrè, 19N$. Poto #y 4. Bali#rera. 87os lamos Scientific 7a#oratory

3G.Emilio at ome, doing is daily cinning eAercise, 19N1.8Co(rtesy of te San rancisco EAaminer



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C%a*ter Si<+

In t%e New 5orld, Re&3gee at ;er)eley -"#$80"#=$2,

Smell o& Cy(lotron Oil

2( lascerai ogni cosa diletta !i_ caramenteD e 0(esto è 0(ello stralece larco dello essilio !ria saetta.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !er l(i fia trasm(tata molta gente,cam#iando condi*ion ricci e mendici

82o( salt leave all tat to( ast loved most dearD

2is is te arro', sooting from te #o'f #anisment, 'ic to( ast first to fear.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2ro(g im sall many taste an altered lot,2e #eggar and te ric eAcanging !lace.ante, Paradiso 1%.Q%, N9Q9$ 8trans. 7a(rence Binyon

- landed in /e' ork on +(ly 13, 193N, eA!ecting to ret(rn to -taly in te a(t(mn for te #eginning ofte scool year. -nstead, nine years 'ere to ela!se #efore - revisited -taly. By tat time, aving lost my-talian o#, - ad #(ilt a second career, !artici!ated in great istoric events, 'on a s(!erior (niversity

!osition, and #ecome a U.S. citi*en and a Californian. ate ad #een kind to me, alto(g - ad ad mysare of )#lood, s'eat and tears.) - am gratef(l tat - 'as s!ared #ot mor#id omesickness and teterri#le disasters tat #efell o(r !arents and many of my friends. -n my early merican years - 'asl(cky to

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ave in science an a#sor#ing occ(!ation tat #ot gave me !leas(re and el!ed me re#(ild my life.

n my arrival at /e' ork, - visited my Col(m#ia University friends and ten, after a fe' days, leftfor Berkeley. - 'anted to eAec(te my 'ork !rogram as fast as !ossi#le. 7eo S*ilard, te ;(ngarian

!ysicist - ad met a fe' years earlier in England, came to see me off at =rand Central Station on myde!art(re for San rancisco. ;e in0(ired a#o(t my !lans, 'ic - detailed to im. &en - told im -eA!ected to ret(rn to Palermo in cto#er, e said tat 'o(ld #e im!ossi#le #eca(se of 'at 4(ssolinimigt #e eA!ected to doD -taly migt ado!t ;itlers racist !olitics, and in any case, ;itler migt start a'orld 'ar soon. &it tese ceerf(l to(gts, - started on te first leg of my tri!, from /e' ork toCicago.

t Cicago - #o(gt a ne's!a!er and read a sort #(t cilling ne's item on te ne' carter of antiSemitism in -taly, te Manifesto della razza 8race manifesto, 'ic o#vio(sly 4(ssolini adenco(raged, even if it #ore only te signat(res of is minions.1F - r(minated for te rest of te tri! on



its contents and im!lications. - decided not to mention te s(#ect to strangers in Berkeley, o'ever,(ntil - kne' more.

- 'as t(s cata!(lted from my a!!arently sec(re o# in Palermo into a !recario(s ne' sit(ation. -t istr(e tat - 'as not (nkno'n as a scientist, #(t my !restige 'as not s(fficient to !lace me in tecategory of tose for 'om it 'as easy to find a o#. (rtermore, - ad arrived a fe' years later tancontem!oraries like Bete, Bloc, and 2eller, and te o# market 'as more sat(rated. Strangely, te

first sock did not affect me very m(c emotionally. 2e #lo' 'as not (neA!ected, and all in all - 'astoo #(sy trying to re#(ild my life to #rood aimlessly. 2e res(lt 'as tat - did not feel te s(ddenrending from my !revio(s life as an irre!ara#le 'o(nd, as a!!ened to many RmigrRs.

n my arrival in Berkeley, - immediately tried to look (! my friend 7oren*o Emo, #(t e 'as a'ay fora fe' days. 2e o'ner of te o(se 'ere e lived ad anoter room for rent and - took it. -n tato(se

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- fo(nd a little #ook of dmiral /elsons letters to Emma, 7ady ;amilton, is lover. -n tem /elson

often com!lained a#o(t seasickness and signed 'it is /ea!olitan d(cal title, BrontR. 2(s, in o(rfriendly interco(rse, - nicknamed 7oren*o )BrontR) or )Bront(**o.)

7oren*o 'as of te greatest el! to me in my early days at Berkeley. irst, e eA!lained to me te(niversity min(et tat one danced at Berkeley, as one does in all (niversitiesD ten e g(ided me a littleamong te vario(s !ersonalities - met. #ove all, e 'as a tr(sted friend 'it 'om - co(ld sare my'orries a#o(t 'at 'as a!!ening in E(ro!e. Bet'een (s 'e co(ld talk 'it o!en earts, s(re ofm(t(al (nderstanding. -n tose 'eeks o(r ac0(aintance gre' into a solid, intimate friendsi! tat lastedfor life.

7oren*o, a andsome man, a man of te 'orld, a co(nt, and of inde!endent means, 'as most !o!(laramong !ysicists and teir 'ives, #ot at te (niversity and at te 6adiation 7a#oratory. lto(g e

looked to #e a farfallone amoroso 8amoro(s #(tterfly, e 'as an ast(te o#server of !eo!le andsre'dly a!!raised tem. 2e first !eo!le - met tro(g im 'ere on Cooksey 87a'rences alterego, rancis +enkins and is 'ife ;enriette, and 6o#ert Brode and is 'ife Bernice.?F -n addition,7oren*o introd(ced me to r. =iacomo ncona, a !ysician from lorence living in San rancisco,'o 'e discovered ad eAamined me in 19?G 'en e 'as a yo(ng assistant to te !rofessor ofmedicine at te University of lorence, r(goni. - also str(ck (! a close, lifelong friendsi! 'itncona.

- looked aro(nd te la# and sa' at once tat, 'ile te cyclotron 'as a 'onder, te metods (sed tomeas(re radioactivity left m(c to #e desired. - ten tried to sec(re an ioni*ation cam#er of te ty!e -ad (sed in 6ome and Palermo, and finding tat ranco 6asetti, on a sort visit in 193, ad left !artsof s(c an instr(ment in Berkeley, - com!leted it. - 'as (sed to co(!ling te ioni*ation cam#er to an

electrostatic electrometer, #(t 'en - asked 7a'rence to #(y s(c an instr(ment, e denied my re0(est.;e said tat it 'as oldfasioned st(ff, and tat - so(ld #(ild a C am!lifier 'it an P J t(#e. - adno coice and started 'orking. ort(nately, 7ee (Bridge, te f(t(re !resident of Caltec, ten a !rofessor at 6ocester University, 'as

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vacationing in Berkeley. ;e 'as an eA!ert on C am!lifiers and kindly offered is el!, ra!idlyassem#ling te rest of te instr(ment. 2e res(ltant sim!le a!!arat(s 'as (sed later for many



investigations. -t is no' a m(se(m !iece at te Smitsonian -nstit(tion in &asington, .C.

2e more familiar - #ecame 'it te 6ad 7a#, te more s(r!rised - 'asD it o!erated very differentlyfrom any oter la#oratory - ad #een in. 2ere 'ere many st(dents, #(t tey seemed to me to #e left totemselves, 'ito(t scientific g(idance. - 'as sim!leminded or im!r(dent eno(g to mention tis to7a'rence, and - even offered to el! in g(iding st(dents. ;e ans'ered me rater coolly tat te 6ad7a# and merica 'ere not a =erman (niversity 'it a #ig #oss dominating te st(dentsD tat ere

st(dents 'ere free and learned #y temselves, and similar tales.2e tr(t 'as tat 7a'rences interest centered on te cyclotron and on #(ilding te 6ad 7a#s diverseactivitiesD is kno'ledge of and interest in n(clear !ysics 'ere limited. St(dents, in !ractice, served ascea! la#or for te #(ilding and tending of te cyclotron and any move tat migt divert tem from tistask 'as fro'ned (!on. -t 'as diffic(lt for me to (nderstand te scientific !olicy of te 6ad 7a#. 2ecyclotron 'as a (ni0(e device, 'it seemingly infinite !otential, #(t te main concern of tose 'ocontrolled it 'as a!!arently to make te macine #igger and !(t it to 'ork in areas o(tside of !ysicsDtere 'as little to(gt given to making !ro!er (se of 'at 'as on and for n(clear st(dies.3F

-n indsigt - no' #elieve 7a'rences attit(de 'as more farsigted tan - ten deemed. 2econcentration of effort 'as necessary in order to develo! te macine, and 7a'rence tried to do 'at

e kne' #est. ;is early efforts in te n(clear field ad not #een a s(ccess and may ave left im 'it(n!leasant memories. 2e cyclotron in 193N 'as still a relatively sim!le macine and co(ld #edevelo!ed !rimarily #y em!irical !roced(res, 'ito(t a dee! (nderstanding and an ela#orate teory ofits f(nctioning. 2o some eAtent, te metods (sed initially at te 6ad 7a# resem#led te a!!roac totecnical develo!ment of an Edison or a 4arconiD 7a'rence fitted te same slot: #ra'n !revailed

@ 13 @

over #rain. inancial s(!!ort 'as 'at limited te develo!ment of te macine, and 7a'rence s!entmost of is time raising money from fo(ndations, from te (niversity, and from any'ere else e co(ldget it.

-n te 6ad 7a# tere 'ere men of greatly differing a#ility, #(t all 'ere yo(ng. 7. &. lvare* and Ed4c4illan 'ere o#vio(sly firstclass scientists.JF Emo ad descri#ed te first to me as a little fascistleader, fa'ning to te (ce, #(t mean to is e0(als or inferiors. 4c4illan, according to Emo, 'as veryclever, #(t la*y. 2ey 'ere te only ones 'o also ad University of California a!!ointments. f teoters, 6. 7. 2ornton, 4.. Mamen, and 6. 6. &ilson 'ere more tan a#le. 2ornton, in addition, 'asa tr(e gentleman, #ro(gt (! Englisstyle, 'o com#ined tecnical !ro'ess 'it s(!erior (man0(alities. Mamen 'orked as a !ysicist and a cemist to earn a living #(t is eart 'as in m(sic, and ife co(ld ave afforded to do so, e 'o(ld ave #ecome a !rofessional m(sician.F &ilson ad isroots in te &ild &est, #(t made a serio(s effort to civili*e imself. t Berkeley, e and 4c4illan'ere te first to make a serio(s eA!erimental st(dy of te fine !oints of te 'orkings of te cyclotron

and to try to (nderstand tem teoretically. (tside of Berkeley, ;ans Bete, 4orris 6ose, and 7. ;.2omas ad a!!lied so!isticated teory to accelerators, #(t ad less contact 'it te realities of te !ro#lems.

t a some'at lo'er level, tere 'ere Pa(l e#ersold, avid Mal#fell, 6o#ert Cornog, Pili! #elson,and many oter grad(ate st(dents or yo(ng !ostdoctoral fello's. 2ey ad s(fficient a#ility, #(t, - #elieve, 'o(ld ave !rofited from more g(idance. -n addition, tere 'as a 'ole gro(! of medicaldoctors (sing radiation as a clinical and researc tool. 2ey 'ere !rivileged #eca(se money came to alarge eAtent from fo(ndations no(rising o!timistic o!es of medical a!!lications, es!ecially cancerc(res.



on Cooksey ad a (ni0(e !osition. ;e came from a ric, c(ltivated family and ad met te yo(ng7a'rence at ale, 'ere Cooksey and is #roter Carleton 'ere #ot mem#ers of te !ysics staff.Cooksey ad limited scientific am#itions, #(t an immense love for and confidence in 7a'rence. ;edevoted is considera#le tecnical a#ility, is refined

@ 13G @manners, is generosity and (man (nderstanding, to el!ing 7a'rence in every 'ay. 7a'rencereci!rocated #y making Cooksey is most intimate confidant and advisor.

Soon after my arrival in Berkeley, - met =lenn Sea#org at te ac(lty Cl(#. ;e ad o#tained isdoctorate te !revio(s year and 'as a researc assistant to =. /. 7e'is, a famo(s cemist and one ofte most im!ortant mem#ers of te Berkeley ac(lty. Sea#org 'as keenly interested in anytinga!!ening aro(nd im and ke!t is ears and eyes o!en. lmost immediately e offered me iscoo!eration, 'ic - gladly acce!ted. - fo(nd tat e kne' analytical cemistry according to tesystem !ro!o(nded #y . . /oyes and &. C. Bray,GF rater tan te more classical scemes - 'asfamiliar 'it. -t seemed to me e kne' every#ody in te Cemistry e!artment and co(ld findanyting 'e needed. t te time Sea#org ad a eavy load el!ing 7e'is in is organic cemistryresearc, as 'ell as in anyting else tat 7e'iss fertile mind came (! 'it. n te side e 'orked onn(clear !ro#lems for several o(rs every day and com!iled data for an im!ortant revie' article e 'as !re!aring, as 'ell as for a ta#le of isoto!es.%F

Sea#org co(ld do all tis #eca(se e ad iron disci!line, a lively and igly systematic mind, immense !ersistence, eAce!tional end(rance for 'ork, and a sincere, o!enminded interest in science. ;e 'as as(!er# organi*er, #(t 'as not too strong in !ysics or instr(mentation. t te #eginning of o(rcolla#oration, - !ro#a#ly remem#ered my m(c earlier eA!erience 'it Bakker at Leemans la#oratoryin ;olland, 'en -, a ne'comer, and e, te local #oy, greatly el!ed eac oter and #ecame steadfastfriends. 7ittle did - recogni*e Sea#orgs (n#ridled am#ition and is (nsaka#le determination tos(cceed and to #e !reeminent.

s a general g(ideline for myself, - decided to f(lfill my o#ligations as a citi*en of te Cyclotron6e!(#lic #(t, at te same time, to try to !reserve my individ(ality and to avoid #eing a#sor#edcom!letely #y te 6ad 7a#. - also 'anted to (se te immense o!!ort(nities offered #y te cyclotron asm(c as !ossi#le, 'ic - considered a contri#(tion to te 7a#. - soon fo(nd st(dents 'illing to 'ork'it me. 2e first 'as CienSi(ng &(, 'o oined me 'en se reali*ed tat, in so

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doing, se 'o(ld #e a#le to learn someting. Se 'as very andsome, and very elegant in er Cinesedresses. &en se 'alked on cam!(s, se 'as often follo'ed #y a s'arm of admirers, like a 0(een.

Se 'as a fiend for 'ork, almost o#sessed #y !ysics, igly talented, and very sre'd, as 'ell as'itty. 4any years later se #ecame 'orldfamo(s for te eA!erimental demonstration of te nonconservation of !arity. - admired er and liked er, and 'e remained friends for life.

leA 7angsdorf, +r., a !ostdoctoral fello', also started 'orking 'it me. isa!!ointed 'it 7a'rence,e ad #eg(n #(ilding a contin(o(sly o!erating clo(d cam#er, #(t tis !roect ran into diffic(lties, andleA oined me. ;e 'as te son of a 'ellkno'n !rofessor of electrical engineering at &asingtonUniversity in St. 7o(isD 'ile 'e 'orked, e diligently instr(cted me in tings merican, and 'e #ecame steady friends.

fe' days after my arrival, - started my first investigation, 'it Sea#org, a searc for sortlived



tecneti(m isoto!es. 2is 'as te nat(ral contin(ation of my 'ork at Palermo, te reason for 'ic -ad come to Berkeley in te first !lace. ne of te ne' radioactivities, o#tained #y de(teron #om#ardment of moly#den(m, immediately !resented an (neA!ected and interesting n(clear !enomenonD it 'as a case of n(clear isomerismHtat is, of a n(cle(s !ossessing longlived eAcitedstates. &e did not dream ten tat tis isomer 'o(ld in time #ecome a mainstay of n(clear medicine asa !o'erf(l diagnostic tool. 2oday it is (sed #y to(sands of !ractitioners, and its a!!lications are te

#asis of a m(ltimillion dollar ind(stry.;o'ever, 'at interested (s at te time 'as te !enomenon of n(clear isomerism. -n 193G C. . von&ei*s^cker ad !ro!osed a teoretical eA!lanation of isomeric states, attri#(ting to tem a ig ang(larmoment(m tat for#ids transitions to lo'er, small ang(lar moment(m states. -t follo'ed from tis,according to teory, tat tere so(ld #e !lenty of internal conversion electrons. Sea#org and - lookedfor tem and fo(nd tem, re!orting o(r res(lts in a letter to te -hysical e(iew on Se!tem#er 1J,193N. fe' days later, o'ever, on te advice of +. 6o#ert !!eneimer, 'o for reasons (nkno'nad told im 8#(t not (s tat 'e 'ere mistaken, 7a'rence demanded tat 'e 'ire te

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editor of te o(rnal to sto! !(#lication of o(r letter. - !rotested 'itin te limits !ermitted #y my !osition, and te letter 'as res(#mitted to te -hysical e(iew on cto#er 1J, 193N, after Br(noPontecorvo ad re!orted getting res(lts on rodi(m similar to o(rs.NF

2is 'as one of my first contacts 'it !!eneimer, ten !rofessor of teoretical !ysics at Berkeley,later famo(s for is !art in #(ilding te atomic #om#, for is !olitical activity, and for is (n(stvictimi*ation.9F t te time, e 'as considered a demigod #y imself and oters at Berkeley, and ass(c e s!ake in learned and o#sc(re fasions. Besides, e kne' 0(ant(m mecanics 'ell, and in tise 'as (ni0(e at Berkeley. ;e ta(gt it in none too easy a fasion, 'ic so'ed off is !ro'ess andattracted a n(m#er of gifted st(dents. ;is co(rse later formed te #asis of 7eonard Sciffs 'ellkno'ntreatise on 0(ant(m mecanics.1$F !!eneimers loyal disci!les (ng on is 'ords and !(t on

corres!onding airs. +(st as 'e in 6ome ad ac0(ired ermis intonation, in Berkeley !!eneimersst(dents 'alked as if tey ad flat feet, an infirmity of teir masters.

!!eneimer and most of is acolytes follo'ed te !olitical line of te Comm(nist Party of te UnitedStates, 'ic 'as igly (ncritical and sim!leminded. lto(g most of tese yo(ng !eo!le 'ere notmem#ers of te Party, some 'ere mem#ers of a(Ailiary organi*ations and later fell victim to cr(el !ersec(tions. !!eneimer and is co(rt did esoteric tingsD tey read very ig#ro' #ooks, cookedand ate (n(s(al food, and d(ring te s(mmer 'ent to a mo(ntain ranc in /e' 4eAico leased #y!!eneimer, #ea(tif(lly located near Santa e. 2eir !ysics 'as valid, #(t often tey attacked !ro#lems !remat(rely, or !ro#lems #eyond teir ca!a#ilities, res(lting in indifferent s(ccess. 2e #estof !!eneimer is !era!s is astro!ysical 'ork on ne(tron stars, 'ic many years after is deat !roved tr(ly !ro!etic. ;is researc on cosmic rays and atomic and n(clear !ro#lems em#odied many

good and even !rescient ideas, #(t 'as often inconcl(sive. !!eneimers #eneficial infl(ence on tedevelo!ment of teoretical !ysics in te United States 'as considera#le, and several of is !(!ils aveacieved maor res(lts, as 'ell as deserved fame.

!!eneimer and is gro(! did not ins!ire in me te a'e tat tey

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!era!s eA!ected. - ad te im!ression tat teir cele#rated general c(lt(re 'as not s(!erior to tat



eA!ected in a #oy 'o ad attended a good E(ro!ean ig scool. - 'as already ac0(ainted 'it mostof teir c(lt(ral discoveries, and - fo(nd !!eneimers ostentation sligtly ridic(lo(s. -n !ysics - 'as(sed to ermi, 'o ad a 0(ite different solidity, co(!led 'it a sim!licity tat contrasted 'it!!eneimers er(dite com!leAities. Pro#a#ly - did not s(fficiently conceal my lack of s(!ineadmiration for !!eneimer, and - fo(nd im (nfriendly, even if covertly, for a good !art of my career,eAce!t 'en e 'anted me to oin is team at 7os lamos.

t Berkeley, in 193N, - ad te im!ression tat !!eneimer regarded me as a great ascist. - 'as aascist Party mem#er, as every -talian state em!loyee 'as re0(ired to #e #y la', #(t it did not takem(c ac(men to fig(re o(t tat - co(ld not #e a ascist at eart. - co(ld not, o'ever, conceal myske!ticism 'en - eard im re!eat, 'it te fait of te tr(e #eliever, te nonsense originating fromStalins Cominform.

2alking !olitics 'it merican colleag(es, - fo(nd an incom!reension of tings E(ro!ean tat 'asa!!alling to me. 4y !artners in conversation ad many different o!inions, #(t most seemed convincedtat 'at a!!ened in E(ro!e did not concern te United States, and tat if te mericans minded teiro'n #(siness, tey co(ld avoid entanglements in E(ro!ean 0(arrels. -t 'as, f(ndamentally, teisolationist tesisD tey did not gras! ;itlers nat(re and is !lans of 'orld domination. 2ese !lans'ere te !rod(cts of a deranged mind, #(t te disease ad s!read to a 'ole nation as !o'erf(l as=ermany, and it 'as not someting to trifle 'it. 2ere 'as also a good meas(re of o!timisticske!ticism a#o(t ;itlers tr(e intentions, 'ic in effect !roved m(c 'orse tan te most !essimisticforecasts.

ters, alto(g not many, follo'ed te Comm(nist Party line, like !!eneimer, and deemed tat teE(ro!ean 0(arrels 'ere ca(sed #y ca!italist im!erialists, and tat ;oly Comm(nism 'o(ld avoidtem. &ic side of te #ad ca!italists 'on 'as irrelevant. -f tey 'eakened temselves s(fficiently inteir internecine strife, 4oter 6(ssia 'o(ld later esta#lis te millenni(m. 2is senseless vie's(ddenly canged

@ 1J$ @'en ;itler and Stalin signed teir nonaggression !act. ;itler s(ddenly #ecame !alata#leO

4y g(ts re#elled 'en - eard s(c talk. - strove to !ers(ade isolationists tat tings 'ere not as teyo!ed and #elieved. or te Comm(nist tr(e #elievers, tere 'as noting to #e done, #eca(se teir)ideas) 'ere more religio(s feelings tan !olitical reasoning. ort(nately, President 6oosevelt sa'farter and more clearly tan te maority of mericans. nyone 'o 'as in te United States in teyears immediately !receding &orld &ar -- kno's te diffic(lties 6oosevelt faced in o!ening te eyesof te Congress and of te merican !eo!le on te s(#ect of ;itler.

- follo'ed te ne's from -taly 'it increasing alarm, #(t - co(ld relieve my feelings and (n#(rdenmyself only 'it Emo. 2e ascist Manifesto della razza ad #een follo'ed #y legal meas(res tat left

no do(#t a#o(t te final !(r!ose of te cam!aign. - recogni*ed more and more te foresigtedness and'isdom of aving !reserved a certain amo(nt of money a#road. By te end of +(ly, - ad decided toforget Palermo and to s(mmon my 'ife and son to California.

-n te meantime, to esca!e te s(mmer eat, Elfriede ad taken Cla(dio to rassenè, a resort in tel!s, 'ere se 'as sortly oined #y er !arents from =ermany. 2e !(#lication of te Manifesto

della razza follo'ed a fe' days later. Elfriede 'as less alarmed tan -, #eca(se -talian ne's!a!ers !(#lised a version of te facts tat !layed do'n te !ro#a#le conse0(ences. &en - 'rote asking erto !ack (! and come to merica, o'ever, se agreed immediately.



-n te follo'ing monts, Elfriede ad to face a eavy #(rden, first alone in -taly, and ten in merica.2o start 'it, in -taly, se 'as confronted 'it sticky #(rea(cratic !ro#lems tat re0(ired infinite !atience, 'ile te s(ltry s(mmer 'eater and te effort of taking care of a oneyearold cild f(rtersa!!ed er strengt. Se ad good el!, #(t te !roceedings 'ere morally de#ilitating and !ysicallyeAa(sting. ll tis emerges from er letters of te time.

-n te meantime, te C*ecoslovakian crisis 'as !rogressing and seemed likely to !reci!itate a 'orld

'ar. - t(s (rged Elfriede to s!eed

@ 1J1 @

(! er de!art(re, ca#ling er: )Kieni immediatamente con t(o comodo) 8Come immediately, at yo(rleis(re, co(nting on er reali*ing tat te first t'o 'ords 'ere te key ones.

inally, Elfriede ad to ret(rn to Sicily, lock (! o(r a!artment, and #oard a si!. Se arrived in Palermodead tired and sick 'it digestive tro(#les. 2ere se 'as met at te dock #y my st(dent =inettaBarresi, 'om se ad told se 'as coming. =inetta 'as accom!anied #y er fater, a colonel in tearmy, and #y t'o oter gentlemen. 2ey asked 'ito(t f(rter ado 'at Elfriede needed. Se

eA!lained te state of er !ass!ortHtat it ad te necessary -talian validation, #(t no U.S. visaHandsaid se 'anted to close (! o(r a!artment and de!art as soon as !ossi#le. 2e ans'er 'as immediateand to te !oint. )2e neAt si! leaves on . . .) and tey gave te date. )o( get some rest no', and'ell take care of EKE62;-/= .) - do not kno' 'eter Elfriede 'ent to o(r a!artment or to teBarresis villa at 4ondelloD in any case, tey #ro(gt er food and, tree or fo(r days later, in time forem#arkation, er visa, te ticket, and everyting se needed. s far as closing te a!artment andfor'arding its contents 'ere concerned, =inetta asked for instr(ctions and in d(e co(rse took care ofeveryting to !erfection. 4oreover, =inetta visited my !arents 'enever se 'as in 6ome and sent (sne's of tem. )- am !leased my com!atriots are so'ing temselves to #e decent !eo!le. ;avinggotten to kno' =inetta and er like #etter, o'ever, - sall #ecome a Sicilian #y coice,) - 'rote to my !arents on (g(st 3, 1939, res!onding to a letter of teirs in 'ic tey took comfort in te signs of

friendsi! and esteem tey 'ere receiving in 2ivoli. rom =inetta 'e ad !roofs of friendsi! in)eroic degree,) as te C(rc says of virt(e.

-n 193N and 1939 my !arents contin(ed to live more or less as tey (s(ally did, at least on te materialside. 2ey traveled a good deal, vacationing at orte dei 4armi or some oter familiar resort 'en6ome 'as too ot, and s!ending long !eriods at 2ivoli. -n almost all teir letters, tey mention oldfriends, a#ove all Signora 6asetti and maldi, Bernardini, and oter !ysicists 'o 'ent to visit temand tried to ceer tem (!. -n tese letters, my faters great moral strengt,

@ 1J? @

clarity of mind, and farsigtedness are also a!!arent. ;e never loses sigt of te essential !oint. -nrereading my !arents letters alf a cent(ry later, - am im!ressed.

-t 'as an anAio(s time. - 'as afraid tat ostilities migt #reak o(t 'ile Elfriede and Cla(dio 'ere onan -talian si!, and tat tey migt #e detained at =i#raltar for te d(ration of te 'ar. (rtermore, invie' of te circ(mstances, - ad ca#led certain instr(ctions concerning my f(nds, and - received anans'er in a commercial code tat 'as incom!reensi#le 'ito(t te key. - confided tis to Emo, 'o,alf okingly, alf #eca(se e did not kno' 'at to say, ind(lged in te #lackest y!oteses on temysterio(s meaning of te 'ords of te ca#le - ad received. );omgo ;omil,) it #egan, and Emo saidtat tis o#vio(sly meant )ll is lostO)D for many years tese 'ords remained o(r !rivate oke. inally, -



fo(nd a E(ro!ean a!!rentice at a #ank in Berkeley 'o recogni*ed te code and translated it for me. -t'as noting im!ortant, #(t at te time, Emo and - 'ere so (!set #y te events tat 'e lived on milksakes onlyD 'e co(ld not eat #eca(se any solid food disagreed 'it (s.

t te 'orst of te C*ecoslovakian crisis, Elfriede, in #lissf(l ignorance of everyting, 'as at=i#raltar on an -talian liner, #(t te sit(ation cleared (!, at least tem!orarily, and se 'as a#le to !roceed to /e' ork. 2ere se ca(gt a train, and since it 'as er #irtday, cto#er ?, - sent er a

telegram, (sing one of tose long and !om!o(s standard teAts delivered on a s!ecial #irtday form, allfor t'entyfive cents. )2e darkest clo(ds ave a silver lining,) it declared among oter tings. nreceiving te telegram en ro(te in a style so (nnat(ral for me, and (na'are of &estern Unions #argainservices, Elfriede to(gt - ad lost my mind. inally, in early cto#er, 'e 'ere re(nited, to o(r greatm(t(al oy.

(ring te s(mmer - ad also started to #ecome ac0(ainted 'it some of te attractive feat(res of lifein te United States (nder te g(idance of Brode, +enkins, and teir 'ives. s one of te first lessons,te (s#ands and teir friend S. M. llison, a !ysicist from te University of Cicago,11F took me fora long ike in osemite /ational Park. &e visited te ig mo(ntains near Kogelsang Pass, from'ere,

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in a co(!le of days, 'e descended into te Kalley, 'alking along te 4erced 6iver. +enkins ad #ro(gt along an eAtra rod and e so'ed me o' to fis for tro(t. &itin an o(r - 'as ooked on tes!ort, 'ic deligted me for many years. 4y tree !ysicist com!anions sometimes marveled at myignorance of tings merican, and - still remem#er +enkinss la(g 'en - told im tat to informmyself a#o(t merica, - ad read efoes Moll 'landers . rom it, o'ever, - ad learned tat V(akerslike imself 'ere good, kind !eo!le. ;e and is 'ife liked to tease (s 'en 'e co(ld not (nderstand 3ew 8or/er cartoons tey so'ed (s. n te oter and, e 'as very s(r!rised 'en - !ointed o(t toim tat if tere 'ere co(nties, one eA!ected to find also co(nts. ;e ad never to(gt of te

connection #et'een te t'o.+enkins, Brode, and llison, all tree of tem cildren of !rofessors, 'ere m(c more c(ltivated tan7a'rence and some of o(r oter colleag(es, and tey 'ere also #etternat(red and more easygoing.2e +enkinses remained o(r #est and closest merican friends (ntil teir sad, early deats. &e oftenvisited tem informally in te evening, and teir tales, eAam!le, and el! 'it te !ro#lems of dailylife contri#(ted s(#stantially #ot to o(r morale and to o(r ada!tation to merican c(stoms.

on Cooksey 'as anoter dear friend 'o valiantly el!ed (s to ada!t to merica. ;e o'ned a rancin 2rinity Co(nty in nortern California, not far from orest =len. ne reaced it after a 'alk of a#o(tfortyfive min(tes in a !ine 'ood along te So(t ork of te 2rinity 6iver. 2e rancs log ca#ins'ere in a clearing near a small !lacermining o!eration. 2e ca#ins ad #een #(ilt aro(nd 19$G #y a

co(!le 'o ad cared for on, 'o 'as or!aned at an early age. 2ese !eo!le ad 'illed te ca#in toteir carge. 2e goldmining claim ad never #een im!ortant in itself #(t el!ed in sec(ring a deedfrom te orest Service. man 'o lived !ermanently at te cam! 'it a co(!le of orses el!ed on'it te (!kee! of te !lace. t te cam!, one lived very sim!ly, s!ending a good !art of te time on ornear te river. 2ere 'as com!lete freedom: one co(ld do noting, read one of te interesting #ooksstored in te ca#in, s'im, fis, float on an inner t(#e, 'alk aro(nd, or even, if one really 'anted to, !an

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for gold. 2e tro(t fising 'as good, and in te 'ater one co(ld see (ge salmon tat came to s!a'n inte river. 2e com!any 'as congenial: it consisted of te o'ners, and, in t(rn, 2ornton, Mamen,4c4illan, and several oters connected 'it te 6ad 7a#. &enever Cookseys o#servant eye sa'some#ody in need of a restorative vacation, e invited im to is cam!. 2ere 'e 'ere treated 'iteA0(isite co(rtesy, 'ic 'e tried to reci!rocate #y el!ing 'it te necessary cores. Potogra!sso' te kind of life 'e enoyed. S(c vacations made dee! im!ressions and left all tose 'o ad te

good fort(ne to sare tem 'it !leasant memories.Before Elfriedes arrival, ;enriette +enkins and - 'ent looking for a f(rnised o(se to rent. &e fo(ndone at ?3?a Piedmont ve. in Berkeley for fortyfive dollars a mont, and as soon as se sa' it,;enriette (rged me to take it. - signed te rental agreement at once. 2e o(se 'as a 'ooden cottage ina yard #eind some larger omes. -t ad a kitcen, living room, a co(!le of #edrooms, and a small !orc. 2e 'ole 'as in indifferent sa!e and old, #(t in a convenient location and s(fficient for (s, atleast tem!orarily. 2ere 'as eno(g f(rnit(re so tat 'e co(ld manage (ntil o(r o'n arrived fromPalermo. &en it arrived, 'it some effort 'e fitted it in. 2e landlady 'as a 'ido' 'o tried to #eel!f(l and accommodating. &it a little good 'ill, 'e co(ld even take in a g(estD and in fact eliABloc came to stay 'it (s 'en e 'as 'orking at te cyclotron 'it lvare*. ;e sle!t on te !orcin is slee!ing #ag, and Cla(dio (sed to 'ake im (! in te morning, calling in -talian: )BlocO

7avoraO) 8BlocO &orkO. maldi too s!ent some time 'it (s and a!!ened to #e 'it (s 'en &orld&ar -- started.

&it an eigteenmontold #a#y to take care of, Elfriede also ad to learn 'at food to #(y, and'ereD 'ere to find clotesD o' to get medical el! if necessaryD and o' to co!e 'it a to(sanddetails of daily life tat 'ere different in te United States. #ove all, in -taly 'e ad ad a maid and anannyD ere everyting fell on Elfriedes so(lders. Se soon learned o' to cook eAcellently,someting se ad never done #efore. /o 'onder se ac0(ired te nickname )2(ectigona) 8anitaliani*ed a(gmentative of te =erman t2chtig& a#le and

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ard'orking, 'ic se f(lly deserved on all co(nts. ;o' stren(o(s and demanding all tis 'asemerges from o(r corres!ondence 'it my !arents, 'ere one often finds ints of tiredness.

-n te #eginning 'e did not ave a car, #(t (niversity, 6ad 7a#, and so!!ing centers 'ere all 'itin afifteenmin(te 'alk from ome, so 'e did not need one. - did te so!!ing and - kne' tat mycarrying strengt s(fficed (! to five dollars 'ort of groceries. -n 4ay 1939, 'e #o(gt o(r firstmerican car, and a fe' days later Elfriede got er driving license, increasing o(r mo#ility.

rom te moment of o(r arrival, 'e ad ad an immediate and im!ortant !ro#lem: o#taining animmigration visa. 4y to(rist visa 'as for siA monts, so it la!sed in +an(ary 1939. -n order to cangeones visa, it 'as necessary to go to a U.S. cons(l o(tside te United States, and te most convenient

!lace seemed to #e 4eAicali in 4eAico. -mmigration restrictions 'ere steadily increasing as ;itlereAacer#ated is !ersec(tions and more !eo!le tried to flee E(ro!eD tere 'as no time to 'aste. -remem#ered 6asettis instr(ction in te s(#tle and marvelo(s !oints of Section J8d of te immigrationla' ten in force, #(t 'en - tried to o#tain some el! from a service in San rancisco tat 'ass(!!osed to el! immigrants, - concl(ded tat it 'as #etter to do everyting myself 8one of ermisf(ndamental r(les.

- asked te good ean Pegram of Col(m#ia University for a letter of recommendation to te cons(l,and e 'rote a master!iece. - asked for el! in Berkeley too, #(t 'it little s(ccess. 2e (niversityofficials - contacted 'ere !olite #(t seemed eAceedingly scared #y te idea of inc(rring 8noneAistent



res!onsi#ilities and limited temselves to te minim(m tey co(ld not deny. ;o'ever, armed 'itPegrams recommendation and 'it my kno'ledge of te la' tat fitted my case !erfectly, - took a #(sand in t'o days arrived at 4eAicali. Elfriede and Cla(dio 'ere already in Berkeley 'it a to(rist visa, #(t tey co(ld not !ossi#ly come 'it me at te time, and - to(gt it #etter to make t'o tri!s to4eAicali rater tan 'ait (ntil 'e co(ld all go togeter.

n /ovem#er 1G, 193N, - o#tained te visa tat solved my immigration !ro#lems, and in e#r(ary

1939, 'e ret(rned to 4eAicali to eAcange Elfriede and Cla(dios to(rist visa for an immigration onetoo. &e

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o!ed 'e 'o(ld not ave to !rod(ce Cla(dio, #(t te cons(l insisted on is !resence. s soon asCla(dio entered is office, o'ever, e started crying and yelling lo(dly, and te cons(l, at a loss for'at to do, said, )2ake im a'ay immediately,) 'ic 'e did. 2(s, 'it t'o tri!s to 4eAicali, 'esettled o(r immigrant stat(s. 7ater - read in a ne's!a!er tat te cons(l at 4eAicali ad #een convictedof selling visasO

n /ovem#er ?9, 193N, 'e cele#rated o(r first merican 2anksgiving, 'it Emo and Bloc as o(rg(ests. - to(gt tat 'e ad every reason for cele#rating, and tat 'e !retty 'ell resem#led te earlycolonists 'o ad originated te c(stom. ermi (sed to say, 'enever some#ody #ragged a#o(t isPilgrim ancestry, or 'en e eard a#o(t te a(gters of te merican 6evol(tion, tat e and oterne'ly arrived ref(gees 'ere te tr(e, ne' !ilgrims, 'o (nderstood and a!!reciated some mericanideals #etter tan te merican#orn. #o(t te same time, - received te ne's of te de!art(re of my6imini co(sins from -taly for 4ontevideo, in Ur(g(ay.

n e#r(ary ?, 1939, 'e cele#rated my faters eigtiet #irtday. &e ad 'ritten to im in time.

n 4ay 1$, 1939, my #roter ngelo arrived in /e' ork 'it is 'ife and t'o cildren. t first etried to 'ork at Col(m#ia University in is field, economic istory, and initially e ad some s(ccess at

tis. S(#se0(ently, o'ever, e 0(arreled 'it every#ody and gave (! teacing, devoting imselfentirely to !ainting. ;e eAi#ited in /e' ork and ad a certain critical s(ccess, #(t no financialre'ard, and did not !ersist in trying to sell is 'ork. lto(g - invited im re!eatedly to visit (s inCalifornia, e never #(dged from te East Coast.

ngelo lived on family money, administered #y me, according to my faters !olicies. - 'as ca(tio(s inte (se of tis money. - to(gt it so(ld first #e at my !arents dis!osal if tey 'anted to emigrate, andtis took !recedence over everyting else. Second, one ad to consider emergencies tat migt occ(r atany moment. - to(gt my family and - so(ld live on my earnings alone as long as 'e co(ld do so'ito(t great sacrifices and 'ito(t endangering o(r f(t(re.

s soon as ngelo arrived at /e' ork, e started !estering me

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'it demands tat ran co(nter to my instr(ctions and !olicy. - gave im a montly allo'ance of ]1$Dit 'as not m(c, #(t it so(ld ave s(fficed (nder te circ(mstancesD in emergencies, e co(ld ask formore. ngelo greatly (!set me #y treatening to com!lain to o(r fater. ort(nately, a tr(sted friend ofte family 'as o(t of -taly for a #(siness tri!, and tro(g im - 'as a#le to comm(nicate 'it Pa!T,'o let me kno' tat e a!!roved of my cond(ct. 7ater, 'en - started earning a little more at 7oslamos, - sent some money of my o'n to ngelo, 'ose son needed an o!eration. -n tanks - received



a letter from ngelo saying tat e considered my gift restit(tion of f(nds - ad 'rongly a!!ro!riated.

-n 193N after - ad 'orked at te 6ad 7a# for a fe' 'eeks, 7a'rence asked me if - co(ld eAtend mystay #eyond te mont of cto#er, te date - ad given im for my ret(rn to Palermo. 2e offer 'as agodsend, #(t - sensed tat !reci!ito(s acce!tance 'as not to my advantage. - tanked 7a'rence !rof(sely and asked for some time to ans'er. 7a'rence ten 'ent to laska on vacation, and - #egan tofear tat e migt cange is mind, and tat #y trying to #e too smart, - ad destroyed my cance.

ort(nately, on is ret(rn 7a'rence rene'ed te offer of a salary of ]3$$ a mont for siA monts. 4ytitle 'as to #e )researc associate,) a nondescri!t 0(alification tat co(ld a!!ly to !ersons at verydifferent levels. -t ad, o'ever, one definite connotation: it im!lied a tem!orary o# and did notcommit te (niversity or te 6ad 7a# #eyond te term of te contract. t Cristmas 'e 'ere invited to7a'rences ome for dinnerD oddly eno(g, e took te o!!ort(nity of telling me on tis occasion tatte la# 'as sort of money, and tat if necessary e 'o(ld ask me to ret(rn !art of my salary.

-n 1939, ]3$$ a mont 'as a good salary, and it got me o(t of te 'oods for some time, #(t after siAmonts, in +(ly 1939, 7a'rence, 'o #y ten m(st ave reali*ed my sit(ation, asked me if - co(ldret(rn to Palermo. - ans'ered #y telling im te tr(t, and e immediately interected: )B(t ten 'yso(ld - !ay yo( ]3$$ !er mont< rom no' on - 'ill give yo( ]11G.) - 'as st(nned, and even no', somany

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years after'ard, - marvel at 7a'rences im!(lsivenessD e did not tink for a second of te im!ressione conveyed. &it a minim(m of reflection and di!lomacy, e co(ld ave saved is ]1NJ a mont'ito(t c(tting a orri#le fig(re in my eyes. ;o'ever, alto(g - ave not forgotten is cond(ct, - no'see it in a different ligt tan - did ten.

- did not kno' 'at te salaries of oter mem#ers of te 6ad 7a# 'ere at te time. -t 'as - 'o, 'it]3$$ a mont, 'as te eAce!tion, and salaries aro(nd ]11G 'ere not rare. -f - ad kno'n tis and o'7a'rence #eaved 'it mericans 'o 'ere (nem!loyed #eca(se of te de!ression, - migt ave

vie'ed te e!isode some'at differently. - 'as some'at older and #etter esta#lised as a scientisttan some eAcellent mericans 'ere, #(t tey too got meager salaries, alto(g tey ad academic !ositions and g(aranteed careers.

-n any case, 'it a 'ife and a cild, a salary of ]11G 'as scant, #(t it 'as not totally im!ossi#le to liveon it. &it ]?$$ a mont - co(ld make ends meet, s!aringly, #(t 'ito(t de!rivation, and - co(ld #ringmy salary to tat level #y (sing my !rivate f(nds, te eAistence of 'ic 'as kno'n only to Elfriedeand to my friend Emo, 'ose discretion 'as a#sol(te.

Elfriede and - constantly to(gt of o(r fara'ay !arents. &e 'rote at lengt and reg(larly, at least oncea 'eek. /eiter transatlantic airmail nor (sa#le tele!one connections 'it -taly eAisted, #(t te mails'ere #etter organi*ed ten, and a letter did not take m(c longer to reac -taly tan it does today. 4y

moter and Elfriede 'rote at greater lengt tan my fater and - did, #(t e added at least a fe' lines,sometimes insignificant, sometimes im!ortant, to every letter. Eac side tried to reass(re te oter, sote letters so(nded a little more o!timistic tan tey so(ld ave, and definitely more o!timistic tantose - eAcanged 'it my co(sins in Ur(g(ay. &en - com!lained, as - sometimes did, a#o(t te !recario(sness of my !osition, my fater insisted tat tere 'as only one 'ay of im!roving it: do good !ysics. -f - s(cceeded in tis, recognition 'o(ld not fail to come, and career !ro#lems 'o(ld take careof temselves. 2e times demanded !r(dence in 'ritingD my !arents inters!ersed !raises of te (ceand oter !rases intended



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for te eyes of a !ossi#le ascist censor in teir letters, alto(g - do(#t tey 'o(ld ave fooled im.

2e letters mirror -talian +e'is life in tose tragic years, as one #y one te yo(ng !eo!le emigratedand te older generation 'ere left increasingly alone. t te same time, to teir credit, many good oldfriends a!!eared, seeking to comfort my !arents 'it fre0(ent visits: 6asetti and is moterD maldiD=inetta BarresiD te Salvati family and oters in 2ivoli, among tem #ot im!ortant citi*ens and(m#le !eo!leD da 6imini and oter relativesD my co(sin 6en*o 6avenna, te mayor of errara, 'ocame to visit is a(nt and (ncle and is close friend -talo Bal#o, in 6ome for a meeting of te ascist=ran Consiglio. 2e letters re!ort a great variety of oter ne's: marriages, #irts, deats, te reci!e forsome cakes - liked, (rgings to Elfriede not to overdo tings and to get te rest se needed,enco(ragement to (se family money, indirect ne's of Elfriedes !arents, as 'ell as of Bindo and6iccardo, and so on. 2ere is even a re!ort on an eAcange of letters 'it E. . 7a'rence in 'ictey congrat(lated im on is /o#el Pri*e and received a friendly ans'er. n +(ly G, 19J$, my fater'rites: )- am eager to kno' yo(r arrangements 'it 7a'rence, #(t in any case - am a!!y if scientificconce!ts a#sol(tely !revail, an o!inion sared #y 4) 8tis sentence means tat - so(ld, if necessary,(se family f(nds to s(!!ort myself. n !ril 9, 19J1, e comments on te friendliness of a Cara#inieriofficer 'o ad come to 'itdra' my ascist Party card. ter ne's: te U.S. cons(l, 'o ad rentedo(r Palermo a!artment, is leaving. n 4ay %, 19J1, my moter )is memori*ing o(r letters) and fater)is 'orking to !revent idleness from 'earing o(t is s!irit.)

Corres!ondence 'it =ermany and 'it Elfriedes !arents 'as m(c more diffic(lt and dangero(s, andt(s is m(c less informative.

ll reg(lar comm(nications sto!!ed in ecem#er 19J1, 'it te entry of te United States into te'ar.

t Berkeley - ad reali*ed tat tere 'as only one salvation: to do good !ysics. &it tat 'ea!on -migt !era!s save myselfD 'ito(t

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it, - 'o(ld #e tro'n o(t 'ito(t mercy. 2is sim!le estimate of te sit(ation 'as s(!!orted #y myfaters advice and ins!iration and #y !r(dent, #(t 'ell informed and eAtremely 'elcome,enco(ragement from ermi. ort(nately, - did not lack ideas, and te 6ad 7a#, for all its defects,offered (ni0(e o!!ort(nities for eA!erimentation.

;alf a cent(ry later, - see tat my !ersonality did not allo' me any oter 'ay of s(rvivalD someone elsemigt ave made an easier life for imself tan - did #y #eing less to(cy, less !ro(d, more a#le todissim(late, #etter at !(#lic relations, and sim(ltaneo(sly less timid and and less critical. - ave #y no'attained some sligt kno'ledge of myself, and - kno' o' (n!leasant - can #e. ;o'ever, if - am ac(rm(dgeon, - ave !aid for it.

2e G$inc cyclotron 'as (nder constr(ctionD te magnet 'as tere, #(t not m(c else yet. 2e sigtof s(c a #ig, !o'erf(l magnet s(ggested to me te !ossi#ility of im!roving on my !revio(s st(dies ofte 0(adratic Leeman effect. +enkins 'as a s!ectrosco!ist, and 'e colla#orated in tis 'ork.1?F S(cresearc contin(es today #eca(se 'it #igger magnetic fields and m(c #etter s!ectrosco!ic reso(rces, !ysicists kee! finding ne' interesting details. 2e s(#ect is no' !art of te st(dy of 'at today arecalled 6yd#erg atoms.

-n +an(ary 1939, aving clearly (nderstood te relation #et'een n(clear isomerism and conversionelectrons, it occ(rred to me tat it migt #e !ossi#le to se!arate n(clear isomers 'it a metod similar



to tat devised #y S*ilard and 2. . Calmers for isolating !rod(cts of te 8n, g reaction. -comm(nicated my idea to Sea#org and told im tat - needed a cemist 'o co(ld syntesi*e as(ita#le organic molec(le containing Br N$ . Sea#org fo(nd me 6al! ;alford, 'o kne' o' to !re!are a s(ita#le organic #romine com!o(nd. &e im!r(dently s!oke of o(r !roect at te ac(lty Cl(#in te !resence of &illard 7i##y, later famo(s for is car#on dating 8- ave #een told tat tes(ggestion came from ermi in a Cicago seminar. t te time 7i##y 'as Sea#orgs great rival and an

assistant !rofessor, 'ile Sea#org 'as sligtly is (nior. &ito(t telling any#ody, 7i##y 'ent to isla# and a!!lied my metod to tell(ri(m isomers. ;e ten 'rote a letter descri#ing te res(lt to te -hysical e(iew and 'as a#o(t to send it, 'en Sea#org

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got 'ind of te fact. ro' develo!ed, and - asked 7i##y to 'ait t'entyfo(r o(rs #efore sending isletter, so as to allo' (s to finis o(r 'ork, 'ic 'as alf done. Under strong !ress(re, 7i##yac0(iesced, and te t'o letters to te -hysical e(iew t(s a!!eared side #y side.13F

-t 'as an (n(s(al eA!erience for me. - do not tink tat 7i##y 'o(ld ave gotten a'ay 'it s(c

#eavior in E(ro!e at te time, certainly not in 6ome. Criteria of intellect(al !ro!erty 'ere moreelastic in mericaD on te oter and, at least at te 6ad 7a#, tere 'as great generosity in teeAcange of instr(ments. -t is diffic(lt to !ass (dgment. S(#se0(ently several Berkeley radiocemists,incl(ding +ose! Mennedy and Sea#org, eagerly !(rs(ed tis metod for se!arating radioactiveisomers.

t te end of 193N, tere 'ere great o!es in Berkeley tat 7a'rence 'o(ld 'in te /o#el Pri*e. -to(gt tat if it did not go to tto Stern or some#ody older, it 'o(ld go to ermi. 82e year #efore inPalermo, to my great s(r!rise, - ad received a nomination form, and - ad nominated im. - did not,of co(rse, kno' tat Bor ad confidentially told ermi tat e 'o(ld #e cosen tat year if e 'antedto #e, or tat ermi 'as !re!aring to emigrate. &en te official ne's tat te !ysics !ri*e for 193Nad #een a'arded to ermi arrived, - 'as deligted and 'rote to congrat(late im, adding: )2e only

sadness is te to(gt of te vario(s !eo!le of te old g(ard 'o 'o(ld ave reoiced to #e near yo(no' tat te re'ard of so m(c 'ork, so many o(rs of la#or, as 'ell as c.i.f. 8con intuito formidabile ,'it formida#le int(ition, a oking acronym 'e (sed for statements #y ermi tat 'ere tr(e, #(t tate co(ld not !rove, is ere, and tey are !revented #y an inscr(ta#le destiny.) 7a'rence acted 'itgood grace, #(t e 'as clearly disa!!ointed. ;e asked me 'eter - to(gt e 'o(ld get te !ri*eneAt year. - said - did, and tis indeed came to !ass. By cance, on /ovem#er 1J, 1939, te day of teanno(ncement of 7a'rences !ri*e, e 'as aving dinner at o(r o(se, and 'e o!ened a #ottle ofcam!agne, as re!orted in a letter ome.

t te #eginning of 1939, te ne's of te discovery of fission #y tto ;an and rit* Strassmannreaced Berkeley. 2e eA!eriments 'ere immediately re!eated, #(t not #y me. - did not like to r(sinto

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a com!etition, and alto(g - ad #een among te first to 'ork on (rani(m, - contin(ed myinvestigations on oter s(#ects. n my arrival in 193N - ad rene'ed my conversations of 193G 'itPili! #elson, 'o clearly indicated tat e considered (rani(m is !ro!erty, not tro(#ling to ide isfeelings a#o(t foreign interlo!ers. - terefore left (rani(m to im (ntil te discovery of fission. #elsonten recogni*ed tat e ad seen Yray lines #elonging to te tell(ri(m Mseries, #(t ad misinter!reted



tem, a rater cr(de error, #y 'ic e missed making a great discovery. ;o'ever, (rani(m also fooledermi, te +oliotC(ries, ;an and 4eitner, and oter eminent scientists, all of 'om made grosserrors, and my o'n mistakes on te s(#ect stand o(t. -f #elson ad reason to #e angry 'it imself,some time later - did too.

fter te discovery of fission, +oliotC(rie and 4c4illan inde!endently devised a clever !ysicalmetod for se!arating te fission !rod(cts from te !rod(ct of te 8n,b reaction occ(rring in (rani(m.

s a res(lt of #om#ardment of a tin (rani(m layer, te fission fragments emerge from te layer andcan #e collected on a s(ita#le adacent foil, 'ile te !rod(cts of te 8n,b reaction stay in te (rani(mfoil. -t 'as t(s !ossi#le to confirm ;an and 4eitners finding of a ?3min(te activity d(e to U?39 . -naddition te (rani(m layer so'ed an activity, 'it a#o(t a ?day !eriod, and - started st(dying itcemically. - s(s!ected it 'as a #etadecay !rod(ct of te ?3min(te activity and ence an isoto!e ofelement 93 8ne!t(ni(m of mass ?39, #(t - did not eA!ect tat element 93 migt #e cemically similarto a rare eart. Every#ody (! to ten #elieved tat element 93 'o(ld #e similar to reni(m, and tis'as one of te errors tat ad !rod(ced great conf(sion in te inter!retation of all te res(lts of(rani(m #om#ardment. - esta#lised cemically tat te activity - 'as st(dying #eaved similarly to arare eart and ten convinced myself tat a fission fragment constit(ted #y a eavy rare eart migtstay in te (rani(m layer. - disc(ssed tis 'it eliA Bloc, 'o conc(rred, #(t te res!onsi#ility for

te error is totally mine. n second to(gts, - so(ld ave reali*ed tat my inter!retation 'as, to sayte least, s(s!ect.

- tried to make a stronger sam!le and to see 'eter te ?day activity

@ 13 @

co(ld #e inter!reted as te radioactive da(gter of te ?3min(te activity. -n tis - ad #ad l(ck. 2eioni*ation cam#er - (sed ad a 'indo' too tick for te #eta rays of /!?39 , 'ic are (n(s(ally'eak. (rtermore, - 'ent to te movies at a critical time 'en - so(ld ave #een in te la#meas(ring te activity, alto(g tis fact 'as not of !aramo(nt im!ortance.

-n concl(sion, - erred and did not recogni*e te genetic relation #et'een te t'o activities. 2eres(lting !a!er is f(ndamentally 'rong, #(t it contains an im!ortant tr(t: te similarity #et'eenelement 93 and te rare earts.1JF 2is similarity ad even #een considered in te literat(re, #(t terelevant !a!ers ad esca!ed me, and not only me. Sortly after'ard, te !ro#lem of te ?day activity'as cracked #y 4c4illan and #elson, 'o discovered ne!t(ni(m. fter teir discovery, in a letterome, dated +(ne J, 19J$, - o#served:

- do not kno' 'eter - ave ever 'ritten to yo( of my misadvent(re 'it element 93.fter so m(c 'ork, discoveries and (ndiscoveries, last s!ring - ad it in my ands forseveral 'eeks and did not recogni*e it. n te contrary - ave even !(#lised a sort noteaffirming tat te s(#stance tey ave no' !roved to #e element 93 'as a rare eart.

ltogeter it is an (gly #l(nder, com#ined 'it my aving lost, in a most st(!id 'ay, teo!!ort(nity for a rater interesting discovery. /o' tere is noting else - can do a#o(t it.7et (s o!e tat te ting 'ill not #e !roclaimed to all comers #y my friends.

-n oter st(dies on fission !rod(cts 'it leA 7angsdorf and CienSi(ng &(, 'e inter alia fo(ndYe13 , 'ic is a tremendo(s ne(tron a#sor#er. 2is last fact 'as discovered only later, 'en Aenon !oisoned te first n(clear reactors.1F

-n s!ite of my scientific activity, 7a'rence m(st ave come to te concl(sion tat - 'as too eA!ensive.- contri#(ted to te eA!loitation of is macine, #(t not s(fficiently to its develo!ment or o!eration.



is !lans to make element N #y #om#arding #ism(t 'it al!a!articles accelerated inte G$inc cyclotron. fter te meeting, as ale Corson and - 'alked togeter acrosscam!(s, 'e talked of Segrès !ro!osed eA!eriment. Una'are tat Corson 'as already !re!aring to do some al!a!article #om#ardments 'it te G$inc cyclotron, - said: )o(kno', ale, - ave a l(m! of #ism(t.) )nd - ave a linear am!lifier,) ale co(ntered.

2e neAt morning, #rigt and early, Corson and - #om#arded #ism(t 'it al!a!articles

from te G$inc cyclotron. &e sa' go#s of giant !(lses 'en 'e !laced te #ism(t infront of o(r linear am!lifier. - 'as elated #(t felt g(ilty as sin to ave !oaced 'at - felt'as Segrès eA!eriment, so - 'ent directly to see Segrè. )Emilio, 'o(ld yo( mind m(c if -ad a try at tat #ism(t eA!eriment yo( descri#ed last nigt<) - asked. fter a sort !a(seSegrè re!lied: )/o. 2ere are oter eA!eriments tat - can do.) /o' came te sticky !art.)-ts 'orse tan tat, Emilio. ale Corson and - ave already #om#arded #ism(t. &e gotgiant !(lses on is linear am!lifier.) Segrè !a(sed some'at longer. )- ave only onere0(est. 7et me do te cemistry.)

-t 'as a day or t'o after tese events tat 7(ie lvare*F 'as es!ecially artic(late anddirect. ;e s(ggested tat - 'ork eiter on discovering element N or on discovering testa#ility of ydrogen3 and eli(m3, #(t not on #otO So Corson, 4acMen*ie and Segrèdiscovered element N and lvare* and Cornog discovered ydrogen and eli(m of

@ 1G @

mass 3. ll tese events not'itstanding, Segrè contin(ed to let me (se is electrometer, aninstr(ment 'ic no' resides in te Smitsonian collection.1%F

2oday, as 'e !ro!osed, element N, te last of te alogens, is called astatine. s in te case of teoter alogens, te name refers to one of its o(tstanding !ro!erties: its insta#ility. statine cemistry iscom!licated, and as all its isoto!es are sortlived, it can #e st(died only on te tracer scale. CienSi(ng &( and - also tried to form te last cis(ranic missing element, of atomic n(m#er G1, #y s(ita#le

#om#ardment of rare earts, #(t at te time te cemical se!aration of rare earts !resented diffic(lt !ro#lems, s(#se0(ently overcome #y el(tion on resins. &e certainly !rod(ced isoto!es of element G1, #(t 'e co(ld not !rove it to o(r satisfaction, and te element 'as later discovered #y =lendenin and4arinsky.

rom +an(ary 3$ to e#r(ary ?$, 19J$, ermi came to Berkeley as ;itccock 7ect(rer. - 'as deligtedto see im 8it 'as te first time 'e ad met since leaving -taly, and 'e res(med o(r a#it of takinglong 'alks togeter, talking mostly !ysics. ermi eA!lained to me is latest st(dies on te sto!!ing !o'er for ioni*ing !articles and on its relativistic rise. &e tried to verify some of is !redictionseA!erimentally (sing te electrons of P3? , #(t te res(lts 'ere inconcl(sive. n te oter and, 'itte ne' G$inc cyclotron 'e fissioned (rani(m 'it al!a !articles, re!orting o(r findings in te last

!a!er 'e coa(tored 8alto(g certainly not te last 'e disc(ssed in te !lanning stage or to inter!retres(lts.1NF t tat time ermi did not mention is st(dies of te cain reaction to me. s - aveem!asi*ed, e 'as al'ays reserved, and in tis case e ad 'eigty reasons for #eing more tanmerely ca(tio(s.

s 'as to #e eA!ected, ermi often s!oke to 7a'rence, #(t 'en e started talking !ysics, 7a'rence(s(ally canged te s(#ect, !ossi#ly #eca(se it 'as (ncomforta#le for im. ermi do(#ted 7a'rencekne' or (nderstood m(c !ysics, and to(gt e 'as rater f(ll of imself. )-ts a real !ro#lem 'en !eo!le m(st !lay te great man #(t are not (! to it,) e said. ermi also attended !!eneimersseminarsD coming o(t of one of tem once, e said: )Emilio, - m(st #e getting



@ 1% @

senile. - 'ent to a learned teoretical seminar and co(ld not (nderstand anyting eAce!t te last 'ords,'ic 'ere nd tis is ermis teory of #eta decay.)

Some of te conversations - ad 'it ermi concerned #eta decay and its ramifications, and it occ(rred

to me tat it migt #e !ossi#le to alter te decay constant of a Melectron ca!t(rer #y cemical means.Since te decay constant is !ro!ortional to te electronic density at te n(cle(s, #y s(#tractingelectrons from an atom, it so(ld #e !ossi#le to alter tat density. - estimated te effect and fo(nd o(ttat it 'o(ld #e small #(t !ro#a#ly o#serva#le. 2e #est s(#stance to try 'as Be%, #eca(se of itsatomic and n(clear caracteristics. n second to(gts, - also concl(ded tat te same mecanismso(ld alter te internal conversion and, as a conse0(ence, te decay !eriods of my old friends ten(clear isomers. =enerally te tecni0(e o!ened (! a small ca!ter of n(clear !ysics, on alteringn(clear !rocesses #y cemical means. 2is ad #een tried #y sim!leminded metods #y te fo(ndersof n(clear !ysics, #(t since tey lacked te necessary insigt, teir res(lts ad al'ays #een negative.

-n !(rs(it of tis idea, CienSi(ng &( and - tried !re!aring radioactive Be and asked te Br(sBerylli(m Co. to convert some of it to metal. ;o'ever, after a 'ile more (rgent 'ork forced (s todro! te !roect for te d(ration of te 'ar. - did not !(#lis anyting on te s(#ect ten, #eca(se -disliked !(#lising ideas of eA!eriments 'ito(t aving !erformed tem. -t 'as most fort(nate tat 'es(s!ended te 'ork, #eca(se 'e did not kno' of te toAicity of #erylli(m and 'o(ld (n'ittingly aveinc(rred deadly dangers. fter te 'ar - com!leted te investigation 'it C. E. &iegand, 'o 'as tenmy st(dent.19F

-n 19J$ 7a'rence 'as !lanning a 1NJinc cyclotron to reac te tenenormo(s energy of 1$$ 4eK.7a'rence eA!ected to overcome relativistic diffic(lties #y !(tting a million volts on te dees andreacing te final energy in only fifty revol(tions. -t 'as a ty!ical #r(te force metod, 'ic migtave !leased dmiral arrag(t of )amn te tor!edoesHf(ll s!eed aeadO) fame, #(t - do not kno' ifit 'o(ld ave s(cceeded. 7a'rence 'as convinced tat 'it ent(siasm, ard 'ork,

@ 1N @

and !ersistence one co(ld overcome every o#stacle, or tat some#ody 'o(ld find a 'ay o(t #y a ne'invention, as indeed occasionally a!!ened, !artic(larly in tis case. ;o'ever, ingen(ity maycirc(mvent nat(res la's, #(t not violate tem.

- reali*ed tat if - 'ere to s(rvive at te 6ad 7a#, - ad #etter contri#(te to te great 1NJinc cyclotron !roect, so 'en asked, - eagerly started el!ing &illiam Bro#eck, te eAce!tionally a#le engineer 'oeaded te !roect. Bro#eck 'as a ric yo(ng man, te son of a !rominent San rancisco la'yer, and inlove 'it is !rofession. ;e ad a !rofo(ndly sal(tary infl(ence on te 6ad 7a# #eca(se e introd(ced

so(nd engineering !ractice in !lace of te !ysicists ro(gandready 'ay of doing tings. 4acines'ere !lanned 'it reasona#le safety margins, and good engineering tecni0(es re!laced im!rovisation.(e attention 'as !aid to gaskets, 'elding, stress distri#(tion, and coice of materials. Bro#eckintrod(ced all sorts of im!ortant !reventive maintenance ro(tines. -n sort, e inected te art ofengineering into accelerator develo!ment. s a conse0(ence te f(nctioning of te macines greatlyim!roved, te 'asting of time o'ing to #reakdo'ns markedly diminised, and overall efficiencyincreased s(#stantially. Bro#eck 'as igly res!ected #y te a#lest !ysicists, 'o (nderstood tat isdemands 'ere 'ellfo(nded and a#(ndantly re!aid te 'ork and eA!ense of com!lying 'it tem.rom 193% (ntil 19G, 'en e left te 6ad 7a#, Bro#eck 'as involved in all its !roects.



-n 19J$ Bro#eck 'as !lanning te 1NJinc cyclotron magnet, and - el!ed im in te #(ilding andtesting of a model of it. -n te #eginning, it seems, Bro#eck ad a certain diffidence a#o(t 'orking 'ita foreign !ysicist, (nfamiliar 'it merican engineering (nits and metods. ;o'ever, 'e veryra!idly fo(nd o(rselves to #e congenial and greatly enoying te colla#oration. Eac learned from teoter. - 'as !leasantly s(r!rised in finding tat Bro#eck ad advertised my 'ork to 7a'rence, 'o 'asim!ressed, since te !raise came from an (neA!ected so(rce. letter ome of 4ay ??, 19J$, says - 'as

'orking f(lltime on te magnet.t tis time - ran into anoter serio(s !oisoning risk, #esides tat of #erylli(m. - (sed to fill myioni*ation cam#er 'it metyl #romide

@ 19 @

to enance its sensitivity to gamma rays. 2e commercial gas came in a small canister, 'ic - (sedevery so often to refill te ioni*ation cam#er. ort(nately, for no conscio(s reason, - al'ays !erformedte o!eration in te o!en air, on a #alcony. &en te cylinder 'as em!ty, - called te salesman to get ane' one. );o' did it go<) e asked. );ave yo( killed all te rats<) - 'as s(r!rised #y te 0(estion, ande told me tat e kne' of only one (se for te gas: as a f(migant for rats. - s(ddered. 2ere 'as noindication of toAicity on te cylinders, and - ad not kno'n tat te gas 'as !oisono(s. Possi#ly myaving andled it in o!en air saved my life.

s mentioned, soon after ermis visit, 7a'rence recommended - a!!ly for a o# 'it an oileA!loration firm in 2(lsa. - 'ent, to eA!lore te !ossi#ilities. By ten it 'as s!ring, and - decided to go,not only to 2(lsa, #(t also to &asington, .C., for te ann(al meeting of te merican PysicalSociety, and to some oter !lace to advertise my eAistence. -n &asington, - sa' 6asetti, 6a#i, 7ee(Bridge, and otersD in /e' ork - visited my #roter ngelo.

-n 4ay 19J$, - s!ent a 'eek in 2(lsa, 'ere - met t'o yo(ng men a#o(t my age: Serge Scer#atskoy, a6(ssian aristocrat 'ose fater ad #een a c*arist general, and is !artner, a +e' from 6(ssian Polandnamed /e(feld 8'o - fancied migt ave esca!ed some !ogrom commanded #y Scer#atskoys

fater. 2ey 'ere trying to !ros!ect for oil #y radioactive metodsD first tey ad (sed gammaraydiff(sion on rocks s(rro(nding a drilling ole. /o' tey 'anted to eAtend teir metod to incl(de te(se of ne(trons, 'ic tey o!ed migt el! identify ydrogeno(s material.

2ey offered me a good salary to oin tem as teir !ysicist. - looked aro(nd caref(lly and concl(dedtat te only relia#le metod for inter!reting te logs tey 'o(ld get 'as to #(ild an artificial 'ell inte la# and to o#serve te #eavior of ne(trons (nder conditions similar to 'at tey migt find innat(re. calc(lation 'ito(t eA!erimental verification 'as !ossi#le, #(t (nrelia#le. &e disc(ssed tesetecnical !ro#lems and oter details, #(t after a fe' days, - decided it 'as not a o# for me.

4y stay in 2(lsa coincided 'it te end of te !ony 'ar !eriod,

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and 'ile - 'as tere - eard tat =ermany ad invaded Belgi(m and ;olland, starting an activeoffensive 'ar in te 'est. - remem#er - 'as aving #reakfast 'en te radio gave te ne's. - almostcoked.

rom 193$ to 19JG, for over siAteen long years, my yo(t 'as dominated #y te s!ecter eiter of 'aror of !olitical disaster. So m(c 'orrying m(st !erforce ave infl(enced my caracter and made mesometing of a !essimist. - ave never #een a#le to live sim!ly from day to day, and te antici!ation of



events, 'ic (nfort(nately often came to !ass, and from 'ic - did not kno' o' to, or co(ld not,defend myself, as ca(sed me m(c s(ffering. Conflicts #orn o(t of s(c fr(strations ave em#itteredme greatly and for a long time.

&en - t(rned do'n te 2(lsa o#, Scer#atskoy asked me a#o(t Br(no Pontecorvo, 'o ten 'as inParis 'it +oliotC(rie, and - 'armly recommended im. 2e oileA!loration firm, &ells S(rveys, tendecided to offer im a o# and ca#led im. 2(s Pontecorvo, esca!ing on a #icycle from Paris, a#o(t to

fall to te /a*is, and in imminent !eril of is life, s(ddenly fo(nd imself 'it an ass(red o# inmerica. tr(e miracleO

4y tri! on te 'ole ad not #een s(ccessf(l. - ret(rned to Berkeley #eca(se tere - co(ld do good !ysics and - ad not fo(nd anyting #etter else'ere. 4y sit(ation, o'ever, #ecame increasingly !recario(s (ntil it took an (neA!ected t(rn for te #etter.

-n te s(mmer of 19J$, 'e 'ere visited at Berkeley #y te ead of te !ysics de!artment at P(rd(eUniversity, Marl 7ark;orovit*.?$F ;e 'as of (strian origin, of a to(cy and s(llen caracter tatmade im many enemies, #(t at eart a very decent man and a good !ysicist. t P(rd(e e ad createdan eAcellent !ysics de!artment and r(led it a(tocratically, #(t 'it good res(lts. ;e recogni*ed 0(alityin science and el!ed 'oever e to(gt merited it. &en - #ecame ac0(ainted 'it im, - felt - co(ld

o!enly tell im my !ersonal !ro#lems. ;e invited me to go to P(rd(e for a limited !eriod. ;e co(ld notsec(re a !ermanent o# for me, #(t to(gt tat even a tem!orary a!!ointment 'o(ld greatly im!rovemy !osition at Berkeley. 2(s in te fall of 19J$, Elfriede, Cla(dio, and - took te train for &est7afayette, -ndiana. t P(rd(e, 'e settled in at Union ;all, 'ic 'as strongly eated and

@ 1G1 @

eAtremely dry, so m(c tat in 'alking on its ins(lating car!ets, one got igly electrified, and - co(ldam(se Cla(dio #y !(lling s!arks from is nose. - ad also !re!ared some eA!eriments - co(ld easilyand ra!idly carry o(t, and - did my #est to elicit a!!reciation for my lect(res. 7ark;orovit*s !lan'orked to a fa(lt. 2ings 'ent 'ell, and - 'as !leased.

t Berkeley, 'en tey !erceived tat - 'as really leaving, 7a'rence and te ead of te !ysicsde!artment, 6aymond 2. Birge,?1F fo(nd te money to !ay me and 'ired me 'it te offer of alect(rersi!. -t 'as not a ten(red !osition, #(t it 'as great !rogress. - ad, more or less, ret(rned to te !osition 'it 'ic - ad started in 193N, #efore tey kne' - co(ld not ret(rn to -taly. - asked for acontract 'it te University of California, not 'it te 6ad 7a#, of 'ic - ad ad eno(g. - kne'tat Birge ke!t is 'ord, 'ereas 7a'rences intentions and ca!a#ilities co(ld cange at any time. -nany case - 'o(ld ave access to te cyclotron, and - o!ed tat relations 'it 7a'rence 'o(ldim!rove, #eca(se aving good 'ork done #y me in te 6ad 7a# at no eA!ense to imself, e 'o(ld #ea!!y and s'eet, as indeed a!!ened. 2anks to 7ark;orovit*, - ad ]3$$ a mont and a m(cim!roved !osition.

4y ne' #oss, 6. 2. Birge, 'as a very f(ssy man, a tr(e airs!litter, and tis ad served im 'ell,allo'ing im to ferret o(t many scientific errors of long standing and greatly to im!rove o(r kno'ledgeof (niversal constants. 2o #etter (nderstand is !ec(liarities, one as to read is istory of te !ysicsde!artment at Berkeley.??F -t reveals is many good 0(alities, 'ic, all in all, more tan made (! foris 'eaknesses. 2ese fla's, on te oter and, are easily recogni*ed reading #et'een te lines. -nsome res!ects, e 'as a narro'minded man, 'it !re(dices against foreigners, es!ecially Cinese,'omen, and anyone 'o s!oke 'it an accent. ;is !erfectionism sometimes ca(sed im to lose sigtof 'at 'as im!ortant and r(n after min(te details. nce - 'as invited for dinner at is ome, 'itermi, ;arold Urey, and oter im!ortant !eo!le, all in #lack tie and te 'ives in long dresses.



magnificent roast t(rkey arrived at te ta#le, and Birge, at te ead of te ta#le, carved it 'it !erfectart, #(t it took im almost an o(r, and 'e all felt 'e ad to 'ait (ntil te end of te carving o!eration

@ 1G? @

#efore 'e started to eat, so tat te t(rkey on o(r !lates 'as #y ten almost cold.

Birge ad a lively sense of (mor, 'ic - a!!reciated, and did not mince 'ords, saying fortrigtly'at e to(gt, or, rater, often tinking alo(d. ;is comment to a teacer at a s(mmer scool 'asty!ical. 2is !rofessor arrived and fo(nd tat e ad #een assigned a small classroom tat 'as !ossi#lyins(fficient. ;e com!lained to Birge, 'o ans'ered, )7et me seeD last year ermi ta(gt tis sameco(rse, and 'e ad to cange classrooms t'ice, #eca(se tey 'ere al'ays too small, #(t for yo( tisone 'ill #e s(fficient.)

s a de!artment ead, Birge ad some good, clear ideasD for instance, e early reali*ed te great f(t(rein store for te 6ad 7a#, fostered it, and al'ays ke!t in mind tat it 'as to te reci!rocal advantage ofte de!artment and of te 6ad 7a# to coo!erate and to avoid figts. (rtermore, in te early years ofis career as ead of te de!artment, e made eAcellent a!!ointments, 'ic greatly contri#(ted to

Berkeleys later s(ccess. ;e remained ead of te de!artment for over t'enty years 81933Q,alto(g at te end e lost contact 'it active researc. /everteless, for a !eriod after te 'ar, e stillmanaged to eAert a #eneficial infl(ence 'it te advice of yo(nger fac(lty mem#ers.

-n any case, in 19J$, - fo(nd myself m(c #etter off dealing 'it Birge tan 'it 7a'rence. or tisreason - strove to #e em!loyed #y te (niversity rater tan #y te 6ad 7a#. (rtermore, - likedteacing and - m(c !referred te c(lt(ral as!ects of !ysics to te engineering ones, alto(g -o!erated in #ot and recogni*ed teir interde!endence. ll told, - 'as a #orn !rofessor and felt more atome at te (niversity tan in te 6ad 7a#, and - esta#lised good relations 'it Birge, 'o, - #elieve,ad a good o!inion of me, des!ite my im!erfect Englis !ron(nciation.

So m(c for BirgeD - ret(rn to my story. rom P(rd(e University, #efore reverting to Berkeley, - 'ent

to visit ermi at is ome in 7eonia, /e' +ersey. t Berkeley in +an(ary 19J$, e ad ardlymentioned n(clear energy release. t 7eonia tings 'ere different, and 'e 'ent into it in de!t. -n verycold 'eater, 'e iked along te

@ 1G3 @

;(dson 6iver, 'ic 'as dotted 'it small ice#ergs. n te #are trees, to my s(r!rise, - sa' angingmany (sed !ro!ylacticsD te 'inter a#sence of leaves made tis strange vegetation cons!ic(o(s. (rto(gts, o'ever, 'ere else'ere. -t 'as eA!ected tat U?3N #y ne(tron ca!t(re and #eta decay 'o(ldform 9J?39 , of 'ic no one kne' anyting. ne co(ld, o'ever, s!ec(late #y analogy to U?3 , tat

tis evenodd n(cle(s migt (ndergo slo' ne(tron fission. -f tis 'as te case, 9J

?39

co(ld !era!sre!lace U?3 as a n(clear f(el or eA!losive. -t all de!ended on (n!redicta#le cross sections, decay !eriods, and te n(m#er of ne(trons emitted !er fission. 2e !ros!ect 'as o#vio(sly of greatim!ortance, #(t one needed information on tis y!otetical isoto!e.

-n a favora#le case one migt eA!ect an entirely ne' so(rce of a material fissiona#le #y slo' ne(trons,inde!endent of te se!aration of (rani(m isoto!es. (rter vistas 'ere immense, incl(ding reactors !rod(cing te ne' isoto!e and its (se as a n(clear eA!losive. n te oter and if te n(clear !ro!erties of te ne' isoto!e so(ld t(rn o(t to #e (nfavora#le, tat 'ole a!!roac 'o(ld come tonoting. 2e only 'ay of ans'ering tese momento(s 0(estions 'as #y direct eA!eriment. ne ad to



make eno(g of te ne' s(#stance to meas(re te desired (nkno'ns. 2is 'as !ossi#le 'it te el!of te cyclotron. &e made several calc(lations and estimates and fo(nd tat, 'it some l(ck, te !lan'as feasi#le. -t 'as im!erative to try. Similar ideas also occ(rred to oters, among tem lvare*, 7. .2(rner, and Egon Bretscer, #(t - 'as (na'are of tis, and - #elieve ermi 'as too.?3F

2o acc(m(late s(fficient material, one needed a s(#stantial cyclotron #om#ardment, and since tis'o(ld commit te macine for some time, 'e re0(ired 7a'rences a!!roval. By cance e 'as ten in

/e' ork, and on ecem#er 1Jt, 19J$, ermi, 7a'rence, Pegram, and - disc(ssed te matter inPegrams office at Col(m#ia University. 7a'rence immediately gave is assent, and a fe' days later, -ret(rned to Berkeley and started te 'ork. rom te very #eginning of 19J1, - reali*ed tat - co(ld notcarry o(t te 'ork as fast as needed alone, and - asked Sea#org to el!.

n +an(ary 1$, 19J1, - 'rote to ermi: );ere - fo(nd 7a'rence 'o

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ad received from &asington 8over #elsons signat(reO a letter concerning o(r eA!eriment and tes(ggestion to entr(st it to Sea#org. &e all agreed tat it is not a oneman o#, and t(s Sea#org and -

'ill carry it on, eAce!t tat 8'it 7a'rences conc(rrence 'e 'ill #ring in some#ody else to el! ifnecessary.) 2ose #ro(gt in 'ere +. &. Mennedy, a recent P.., 'it 'om 'e ad !revio(sly'orked on isomerism, and . C. &al, a grad(ate st(dent.

Mennedy 'as a 2eAan of -ris ancestry, lively, intelligent, very sre'd, and (tterly onest. ;e 'as ayear or t'o (nior to Sea#org, 'o ad introd(ced im to radiocemistry and colla#orated 'it im onseveral investigations of radioactive isoto!es. Slo'ly - fo(nd o(t tat it 'as easier to deal 'it imtan 'it Sea#org. Mennedys o!enness ins!ired confidence, 'ereas - came to feel tat Sea#org adsecret !ersonal !lans. Mennedy and - noted te (n!aralleled doc(mentation e 'as acc(m(lating, 'ay #eyond 'at 'as needed for c(rrent 'ork, 'it a miAt(re of admiration and !(**lement.?JF

Sea#org also made every effort to ac0(ire and maintain strict control over o(r gro(!s comm(nications

'it te o(tside 'orld. -n tis e 'as el!ed #y te diffic(lties - ad as an alien, #y my (ncertain !osition, and a#ove all #y my meager a#ility in !(#lic relations, as 'ell as #y Mennedys (nior stat(s.s time 'ent #y, Mennedy and -, alarmed #y 'at 'e sa', ended #y associating very closely in selfdefense.

t te time, rt(r &al 'as a rater innocent st(dent, o(t of r(ral -o'a, and ignorant of te 'orld. tleast at te #eginning, e 'as strongly infl(enced #y Sea#org. ;e 'as a toro(gly good and onora#lefello', #(t too ineA!ert and ingen(o(s to (nderstand te game e 'as #eing dra'n into. 7ater eo!ened is eyes, associated strictly 'it Mennedy, and came to 7os lamos 'it im. fter te 'ar,&al, togeter 'it oter Berkeley cemists 'o ad originally #een st(dents or colla#orators ofSea#orgs #(t 'ere averse to f(rter ties 'it im, 'ent to &asington University in St. 7o(is,4isso(ri, 'ic ad a!!ointed Mennedy as ead of a revitali*ed cemistry de!artment.

2e istory given #y several of te !(#lised doc(ments !ertinent to tat !eriod is not al'ayscom!lete, and tere are occasional disagreements.?F 2e a(tors 'rote (nder te demands of secrecyreg(

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lations, !atent re0(irements, and te 'is to !rotect teir o'n !ersonal scientific claims to te (tmost.2(s tere are occasional disagreements. 2e !ossi#ility of /o#el Pri*es #eing a'arded did not



sim!lify matters.

- give ere some cronological !oints: in +(ne 19J$ 4c4illan #om#arded (rani(m 'it de(terons and #y cemical metods e and #elson ad !revio(sly devised, se!arated from it a #eta activity d(e tone!t(ni(m and let it decay. fter te #eta activity ad decayed, e fo(nd tat te resid(e emitted al!a !articles, !ossi#ly d(e to element 9J.

-n ecem#er of 19J$, after 4c4illan ad left Berkeley to go to radar 'ork, Sea#org, Mennedy, and&al, 'it 4c4illans agreement, started 'ork on de(teron#om#arded (rani(m. -n teir #om#ardment, tey o#tained a miAt(re of several isoto!es of 93, and tis m(lti!licity of isoto!escom!licated f(rter 'ork. 2e #eta activities of element 93 decayed, leaving al!a active resid(es,most likely d(e to element 9J. Some !reliminary cemical trials so'ed tat te al!a activity co(ld #ecemically se!arated from most elements. - #elieve tat tis 'as all tat 'as kno'n at te #eginning ofo(r common 'ork.

2e !rimary !(r!ose of te investigation #y Mennedy, Sea#org, and myself 'as to meas(re te fissioncross section of P(?39 . -n order to o#tain an isoto!ically !(re sam!le of tis s(#stance, it 'as #est to #om#ard (rani(m 'it slo' ne(trons. 2ose gave res(lts tat 'ere easier to inter!ret and also gavelarger amo(nts of P(?39 tan tose o#taina#le #y de(teron #om#ardments.?GF

t te #eginning of o(r 'ork, 'e sim!ly cemically se!arated ne!t(ni(m from #om#arded (rani(m,(sing a rare eart carrier, and let it decay. 2e sam!les t(s o#tained, o'ever, 'ere too tick foracc(rate investigations of al!a and fission !rocesses.

-n te meantime, Mennedy, Sea#org, and &al contin(ed develo!ing te cemistry of !l(toni(m and itsse!aration from ne!t(ni(m, #(t tey did not tell me teir reagents, aving received orders to #e !r(dent'it an alien. -t took (ntil te end of e#r(ary 19J1 #efore &al fo(nd a clean 'ay of oAidi*ing 9J tovario(s valence states. By ten Mennedy, Sea#org, and - already ad sam!les of P(?39 , co!reci!itated'it ceri(m fl(oride, in relatively tick layers.

@ 1GG @ro(nd 4arc 1, 19J1, 'e !erformed a #ig ne(tron #om#ardment of (rani(m to !re!are a s(#stantialsam!le of !(?39 . -t 'as a dangero(s o!eration considering te large amo(nt and te eA!losiveness ofte eter 'e (sed, as 'ell as te radioactivity of te #om#arded (rani(m and its fission !rod(cts.Everyting 'ent 'ell, o'ever, and 'e s(rvived to tell te tale. first tick sam!le 'as ready #y !rilfor first ro(g meas(rements. -n 4ay te sam!le 'as tinned #y &al, (sing te se!aration metods ead develo!ed, to a total 'eigt of a#o(t ?$$ micrograms 8almost totally rare eart carrier, and 'e gotacc(rate res(lts.

&e all 'orked on all !ases of te investigations, #(t &al !erformed te #(lk of te microcemicalo!erations 8- !erformed some cemical se!arations 'ito(t kno'ing te reagents - 'as givenO.

Mennedy, Sea#org, and - !erformed te #(lk of te !ysical meas(rements. -n te follo'ing monts,&al f(rter develo!ed te cemistry of ne!t(ni(m and !l(toni(m and laid te fo(ndation for m(c ofte later 'ork,

&e inferred te mass of 9J 'e ad in o(r sam!le from te meas(red #eta activity and te alflife of itsmoter s(#stance, 93. rom te mass of 9J and its al!a activity, 'e calc(lated its decay !eriod. orte slo' ne(tron fission cross section, direct com!arison 'it a kno'n (rani(m sam!le in te samene(tron fl(A gave te #est res(lts. rom all tis s(#stantial 'ork, 'e gatered, #y 4ay 19J1, tat teslo' ne(tron fission cross section of 9J?39 'as a#o(t e0(al to tat of U?3 , and its decay !eriod a#o(t



t'entyfive to(sand years. 7ater meas(rements confirmed all tese data. #o(t 4ay ?, 19J1,Sea#org, Mennedy, 7a'rence, and - signed a letter to r. 7yman +. Briggs, cairman of tegovernments dvisory Committee on Urani(m, re!orting tese res(lts.

&e ad t(s gatered information of ca!ital !ractical im!ortance, demonstrating te feasi#ility of (sing9J?39 as a n(clear f(el or eA!losive, and 'e ad o!ened (! a ne' 'ay of ta!!ing n(clear energy,avoiding te need for isoto!e se!aration. &e f(lly reali*ed te im!ortance of o(r res(lts, and Mennedy,

Sea#org, &al, and - 'rote a letter to te -hysical e(iew re!orting tem. -n com!liance 'it te !olicy of vol

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(ntary secrecy ten !revailing for res(lts of !ossi#le military im!ortance, o'ever, 'e re0(ested tat !(#lication #e 'iteld (ntil #etter times, and te re!ort event(ally a!!eared only in 19JG.?%F

-n s!ite of 7a'rences conc(rrence, at te #eginning of o(r eA!eriments it ad #een diffic(lt even too#tain te necessary (rani(m. - ad to 'rite to ermi at Col(m#ia University asking for it. -n a letter of+an(ary 11, 19J1, - 'rote im. )or te (rani(m 'ork, Cooksey, 'o olds te !(rse strings, is not

very lavis. -t 'o(ld #e most (sef(l if yo( co(ld send (s kg of !(re (ranyl nitrate. Please let mekno' if tere is any 'ay of getting some money to #(y te eter and several vessels for te firsteAtraction after te #om#ardment. S(c diffic(lties may slo' (s do'n.) 2e government ad no !art intis !ase of o(r 'ork. -t 'oke (! after te facts, in +(ne 19J1, and asked (s to file a secret !atenta!!lication. &e com!lied, to o(r advantage, as 'e sall see in d(e co(rse.

- do not kno' to 'at eAtent 7a'rence initially reali*ed te im!ortance of o(r findings, alto(g ead el!ed, indirectly, in o#taining tem. - tried to disc(ss tem 'it im, #(t - do(#t e a!!reciatedte 'eigt of teir im!lications. ;e told me to talk to is friend lfred 7oomis, a m(ltimillionaire #anker and amate(r !ysicist of great intelligence 'o 'as visiting te 6ad 7a#.?NF - esitated #eca(se of sec(rity, #(t 7a'rence reass(red me #y saying tat 7oomis 'as cleared for every tecnicalsecret concerning defense, and tat f(rtermore e 'as a co(sin and close friend of Secretary of &ar;enry Stimsons. 7oomis (nderstood everyting - told im !rom!tly and com!letely. - #elieve eel!ed to o!en 7a'rences eyes, alto(g it is !ossi#le tat 7a'rence ad f(lly gras!ed 'at - toldim, and sim!ly 'anted 7oomis to ear te ne's directly from te orses mo(t.

-t 'as in tis !eriod tat Mennedy and -, s(r!rised and conf(sed #y some of te occ(rrences d(ring o(r'ork, o!ened (! to eac oter. &e talked at lengt 'ile 'alking aro(nd te !ysics #(ildinginn(mera#le times.

7a'rence 'anted a clean and correct sit(ation and did not care m(c a#o(t !ersonalities. ;is !ositionis so'n in a letter dated 4ay 31, 19JG, to ;arold Urey, in 'ic e 'rote: )Sometime O so(ld like totalk

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to yo( a#o(t tis 'ole #(siness of trans(ranicsF, as - tink tat te 'ork of #elson, 4c4illan,Sea#org, Segrè, &al and Mennedy so(ld #e recogni*ed some day in /o#el a'ardsD !era!s te /o#el Pri*e in Pysics to 4c4illan and #elson and anoter one in Cemistry to Sea#org andassociates. t any rate sometime - so(ld like to get yo(r ideas and o!inions along tis line.) 2ere'ere also oter forces at !lay, incl(ding =. /. 7e'is, te famo(s Berkeley cemico!ysicist, acommanding a(tority in te cemistry de!artment, and a#ove all Professor &. 4. 7atimer, 'o 'as



'ell kno'n for is Aeno!o#ia and antiSemitism. 2ey comm(nicated 'it Sea#org only, andnat(rally tey 'ere inclined to acce!t 'atever tey eard from im.

Sea#org (sed is (ncommon organi*ing talents to foster te !l(toni(m st(dy. ;e enlisted in iso!eration all te cemistry grad(ate st(dents e co(ld contact, iring yo(ng cemists left and rigt and !lanning largescale investigations. -n sort, e 'as #(sy #(ilding an em!ire. -f - com!are tiso!eration to tat of oter em!erors - ave kno'n: 7a'rence and ermi 8a#sit ini(ria ver#o, -

immediately !erceive a great difference. 7a'rence 'as te cief of a great enter!rise e ad createdfrom scratc, and e identified imself 'it te 6ad 7a# and its s(ccesses. ;e 'as devoid of ealo(syand genero(s in attri#(ting credit. lto(g no more tan a mediocre scientist imself, e !era!smildly looked do'n on is fello' scientists and teir s0(a##les, 'ic e disliked. ;e (stly felt tatteir s(ccesses, if o#tained in te 6ad 7a#, 'o(ld al'ays eAtend to im too.

ermi, a very great scientist, 'as !rimarily interested in !ysics and did not es!ecially likeadministrative 'ork. ;e 'as !erfectly onest, o!en, and scientifically genero(s, as #efits one 'o adso m(c to give. ;e 'as em!eror #eca(se s(#ects and e0(als in rank recogni*ed im as s(c, and ass(c tr(sted and liked im. Sea#org, a great organi*er, and a man of eAce!tional stamina and ca!acityfor 'ork, #(t not an eAce!tional scientist, ad (n#ridled !ersonal am#itions and 'as determined to getaead #y any means. 2e sim!lest 'as to ire a great n(m#er of yo(ng colla#orators 'o co(ld notoversado' im, and to take a small !art of te credit for teir 'ork. 4any of tese st(dents later addisting(ised careers of teir o'n 8a very incom!lete list of

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tem migt incl(de +ack =ofman, red 7eit*, 6ay Sto(gton, 4orris and -sidor Perlman, =erartriedl^nder, 6enR +. Prest'ood, S.=. Englis, and Stanley =. 2om!son. 2aking 1$ !ercent of te'ork and re!(tation from eac of fifty yo(ng men, e co(ld #ecome deservedly famo(s. 2e metodad #een !revio(sly (sed on a large scale #y ill(strio(s organic cemists, and similar metods no' !revail in large !ysics colla#orations.

&at 'as (n(s(al in Sea#org 'as te longterm !lanning e diligently a!!lied to everyting. -n 19J1e 'o(ld say: in 19JG - sall #e a deanD in 19JN, cancellor of te University of CaliforniaD in 19,senator for California, and so on, and e never lost sigt of is aims. -n 193N e al'ays dressed in a #l(e s(it, 'it a tie, differently from is colleag(es, #eca(se e to(gt tat tese clotes 'o(ld el!im #ecome a f(ll !rofessor, a small first ste! in te grand design. Ultimately, e devoted m(c effortto !(#lic service as cairman of te tomic Energy Commission and many oter organi*ations,receiving more tan fifty onorary degrees and collecting !ict(res of imself 'it a n(m#er of !residents of te United States and oter s(c fig(res.

Sea#orgs designs 'ere fostered #y is marriage to ;elen =riggs, 7a'rences secretary, an attractiveyo(ng 'oman, s(!erior in er !rofession. Se may ave el!ed im #y giving im access to doc(ments

se controlled. Some disa!!eared from 7a'rences files 'en Sea#org and is 'ife transferred toCicago in 19J?. Some 'ere !artic(larly im!ortant to Mennedy and me #eca(se tey contained data onte !l(toni(m 'ork. Mennedy, alarmed, g(essed 'ere tey migt #e and asked 7a'rence to en0(irefrom is former secretary 'eter se ad taken tem to Cicago in error. 2e doc(ments 'ere !rom!tly ret(rned, 'it a!ologies for te mistake. -n te !rocess, o'ever, te original doc(ments ads(ffered some alterations. -n te letter on te discovery of 9J?39 , some of te names (nder tedoc(ment ad #een c(t o(t. &en - com!lained to =regory Breit, te secretary of te dvisoryCommittee on Urani(m, e ans'ered in a letter dated cto#er ?G, 19J?:

- ave yo(r letter of cto#er 1%t. -t is indeed tr(e tat yo(r letter to r. Briggs 'ritten



ointly 'it Sea#org, Mennedy and 7a'rence is in te

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official files of te 6eference Committee on /(clear Pysics and -soto!es and tat it as #een circ(lated as 6e!ort 33. 2e re!ort is registered for !(#lication in te -hysical

e(iew .-n circ(lating te contents as a re!ort, it as #een to(gt advisa#le to omit yo(r andMennedys names. 2is 'as !(rely a formality concerning te re!ort and not te a(torsi!of te !a!er in te -hysical e(iew . t te time te matter of clearance 'as a diffic(ltyand te letter 'as transmitted to te /6C in f(lfillment of financial o#ligations as a re!ortfrom te official investigators at Berkeley. - so(ld like to ass(re yo(, o'ever, tat so faras te -hysical e(iew is concerned te a(torsi! of te comm(nication as not #eencanged. -t is in fact largely for tis reason tat te original letter as #een transferred to tefiles of te 6eference Committee.

2e a(torsi! of tis comm(nication is ke!t secret for te d(ration of te emergency so as

not to disseminate information regarding 'o is concerned 'it im!ortant 'ork in tesection.

2is c(rio(s letter ardly eA!lains te matter.

t te #eginning of 19J1, - fo(nd it advantageo(s to #(y a o(se rater tan to contin(e renting. - 'asa#le to (se family money for te !(r!ose, and for a#o(t ]N,$$$ - #o(gt a o(se at 1G1% S!r(ce Streetin Berkeley, a#o(t fifteen min(tes 'alk from te cam!(s. -t 'as a great im!rovement on o(r !revio(so(se and ad a garden 'it a!ricot and a!!le trees, in 'ic 'e 'ere a#le to gro' eAcellentvegeta#les and flo'ers 8alto(g my eart 'as not in gardening. (r immediate neig#ors &ere ean4(lford of te Scool of orestry and is 'ife, 'o 'ere a good deal older tan 'e 'ere. 4rs.4(lford once told (s tat te B- ad gone to tem asking a#o(t (sD se resented te intr(sion, #(t ad

given tem a glo'ing re!ort.n S(nday, ecem#er %, 19J1, - 'as 'orking in te garden 'en - eard over te radio of te #om#ing of Pearl ;ar#or. &e 'ere s(r!rised #y te fact in itself and #y te (n!re!aredness of teUnited States. &e reali*ed at once tat te losses 'ere serio(s, #(t a fe' days later 'e eard President6oosevelt detailing te constr(ction !rograms #y 'ic e intended to re!air te #lo'. - remem#er -to(gt tey 'ere like 4(ssolinis (m#(g, and tat it 'o(ld never #e !ossi#le to #(ild so many si!s,air!lanes, tanks, and so on, in te time allotted #y te

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!resident. - 'as 'rong, and act(ally te goals 'ere s(r!assed. Even after living tree years in teUnited States, - (nderestimated its ind(strial !otential and 'at it co(ld accom!lis once mo#ili*ed.

2e reaction to te attack 'as strong and even ysterical, as in te de!ortation of Ais citi*ens. 2e-talian declaration of 'ar on te United States, 'ic follo'ed at once, interr(!ted directcomm(nications 'it my !arents. (r letter 1?9 'as ret(rned to sender 'it a stam! indicating tes(s!ension of service. -t 'as a great sorro' to (s, #(t little com!ared 'it te tragedies tat 'ereeng(lfing te 'orld.

2e Pearl ;ar#or attack immediately (nified a co(ntry tat seemed still divided, f(ll of isolationistsand of friends of !eace at any cost. 2e effect on te 6ad 7a# 'as e0(ally radical. 7a'rence 'oke (!



to te !ossi#ility of n(clear 'ea!ons and devoted imself and te 7a# to te se!aration of (rani(misoto!es, 'ic e decided to do #y means of colossal mass s!ectrogra!s. 2y!ically, e cose te mostdirect and )#r(te force) metod and !(rs(ed it 'it indomita#le energy. ;e (sed te magnet of te 3%inc cyclotron for a model mass s!ectrogra! and started st(dying it. 2e G$inc cyclotron 'as leftintact #eca(se it 'as needed for oter !rograms, es!ecially st(dies on trans(ranics, #(t te magnet ofte 1NJinc cyclotron, 'ic 'as (nder constr(ction, 'as converted to mass s!ectrogra!y too.

-n all tis fren*ied activity, one o#tained c(rrents de!ositing (rani(m ions into s(ita#le rece!tacles. 2eo!e 'as tat isoto!es 'o(ld #e se!arated according to !lan, #(t initially tere 'as no isoto!ic analysisof te !rod(ct. - #elieved it 'as im!erative to set (! an ade0(ate analytical metod to kno' 'at 'asa!!ening. - fo(nd a sol(tion to tis !ro#lem #y 'eiging a sam!le, meas(ring its al!a activity, andmeas(ring its fission cross section for slo' ne(trons. Cr(dely s!eaking, te mass gives te amo(nt ofU?3N , te al!a activity tat of U?3J , and te fission cross section tat of U?3 . - t(s organi*ed ananalytical la#, 'it 7a'rences ent(siastic enco(ragement and s(!!ort. Mennedy and several grad(atest(dents, 'o 'ere immediately ired #y te 6ad 7a#, oined in tis enter!rise.?9F Unem!loymentamong !ysicists 'as #y no' on te 'ane.

ne day - 'as trying to #(ild a !o'er s(!!ly for an electronic

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a!!arat(s on my o'n. st(dent started looking at me, and after a 'ile, 'it a alfdisg(stedeA!ression, asked 'eter e co(ld el! me. - 'as a!!y to acce!t, and 'itin alf an o(r e !rovided me 'it a m(c #etter !o'er s(!!ly tan - co(ld ever ave made. 2e st(dent 'as Clyde&iegand, and tis started a colla#oration and friendsi! tat lasted for te rest of o(r careers.

&it te entry of te United States into te 'ar, te migration of !ysicists to 'ar 'ork, 'ic adstarted long #efore Pearl ;ar#or, greatly increased. lvare*, 4c4illan, +enkins, Brode, and oters oined 'ar !roects (nder 'ay else'ere and left Berkeley. t te same time te (niversity 'ass'am!ed #y st(dents (ndergoing military training 'o needed accelerated !ysics instr(ction. -n tisemergency, Birge asked me to teac some )!eace) !ysics co(rses to te fe' reg(lar st(dents 'o'ere left. - eagerly acce!ted te assignment #eca(se - liked teacing and #eca(se - to(gt it migtel! me to 'in a !ermanent !osition. 2e salary too 'as sligtly iger tan 'at - ad #een receiving(! to ten. 2(s - fo(nd myself teacing vario(s #rances of !ysics at an (!!er division or grad(atelevel: !ysical o!tics, 0(ant(m mecanics, s!ectrosco!y, termodynamics, atomic !ysics. - kne' tes(#ects ade0(ately from eA!erience, and - did reasona#ly 'ell, ac0(iring m(c credit.

-n one of te o!tics co(rses tere 'as a st(dent 'o am(sed imself in finding fla's in te lect(res.;is o#ections, al'ays !olite, 'ere often 'ell taken and so'ed a critical and alert mind. - a!!reciatedte yo(ng man, 'o o#vio(sly 'as interested in te co(rse and (sed is ead, and - made friends 'itim. ;e 'as 'en Cam#erlain, te son of an eminent radiologist. - m(st like'ise ave im!ressed

im favora#ly, #eca(se e #ecame my grad(ate st(dent and remained my associate for many years.2e o(t#reak of 'ar #et'een te United States and -taly made me an )enemy alien,) and soon tegovernment decreed tat enemy aliens m(st leave te Pacific CoastHfirst te +a!anese, ten te=ermans, and lastly te -talians. -f tey did not go vol(ntarily, tey 'ere to #e ro(nded (! in relocationcam!s. -n te meantime, tey m(st register, o#ey a c(rfe', and s(rrender teir radios and arms. 2egovernment started

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eAec(ting tese orders #y de!orting te +a!anese. 2e action !roved (nnecessary, cr(el, and of d(#io(smotive, since it t(rned o(t tat tere 'ere interests tat !rofited #y #(ying (! te !ro!erty of teinternees at r(ino(s !rices. ort(nately, after te eA!erience 'it te +a!anese, te governmentregained its senses and left te =ermans and te -talians alone. - 'as, o'ever, (stly alarmed. - fo(ndmyself in te ridic(lo(s sit(ation of #eing !rivy to information so secret and im!ortant tat tegovernment ke!t it even from its o'n ig military a(torities and from te Congress, #(t - co(ld not

take a 'alk after s(ndo'n or go to te movies in te evening. f co(rse, (nder different regimes s(ccontradictions migt ave #een c(red #y fatal metods. . . .

- s!oke to 7a'rence a#o(t tis sit(ation and asked for is el!. ;e ans'ered me tat e co(ld donotingD tat la's 'ere la's and m(st #e o#eyed, and dro!!ed te s(#ectD o'ever many years later -sa' corres!ondence so'ing tat e ad tried ard to !rotect me. - do not kno' 'y e did not tell meten.

-n te meantime, - cons(lted 'it Elfriede on 'at to do. - took an atlas, 7o S(rdos 'edding !resent,st(died it a little, and ten said: )-f te government is serio(s a#o(t de!orting (s, 'e sall go ere toa'ait te end of te 'ar)Hand - !(t my finger on Santa e, /e' 4eAico. )-t is an isolated !lace, farfrom te coast, it as a good climate, and life so(ld #e cea! tere.) &itin t'o years 'e 'ere indeedtere, #(t te reasonHte creation of te 7os lamos 7a#oratoryH'as ten totally (nforeseea#le.&ile te co(ntry 'as mo#ili*ing, strange e!isodes occ(rred at te (niversity. ne day a gentlemanarrived at te ac(lty Cl(# and asked to #e introd(ced to several !ysicists and cemists. -t seemed e'anted to kno' 'at 'as going on in some la#oratories, and e str(ck (! a conversation 'it me. ;eten follo'ed me to my la#, al'ays talking. &it (tmost !oliteness, - offered im a cair, oriented ins(c a 'ay tat e co(ld not see anyting of interest. ;e ten asked me many 0(estions a#o(t (rani(m,and - #ecame even more s(s!icio(s. - ans'ered im, al'ays co(rteo(sly, #(t #eing caref(l not to giveany information not availa#le in common #ooks, and (s(ally telling im te #ook 'ere e co(ld findgreater details. - ten came to s!eak a#o(t te de!ortation orders ten in force, and since e ad

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told me e 'as a government la'yer 'orking for te -mmigration e!artment, - advocated my case, ofco(rse 'ito(t inting at te nat(re of my c(rrent 'ork. fter e left, - reflected on te 'ole !erformance. 2e more - considered it, te more s(s!icio(s it looked to me. - concl(ded tat te man'as eiter a s!y or an agent of co(nterintelligence. - terefore 'ent to Cooksey and told im of testrange visit, (rging im to re!ort it to te B-. -n my o!inion, if te man 'as a s!y, tey 'o(ld catcimD if e 'as in co(nterintelligence, 'e 'o(ld come o(t looking alert and diligent. -n any case, tere'as noting to lose. Unfort(nately, Cooksey did not follo' my s(ggestion.

#o(t t'o 'eeks later, te same gentleman rea!!eared, tis time in te (niform of a lie(tenant colonel,and s(mmoned te 6ad 7a#s scientific !ersonnel. ;e told (s tat e ad come earlier on an ins!ectionto(r in disg(ise to see o' 'e ke!t sec(rity. n te 'ole e ad #een !leased, #(t e ad a criticism:

some#ody so(ld ave re!orted im, #eca(se is #eavior so(ld ave looked s(s!icio(s. t tis,Cooksey, like te tr(e gentleman e 'as, rose and said: )-t is my fa(lt, #eca(se Segrè s(ggested it tome.) 2e colonels name 'as +on 7ansdale, +r.D e ad later im!ortant assignments and testified in te!!eneimer case.

4y enco(nter 'it Colonel 7ansdale ad a se0(el years later, 'en - 'as at 7os lamos. 6iccardo6imini 'as ten in Ur(g(ay, 'ere e 'as !racticing medicine, and - sent im a re!rint of an article -ad 'ritten on ne' cemical elements.3$F &en 'e moved to 7os lamos, 'e 'ere allo'ed to giveo(r ne' addressHPost ffice BoA 1GG3, Santa e, /4Hto all o(r corres!ondents, and - ad sent it to



im. ne day, at 7os lamos, - received a letter from 6iccardo, saying, a!!roAimately: )- avereceived yo(r re!rint, 'ic - fo(nd most interesting. - am !leased tat yo( 'ill #e contin(ing yo(r oldty!e of 'ork. o not fail to kee! me informed of any !rogress.) fe' days later Colonel 7ansdalea!!eared in my office and asked: );ave yo( received a letter from Ur(g(ay, saying s(c and s(c<) ;eo#vio(sly ad a translation of te letter tat ad #een interce!ted #y a censor. )es,) - ans'ered.)oesnt it look strange to yo(<) e said. )es, #(t - can eA!lain it to yo(D ere is a co!y of te re!rint.)

- also told im te identity of te

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sender of te letter, told im tat 6iccardo 'as an -talian ref(gee and a kno'n antiascist, 'ic it'o(ld #e easy for im to ceck tro(g te U.S. cons(late in 4ontevideo. - learned later tat 7ansdalead first s!oken to !!eneimer, 'o told im tat e co(ld not enligten im, and tat e ad #etterask me imself. 2e matter ended tere as far as - kno'.

-n e#r(ary 19J?, - received a letter from ermi inting at te !ossi#ility of my going to Cicago todirect te !l(toni(m 'ork tere. - tink tere may ave #een diffic(lties #eca(se of my )enemy alien)stat(s, #(t ermi 'as in te same condition and te diffic(lties ad #een overcome. ;o'ever, te t'ocases 'ere some'at different: ermi 'as indis!ensa#le in te f(ll sense of te 'ord, and - 'as not. -tseems, o'ever, tat Sea#org ad is o'n am#itions. . ;. Com!ton, cief of all te Cicagoo!erations, ad sent /orman ;il#erry, is tr(sted agent, to Berkeley to recr(it me. ;e arrived at % .4.on 4arc ??, 19J?, and to is s(r!rise fo(nd Sea#org 'aiting for im at te station. ;il#erry talked'it Sea#org, Mennedy, &al, and oter cemists, #(t did not see me, and - did not even kno' e 'asin to'n. ;il#erry ended #y recr(iting Sea#org, after aving talked to Mennedy and &al, 'o told imtat tey 'o(ld not go to Cicago if Sea#org 'as to #e in carge tere. &it some s(r!rise, - learnedall tis from ;il#erry in 19G% on te t'entyfift anniversary of te Cicago cain reaction.

Sea#orgs de!art(re cleared te air at BerkeleyD 'it Mennedy te 'ork !roceeded 'ito(t tension. nte oter and 'e fo(nd o(rselves sifted to !ro#lems of less scientific interest, #eca(se many of tose

scientifically interesting and !ractically im!ortant for te making of te atomic #om# ad migrated toCicago, 'ere Sea#org formed a !o'erf(l organi*ation tat tended to mono!oli*e trans(ranicelements. -t lasted several years and !rod(ced valid scientific res(lts as 'ell as strong feelings amongis colleag(es.

t Berkeley 'e started systematic st(dies on s!ontaneo(s fission of eavy n(clei, 'ic 'as also of !ractical im!ortance. -t 'as eA!ected, #(t it 'as diffic(lt to see #eca(se it 'as very rare in te n(cleiten kno'n. 2o o#serve s(c rare events, 'e ad to take !reca(tions against s!(rio(s signals,considering even fairly (nlikely ca(ses. ;ence 'e

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needed a !artic(larly isolated and 0(iet la#oratory. &e first set (! so! in a semia#andoned sack #elonging to te (niversityD later in a #(ilding on a small alley in Berkeley. 2e 'ork did not giveim!ortant res(lts (ntil many monts later, 'en 'e ad moved to 7os lamos. Mennedy, and somecemists, 4orris Perlman, =erart riedl^nder, and 4ilton Man among tem, !artici!ated in tis'ork. &iegand strived to !erfect te electronics. n te occasion 'e radically im!roved te ioni*ationcam#ers #y learning o' to collect electrons and not !ositive ions. 2is trick s(#stantially increasedte resolving !o'er of te cam#ers.

t a#o(t tat time, +on 4anley, a !ysicist - kne' from my visits at Col(m#ia University, #ecame te



secretary of a gro(! st(dying te #(ilding of an atomic #om#. =regory Breit ad !revio(sly #een teead of te gro(!, #(t alto(g a firstclass teoretical !ysicist, 'it many accom!lisments to iscredit, e ad 'eaknesses, s(c as an o#session 'it sec(rity, tat serio(sly interfered 'it is !erformance, and e 'as re!laced 'it !!eneimer.

(ring te s(mmer of 19J?, a teoretical gro(! (nder !!eneimers direction met in Berkeley to tryto design a n(clear #om#. ;ans Bete, 6o#ert Ser#er, Ed'ard 2eller, E. +. Mono!inski, and t'o

yo(nger !ysicists, Stanley raenkel and Eldred /elson, 'orked on tis !roect. s tey !roceeded inteir calc(lations, tey needed more and more eA!erimental data tat ad not #een meas(red, and 'etried to el! tem o(t as m(c as !ossi#le. 2o !roceed 'it a concrete !lan for a #om#, it 'asnecessary to kno', among oter tings, te fission cross section of (rani(m, as 'ell as many otercross sections, as a f(nction of ne(tron energy. t te time s(c data 'ere fe' and (nrelia#le. -t 'asard to o#tain monoenergetic ne(trons of kno'n energy #et'een a fraction of an eK and a co(!le of4eK. Some s!ecific energies co(ld #e reaced (sing !otone(trons. Cam#erlain, &iegand, someoter st(dents, and - (sed !otone(trons generated #y gamma rays of /a?J on #erylli(m or de(teri(m.(ring tese eA!eriments 'e ad a nasty accident 'en Cam#erlain dro!!ed a strongly radioactivesol(tion of radiosodi(m. ;e 'as serio(sly irradiated and is #lood so'ed s(fficient alterations tore0(ire a vacation.

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-n te meantime, as as #een descri#ed in several #ooks,31F te government ad ass(med control ofte atomic #om# !roect tro(g a series of often canged s(!ervisory committees. 2e military took aleading role in Se!tem#er 19J?, 'it te creation of te 4anattan istrict, eaded #y Brigadier=eneral 7. 6. =roves. -n /ovem#er 19J? te need for a s!ecial la# devoted to #om# constr(ction #ecame irresisti#le. !!eneimer 'as designated as its director, and e and oters cose te 7oslamos site.

!!eneimer asked me to oin te ne' la#, to #e created sortly. ;e #ecame (n(s(ally friendly and

invited me and Elfriede to dinner at is ome ig in te Berkeley ;ills, a o(se #(ilt in an a(stereS!anis style, named Eagle /est. - fo(nd im reading Petrarcs sonnets in -talian, and e fed (scicken livers and 'ild rice, 'ic 'ere eAcellentD 'e ad never #efore savored 'ild rice. ConcerningPetrarcs sonnets, - am afraid - did not ide my s(s!icion tat e did not (nderstand tem. -remem#ered te story of a Co(nt C. in 2ivoli, 'o 'as illiterate, #(t al'ays 'ent to 4ass 'it is #reviary. )Sir, 'y do yo( read (!side do'n<) e 'as asked #y a la'yer. 2o 'ic te co(nt ans'ered:)&en one kno's o' to read, it does not make m(c difference 'ic 'ay one olds te #ook.) - #elieve tat d(ring te co(rse of te evening - told tis story to !!eneimer. S(#se0(ent to tisinvitation, - received a small lemon tree from !!eneimer as a gift. - !lanted it in o(r garden, and it'as al'ays called !!eneimers lemon, #(t (nfort(nately, after te 'ar, it died.

- ad no coice a#o(t going to 7os lamos. &ar 'ork 'as a d(ty to te United States tat - feltstrongly a#o(t, and once one 'as asked, it 'as im!ossi#le to ref(se.3?F -n fact, 'enever some#odyem!loyed in ind(stry or at a (niversity 'as asked to come to 7os lamos, a tele!one call 'it a fe'a!!ro!riate 'ords and ints s(fficed to enlist te candidate, and e arrived on te s!ot 'itin days. -nmy s!ecific case - felt do(#ly o#ligated to el! a co(ntry tat ad received me in !artic(larly tryingcirc(mstances. -n addition to tis, te o!e of #eing a#le to contri#(te to ;itlers (ndoing and to avictorio(s concl(sion of te 'ar a!!ealed to me greatly.

;aving agreed to go to 7os lamos, - ad to tink a#o(t !ersonnel



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and instr(ments. or te latter, 'e 'o(ld take 'it (s some e0(i!ment from Berkeley, #(t 'e 'o(ld #(ild on te s!ot most of 'at 'e needed, according to te !ro#lems enco(ntered. or te !ersonnel, -to(gt of creating a gro(! of !ysicists strictly connected to te cemists. Mennedy ad #een asked toead te cemistry division of te la#, and - 'as s(re tat 'e 'o(ld ave a smoot colla#oration. -t'as not kno'n 'o 'o(ld #e te leader of te !ysics division. 4anley 'as a !la(si#le candidate,

most agreea#le to me. or my o'n gro(! - ad my old st(dents and (nder !revailing conditions, it 'aseasy to enlist tem. Cam#erlain, &iegand, =eorge ar'ell, and =. . 7inen#erger formed te #asicn(cle(s. 2e cemists 4ilton Man and +on 4iskel oined (s at once. Mans 'ife #ecame tesecretary of o(r gro(!.

n /ovem#er 9, 19J?, o(r first da(gter 'as #orn. &e called er melia =ertr(de llegraD te firstt'o names onored er t'o grandmoters, te last 'as a 'is for er life. - do not remem#er o' 'ecomm(nicated te ne's to my !arents, #(t 'e managed someo', and my moter registered te namein a small genealogical tree se ad com!iled.

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C%a*ter Se'en+

Los Alamos, T%e Fate&3l Mesa -"#=$0"#=92,

Smell o& i>ones

as lte st5r*t, es ^ndert sic die LeitUnd ne(es 7e#en #l5t a(s den 6(inen.

2e old is cr(m#ling do'nH 2e times are cangingH nd from te r(insBlooms a fairer life.Sciller, &ilelm 2ell J.?1F

4y 'ork ad !(t me at te very center of te atomic #om# !roect. lto(g - 'as tecnically anenemy alien, so 'ere many oters 'o 'ere vital to te enter!rise, and - fo(nd myself in a relativelyim!ortant !osition in te eAtraordinary advent(re tat 'as te 7os lamos la#oratory.

- ave already mentioned te creation of te 4anattan istrict and te coice of its cief in te !erson

of 7eslie 6. =roves. Son of a Protestant clergyman and military ca!lain from /e' England, =rovesad st(died at &est Point and later ad disting(ised imself in te #(ilding of te Pentagon, reacingte !eacetime rank of colonel. &en e 'as assigned to te direction of te ne'ly created 4anattanistrict, e kne' noting of tings atomic. ;e to(gt at first tat tis assignment 'o(ld #e te end ofis career, #(t d(tif(lly acce!ted it.

2o increase is !restige, e o#tained te tem!orary rank of #rigadier and !l(nged into is ne' d(ties'it immense vigor, co(rage, decision, and even intelligence. &at im!ressed me most 'as te s!eed'it



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'ic te general oriented imself in a ne' 'orld totally foreign to im. ;e 'as a#le to deals(ccessf(lly 'it s(c diverse gro(!s as atomic scientists, (nions, ind(strial managers, te Britis4ission, and assorted !rima donnas. -t is s(r!rising to me o' ra!idly e managed to a!!reciate s(c !ersons as !!eneimer, ermi, or &igner, so different from im in c(lt(re, o(tlook, lang(age, andalmost everyting. nly S*ilard remained #eyond is gras!. =roves as 'ritten an a(to#iogra!y, from

'ic emerge not only is remarka#le !ositive 0(alities #(t also is occasional narro'mindedness,vanity, and !re(dices.?F

-n late 19J?, te eads of te 4anattan istrict decided to #(ild a la#oratory devoted to tedevelo!ment of an atomic #om#. =eneral =roves cose +. 6o#ert !!eneimer to #e its director, and!!eneimer, =roves, and a fe' oters looked for a site for te la#oratory in te ig !latea(s of /e'4eAico. Some mem#ers of te !arty ins!ected several localities on orse#ack, 'it negative res(lts.2e general later oined tem, and togeter tey !roceeded #y car to 7os lamos, 'ere tere 'as a !rivate scool for #oys. 2e original #(ildings 'ere t'o large 'ooden calets, called (ller 7odge andte Big ;o(se, 'ic contained te mess all, te #oys dormitory, and te classrooms. -n addition,tere 'ere several 'ooden or stone #(ildings o(sing te staff and vario(s activities, as 'ell as acorral. 2is andf(l of #(ildings did not intr(de on te landsca!eD rater, tey armonio(sly #lendedinto it.3F

2e mess all in (ller 7odge ad a !orc o!ening onto a la'n, and from it 'e ad a s!ectac(lar vie'on te Sangre de Cristo 4o(ntains, dominated #y te 2r(cas Peak, across te 6io =rande valley. nte o!!osite side, #eind te fe' oter #(ildings of te scool, tere 'ere eAtensive !ine 'oods andsmaller mo(ntains tat s(rro(nded te invisi#le Kalle =rande, 'ere - 'as to s!end many o(rsmeditating and fising. 2e vie' from (ller 7odge co(ld not fail to im!ress 'oever sa' it for tefirst time. - admired it 'it -. -. 6a#i, and e says tat my comment 'as tat after ten years of lookingat it, 'e 'o(ld ave ad eno(g of te vie'. - do not kno' 'eter te story is tr(e, #(t - re!ort it #eca(se it so's 'at 'e ten to(gt a#o(t te !ossi#le d(ration of o(r enter!rise and of te 'ar. 4yassessment of te 'ar

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sit(ation 'as greatly mistaken, and later - 'as s(r!rised in reading C(rcills memoirs to find tat #yten e 'as already s(re te 'ar 'as 'on.JF -t certainly did not look tat 'ay to (s sim!le mortals.

2e vie' from (ller 7odge #ecame even more dramatic in late s!ring and s(mmer at J P.4. , 'enevery day a #ig t(nderstorm started ill(minating te ori*on to'ard te Sangre de Cristo 4o(ntains,'it #rilliant ligtning crisscrossing te sky. 2e storm lasted a fe' o(rs and #y N oclock it 'as over,giving 'ay to a serene nigt. 2e !enomenon 'as !erfectly reg(lar: at noon #ig c(m(l(s clo(dsstarted forming in a sky tat early in te morning ad #een !erfectly clearD te clo(ds gre' and rose in

te sky, (ntil tey climaAed in te afternoons t(nderstorm. 2ese s(mmer storms cooled te days,'ic oter'ise 'o(ld ave #een ot, in s!ite of te altit(de. 2(s te climate 'as most !leasant, 'itmoderately cold 'inters tat !ermitted skiing. -n te s!ring tere 'as a !rof(sion of 'ild flo'ers, andin te fall golden as!en tickets marked te fire scars in te !ine forests, inviting iking on solitarytrails. 2ese often 'ent tro(g small canyons 'it 'alls of volcanic rock on 'ic -ndians of #ygonetimes ad left mysterio(s !ictogra!s.

&ater 'as scarce and occasionally sligtly m(ddy, and te ina#itants of 7os lamos made a #ig f(ssa#o(t it. 7ater 'e ad some !eriods of gen(ine 'ater sortage, #(t tey lasted only #riefly and 'eresignificant mostly as to!ics of conversation. Cecking statistics, - fo(nd tat te amo(nt of 'ater daily



availa#le !er !erson 'as large com!ared 'it tat in many E(ro!ean cities.

t 7os lamoss altit(de, %,%$$ feet a#ove sea level, te atmos!eric !ress(re is only ??.J inces ofmerc(ry, and 'ater #oils at 19N , s(#stantially lengtening cooking times. Several families #o(gt !ress(re cookers as a remedyD 'e eAercised !atience. 2y!ical com!laints among te residentsresem#led a conversation - overeard #et'een t'o 'omen at te military PY, 'ere 'e did most ofo(r so!!ing, 'o gr(m#led a#o(t te sacrifices im!osed #y 'arD for instance, tey co(ld not find te

eAact c(ts of meat tey 'anted.- first 'ent to 7os lamos in 4arc 19J3, and !rom!tly fo(nd myself attending a conference devotedto informing te scientific !ersonnel

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of te f(t(re la#oratory of te !ro#lems facing (s and to making concrete !lans for teir sol(tion.&ile 'aiting for te military to #(ild te green 'ooden a!artment o(ses tat 'ere to #ecome o(romes for te d(ration of te 'ar, tose attending te conference sle!t in te Big ;o(se in a sort ofall. 2ere my gold 7ongines Cronogra!, #o(gt at te time of te 7eag(e of /ations sanctions

against -taly, 'as stolen from me d(ring te nigt. 2e !eo!le slee!ing in te dormitory 'ere not of tekind likely to steal 'atces, and te 4ilitary Police maintained strict s(rveillance of te dormitory,'ere tere 'ere igly secret doc(ments, sced(les, and !lans related to te atomic #om#. /everteless, my 'atc 'as stolen, and te 4Ps, 'om - immediately informed, did not dis!lay m(c*eal in trying to track do'n te tief. 2e 'atc 'as never fo(nd, and te teft is still a mystery to me.

!!eneimer ad invited some tirty scientists to te gatering - 'as attending, incl(ding te f(t(releaders of te !roect and cons(ltants like ermi and 6a#i. -n te conferences five sessions, 6o#ertSer#er systematically descri#ed all tat 'as kno'n concerning a !ossi#le #om#. E. U. Condon tooknotes on is lect(res, 'ic s(#se0(ently formed a re!ort 8no' declassified called )2e 7os lamosPrimer.)F

Ser#ers lect(res 'ere follo'ed #y disc(ssion of 'at to do, as 'ell as #y animated de#ates on tela#oratorys organi*ation. 2e military 'o(ld ave liked to !(t every#ody in (niform, #(t tis (na!!yidea fo(nd a stren(o(s o!!osition eaded #y 6. . Bacer, 6a#i, and oters 'o ad eA!erience 'itte 4-2 radar la#oratories, and te military gave in.

ermi, 6ossi, -, and !era!s some oter -talians!eaking !ysicist, 'ere l(ncing one day d(ring tis !eriod at (ller 7odge, and as (s(al, 'e sli!!ed into antes lang(ageD as (s(al, talking lo(dly. =eneral=roves 'as near#y, and e let (s kno' tat e did not like (s s!eaking ;(ngarian 8O in !(#licD edelicately inted tat if 'e 'anted to s!eak foreign lang(ages, 'e ad #etter go into te 'oods.

Sec(rity originated disagreements #et'een civilians and te military from te very #eginning of te !roect. 4ilitary !ersonnel 'ere (sed

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to o#eying orders from a#ove 'ito(t 0(estion and 'ito(t kno'ing te reasons. or civilians, andes!ecially for scientists, tis 'as very a'k'ard. &e (nderstood te necessity of secrecy, #(t 'e alsokne' tat one co(ld not develo! ne' ideas and a ne' tecnology 'ile enforcing strictcom!artmentali*ation of te data. 2e im!ortance of information on s(#ects seemingly remote fromte main o#ect 'as o#vio(s to te scientists #(t incom!reensi#le to te military. (rtermore, telatter 'ere concerned 'it legal re0(irements, 'ile te scientists 'ere committed to te tecnical



s(ccess of te enter!rise. -n sort te military 'anted com!artmentali*ation of information, 'ic 'asdeemed catastro!ic #y te scientists.

=eneral =roves 'iggled o(t of tis im!asse 'it good sense. ;e ad soon reali*ed tat if e 'anted tomake te #om# as ra!idly as !ossi#le, 8and in so doing make is rank !ermanent, or even add a star toit, e needed firstclass !ersonnel, even if tey ad to #e aliens, even if e ad to rely on Ais citi*ens.&o co(ld re!lace a ermi< 2(s 'en =roves sa' tat te (s(al sec(rity r(les 'o(ld !recl(de

recr(iting tose e 'anted, e invented ne' r(les. Eac of (s 'as to g(arantee some colleag(e ekne' 'ell. )=(arantee) so(nded good, #(t o'< Some#ody !ro!osed an oat on te Bi#le, #(t =roveso#ected: )4ost of tem are (n#elievers.) n -ntelligence officer ten !ro!osed an oat on !ersonalonor, #(t =roves re!lied: )2ey do not ave any sense of onor.) )6ater,) e concl(ded, )let tems'ear on teir scientific re!(tation. -t seems to me it is te only ting tey care for.) - t(s s'ore on myscientific re!(tation g(aranteeing ermis and some#ody elses loyalty, 'ile Bete and Bacer, - #elieve, g(aranteed mine. 2e !rocess contin(ed in a circle.

ter !ro#lematic as!ects of sec(rity involved te andling of !ersonal mail. &e 'ere !ermitted togive o(r address to all o(r corres!ondents, even foreign ones, and te military a(torities !romised tattey 'o(ld not censor mail. 2e scientists remained (stifia#ly ske!tical, and sim!le tests demonstratedtat te military 'ere not kee!ing teir !romise. 2is gave rise to almost comical scenes and to serio(sresentment and !rotests, not so m(c #eca(se of te censorsi! as #eca(se its eAistence 'as falselydenied.

@ 1NJ @

2e 7os lamos site 'as s(rro(nded #y a tall 'ire fence, 'it gates, g(arded #y soldiers, at 'ic oneco(ld enter and eAit at 'ill #y signing a form and so'ing te !ro!er identification !a!ers. /everteless, te military never s(ceeded in correctly kee!ing track of te cars entering and eAiting tesite. 2is so'ed (! 'en some cars stolen from te site 'ere fo(nd o(tside of te fence, 'ito(t tere #eing any signat(re confirming tat tey ad eAited tro(g a gate. Pysicists oked a#o(t te

divergence teorem for a(tomo#iles.nce o(tside 7os lamoss fence, 'e ad to remain 'itin a certain large !erimeter, 'ic containedte city of Santa e and several to(rist attractions. EAiting from tis !erimeter re0(ired s!ecial !ermission. 2ese restrictions did not seem too inconvenient to Elfriede and me.

fter te !rogramming meeting, many of te attendees ret(rned to teir (s(al locations to !re!area!!arat(s and to recr(it te !ersonnel re0(ired for te ne' la#. 4ost ret(rned to 7os lamos after afe' 'eeks 'it teir el!ers, to remain tere (ntil te end of te 'ar or later. -n te meantime,constr(ction on te site !roceeded at f(ll s!eed, and #y mids(mmer of 19J3 te la# ad startedo!erating. cyclotron #ro(gt in from ;arvard University and accelerators from te (niversities of&isconsin, -llinois, and 4innesota 'ere te first s(#stantial #its of a!!arat(s availa#le. Pysicists,

cemists, and metall(rgists, as 'ell as a(Ailiary !ersonnel, arrived daily. s soon as !ossi#le, teyactivated te ne' la#oratories and so!s.

t te same time, 'ater s(!!ly and se'ers, side'alks, electricity, and everyting needed for te ne'city gre' #y lea!s and #o(nds. 2e residential o(sing consisted of several fo(rfamily a!artmento(ses, #(ilt of 'ood and !ainted green. Bacelors lived in dormitories. 2e os!ital tat 'as #(ilt 'asstaffed a#ove all 'it o#stetricians and !ediatricians, as re0(ired #y te nat(re of te !o!(lation andte remoteness of te site.

Soon te la# ad a collection of n(clear !ysicists tat 'as !ossi#ly more #rilliant and active tan anyoter in te 'orld. n average, te mem#ers of tis gro(! 'ere yo(ng, a#o(t tirtyt'o years oldD



some 'o 'ere a little older ad #arely !assed forty and 'ere already 0(ite famo(s. Several 'o'o(ld #ecome famo(s later 'ere a#o(t t'enty

@ 1N @

years old at te time. 2ere 'ere eigt f(t(re /o#el !ri*e 'inners 8lvare*, Bete, Bloc,

Cam#erlain, eynman, 4c4illan, 6a#i, Segrè. !!eneimer 'as tirtynine. -n tese strangecirc(mstances - again met many old friends, 'ose !resence el!ed to ins!ire confidence in te(ltimate s(ccess of te !roect.

(ring o(r first days at 7os lamos, ermi and - investigated te living conditions 'e co(ld eA!ect.or instance, 'e 'ased o(r !ants in a !(#lic la(nderette to see o' good it 'as. t te (ller 7odgecafeteria, ermi so(gt to demonstrate te digestive !o'ers of is -talian stomac #y eating a clearly #ad egg tat ad #een served at #reakfast. - tried to disco(rage im, #(t e insisted e co(ld digest it'ito(t tro(#le. 2e res(lt 'as tat e #ecame 0(ite sick.

- ret(rned to Berkeley to !re!are te transfer of my gro(! and collect te instr(ments needed for o(rassignments: meas(rements on s!ontaneo(s fission and on s(ndry n(clear data, incl(ding cross

sections. &e ad already started most of tese investigations at Berkeley.or te !ro!er 'orking of a #om#, it 'as essential tat te fissiona#le material #e assem#led ins(fficient mass, and tat ne(trons #e inected to initiate te cain reaction only after assem#ly. /e(trons introd(ced #efore te assem#ly 'as com!leted 'o(ld red(ce te efficiency of a #om# andmake its 'orking (n!redicta#le. 2is (ntimely eA!losion 'as called !redetonation. /o', es!ecially inte case of !l(toni(m, te ig al!a activity co(ld !rod(ce ligtelement im!(rities tat even in verysmall amo(nts co(ld !redetonate te mass 'it (n'anted ne(trons. EAtreme !(rification of te !l(toni(m 'as te remedy. -t 'as eA!ected tat 'it effort one migt s(cceed. Un'anted ne(tronsco(ld also come from s!ontaneo(s fission of te material. /oting co(ld #e done a#o(t tese ne(trons.;ence te im!ortance of assessing te !resence of s!ontaneo(s fission.

2is (rgent o# re0(ired es!ecially clean and relia#le tecni0(es. 2e sam!les 'e eA!ected 'erenecessarily small in 0(antity, #(t at least tose of !l(toni(m 'o(ld ave s(#stantial al!a activity. &eo#served te large ioni*ation !(lses !rod(ced #y fission, and it 'as necessary tat tere so(ld ne(er #e dist(r#ances sim(lating s(c an eventD no fl(ct(ation in al!a emissions co(ld #e !ermitted to fool(s. 2o

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avoid eAternal electrical dist(r#ances from te mains, 'e fo(nd it 'as necessary to !o'er everyting'it #atteries in a !lace far a'ay from oter la#oratories.

or tis reason, in +(ne 19J3, 'e got te (se of te a#andoned o(se of a forester in a canyon at 7oslamos called Paarito 87ittle Bird. Seldom ave - seen s(c a romantic and !ict(res0(e !lace. -t 'asreaced #y ee! tro(g trails flanked in season #y great #(ses of !(r!le or yello' asters, 'ere inf(ll s(mmer one co(ld meet nice rattlesnakes. 2e tracks follo'ed an o!en arroyo 'it stee!, lo''alls, 'ic ere and tere contained !reistoric -ndian d'ellings and gly!s 'it mysterio(ssym#ols. t te end of te canyon, 'e installed o(r a!!arat(s. -n one corner of o(r r(stic la#oratory,tere 'as also a folding #ed, in 'ic one co(ld slee! if need #e.

- ad comm(ted from Berkeley (ntil 'e co(ld o#tain an a!artment in 7os lamos. -n +(ne 19J3,o'ever, te 'ole family made te move to 7os lamos #y car. (r da(gter melia 'as ten seven



tem e gave te most im!ortant administrative o#s. ;e organi*ed te la# into divisions and tens(#divided eac division into gro(!s. - 'as a gro(! leader in te !ysics division. -nitially, te divisionead 'as 6. . Bacer, 'o 'as soon !romoted to associate director. S(#se0(ent division leaders in !ysics incl(ded +. ;. &illiams from te University of 4innesota, not a great !ysicist, #(t a !erson'it good common sense and (n(s(al a#ility in dealing 'it !ractical !ro#lems, as 'ell as 'it'orkers, mecanics, and (n0(alified !ersonnel.GF ;e 'as follo'ed #y 6. 6. &ilson.

2e division leaders ad to !(t (! 'it a certain s!irit of inde!endence and restlessness on te !art ofte gro(! leaders. 2e division eads, often (nior and scientifically inferior to teir administratives(#ordinates, needed !lenty of !atience and tact to avoid a'k'ard sit(ations. 2e #est tey co(ld do'as to kee! !eo!le a!!y and let tem 'ork. =ood'ill, talent, and means 'ere !lentif(l, and teseingredients easily !rod(ced res(lts.

s a 'ise general !olicy, te administration gave directives and set goals, timeta#les, and !riorities, #(tleft am!le freedom at te gro(! level in tecnical coices and did not interfere in te eAec(tion of te'ork. or !roc(rement, 'e ad !o'erf(l !riorities, allo'ing (s to re0(isition anyting 'e needed. .P. 4itcell, a !ysics !rofessor at Col(m#ia University, 'as in carge. ;e kne' 'ere to find anytingin te United States.

or te gro(! leaders te !ro#lems 'ere different. nce a goal 'as assigned, tey ad to find te 'ayof reacing it in a limited time, and 'ito(t errors tat migt ave disastro(s conse0(ences.(rtermore tere 'as al'ays a !ro#lem l(rking. 2e la#oratory ad one !(r!ose only: to #(ild a #om# as fast as !ossi#le. 2e !ysicists 'o 'orked on it often came across s(#ects tat 'erescientifically most interesting, alto(g irrelevant to te #om#D for te immediate !(r!ose, tese 'ere a'aste of time and effort. 2o kee! #alance in tis !redicament re0(ired a certain skill. n te one and,discarding all irrelevant science, even if good, risked disg(sting several of te #est yo(ng !eo!le andmigt render tem (seless. n te oter and, it 'as ina!!ro!riate to devote too m(c time to !(rescience. ll tis !rod(ced tensions, es!ecially

@ 1N9 @among te !ersonnel coming from te (niversities and (sed to academic freedom of coice in teir'ork. or tose coming from ind(stry, te sit(ation 'as not ne', and tey 'ere !re!ared for it.

4y gro(! com!rised a#o(t fifteen !eo!le. - 'as te only esta#lised scientist. 2e oter mem#ers 'ereeiter !romising grad(ate st(dents or fres P..s. -n addition to Cam#erlain, &iegand, and ar'ell,te !ysics st(dents from Berkeley 'ere =. . 7inen#erger and +on +(ngerman. +on 4iskel, 6. +.Prest'ood, and 4ilton Man 'ere cemistry grad(ate st(dents. Several of tem ad lived in te sameo(se at Berkeley. 2ere 'ere also +ack e#y and Bill /o#les, st(dents 'o ad #een recr(ited into termy and !(t in a )S!ecial Engineering etacment) 8SE. 2ey 'ere in (niform and s(#ect tomilitary disci!line, #(t 'orked in te la# like everyone else. ll tese yo(ng men received a la#oratory

ed(cation e0(al or s(!erior to 'at tey co(ld ave got in a firstclass (niversityD f(rtermore, !ractice'as s(!!lemented #y fre0(ents talks or sort co(rses on s(#ects connected 'it c(rrent !ro#lems.

!!eneimer also assigned 4artin e(tsc of te 4assac(setts -nstit(te of 2ecnology and te Pole+ose! 6ot#lat to my gro(!. e(tsc 'as an eAcellent !ysicist and ad left eA!eriments on ang(larcorrelations in gamma decay at 4-2 tat made im deservedly famo(s. 6ot#lat ad come to 7oslamos 'it te Britis 4ission, after aving fled Poland at te /a*i invasion and ad #een se!aratedfrom is 'ife, of 'om e ad not ad any f(rter ne's 8se ad, in fact, #een m(rdered #y te /a*is.Understanda#ly, e 'as too (!set to do stren(o(s 'ork and meet deadlines. - assigned im, along 'ite(tsc, to st(dy gamma rays associated 'it fission, an interesting line of en0(iry, #(t not of



immediate vital significance.%F

7os lamos 'as a closed society #earing some resem#lance to a military garrison, #(t 'it a !o!(lation not (sed to tat ty!e of life. 4oreover, te !ress(re of 'ork 'as immense and enanced #yte (navoida#le deadlines and eavy res!onsi#ilities. /o 'onder te ina#itants #ecame to(cy andrestless. ften tey resented !etty tings to 'ic tey 'o(ld never ave !aid attention (nder normalcirc(mstances. 6ank, o(sing assignments, te !art of to'n in 'ic one

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lived, social invitations, administrative assignments, everyting #ecame im!ortant, occasionally in acildis 'ay. 2e fact tat one 'illynilly al'ays sa' te same !eo!le added to te diffic(lties.

2e 'ives, dis!laced from teir (s(al s(rro(ndings, added to te !ro#lems. &ito(t te a#sor#ingtecnical 'ork of te (s#ands, and (navoida#ly in te dark a#o(t 'at 'as going on in tela#oratories, tey often #ecame de!ressed, 0(arrelsome, and gossi!y. 2e !ro#lem #ecame so serio(stat !!eneimer cons(lted a !syciatrist on o' to co!e 'it it. 2e doctor advised im to find 'orkto kee! te 'omen #(sy and to !ay tem so tat tey 'o(ld ave a tangi#le !roof of teir (sef(lness.

ollo'ing tis advice, many #ecame eAcellent secretaries, teacers, medical tecnicians, clerks,li#rarians, and so on. or a time, Elfriede 'orked as a secretary in my gro(!D later se com!iled ac(rrent isoto!e cart, or Segrè Cart, as it 'as called, 'it my el!. -t 'as a mon(mental 'ork, andafter te 'ar, it 'as declassified and !(#lised. 4ore tan fifty to(sand co!ies 'ere sold 'ito(t o(rgetting any royalties.NF

&it many cildren of scool age, elementary scools 'ere vital, and soon te !roect ired several ofte #est0(alified moters to staff tem, as 'ell as a fe' !rofessional teacers. 2ey formed aneAcellent fac(lty. ter !ysicists 'ives 'ent to 'ork soldering electronics a!!arat(s, sometimesca(sing !ro#lems for te (sers, 'o started com!laining a#o(t fa(lty contacts.

2e magnificent s(rro(ndings of 7os lamos afforded easy and effective relaAation. ften 'e reaced

te end of te 'eek com!letely eAa(sted and rene'ed o(r strengt #y going fising on S(nday.=asoline rationing limited o(r mo#ility, #(t #y com#ining te gas co(!ons of several families, 'eco(ld afford to go to te Kalle =rande, te +eme* 6iver, te 6io rioles, and several oter good tro(tfising streams. or me one of te great !leas(res 'as to 'ander in te cool of te morning along temeanders of te slo' river tat crossed te Kalle =rande, looking for grasso!!ers iding (nder ea!sof co' d(ng. &it tis #ait - fised fat tro(t tat made delicio(s meals. -t 'as a !rime 'ay ofrec(!erating from te 'eeks assles.

ne Sat(rday evening - met Sir +ames Cad'ick, te discoverer of

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te ne(tron, at a dinner. &e a!!ened to talk a#o(t fising, and e told me tat te neAt day e !lannedto go fising on te +eme*. Since - kne' te river, - asked im 'at #ait e !lanned to (se. ;eans'ered rater do(rly, )- (se only dry flies.) - inted tat eA!erience s(ggested tat on te +eme* fistook only grasso!!ers. /eAt day late in te afternoon - 'as 'alking along te +eme* 'it my limit'en - sa' Sir +ames casting, !erced on a rock. oolisly, - asked im o' e 'as doing. )/otingdoing,) e ans'ered (nsmilingly, #(t e ad not de!arted from is !rinci!les. - tried to teac ermi tofis, and it seemed to me e liked it. ;o'ever, e once ret(rned from Cicago 'it a lake fising rodand reel. - told im tat it 'as not s(ita#le for mo(ntain streams, #(t to no avail. ermi develo!ed ateory on o' tro(t so(ld #ite and on o' to catc tem. 2e teory 'as dis!roved #y eA!eriment,



#(t tis did not im!ress im in te least. Ultimately e a#andoned fising, #(t not is teory.

-n addition to tro(t, 'e enco(ntered #ea(tif(l !orc(!ines, flocks of 'ild t(rkeys, and #irds of all colors,'ic 'ere sometimes tr(ly s!ectac(lar. - once even sa' 'at looked like a sort of small leo!ard,alto(g - co(ld not identify it. 4armots, #adgers, and deer vent(red even among te o(ses.

2e flora too 'ere s!lendid, 'it col(m#ines of all colors in te s!ring and m(srooms in te fall.fter a 'ile - got to kno' te s!ots 'ere animals and !lants 'ere to #e fo(nd, so tat - co(ld, foreAam!le, go m(sroom (nting #y car, sto!!ing 'ere - kne' - 'o(ld find tem. - !icked a fe'm(sroom s!ecies tat 'ere easily identifia#le and a#(ndant, and Elfriede 'o(ld make tem intodeligtf(l dises. nce 'e invited 4ici 2eller, Ed'ard 2ellers 'ife, to dinner and served er adelicio(s dis of rice 'it m(srooms. ;igly !leased #y teir flavor, se asked 'ere - ad #o(gttem. &en - told er - ad !icked tem, er face canged color, and a#o(t fifteen min(tes later sesaid se felt sick in er stomac. S(c 'as te !o'er of s(ggestion and fear. /eedless to say, no#odyelse ad te sligtest tro(#le.

n te rare occasions 'en te !ress(re of te 'ork allo'ed it, 'e took some longer o(tings in teSangre de Cristo mo(ntains and to

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teir lakes. 2ere marmots com!letely ate te cork andle of my fising rodD as an offset - ca(gts!ectac(lar tro(t, (sing as #ait nigt mots tat lodged in cracks #et'een #ig stones. 2ro(t took temonly if tey co(ld not see te ooks leader. &it tat !reca(tion, s(ccess 'as ass(red, oter'ise it 'asa 'aste of time. ;aving discovered tis trick, - callenged some of my friends and im!ressed tem'it my fising skill.

nce, immediately after te end of te 'ar, 'en Elfriede 'as eA!ecting o(r second da(gter, 'e 'entcam!ing near a 'arm s!ring in a remote mo(ntain s!ot. /eAt morning 'e eA!lored te s(rro(ndingsand fo(nd a #ea(tif(l ole of crystal clear 'arm 'ater. &e (ndressed and 'ere enoying te 'ater,

'en some -ndians 'o ad invisi#ly follo'ed (s !olitely eA!lained, in S!anis, tat te s!ring 'as aoly !lace to tem and invited (s to decam!. n te same o(ting 'e met a ne'ly 'ed yo(ng /avaoco(!le on orse#ack in teir traditional attire. &it te grooms !ermission 'e took !ict(resD te #rideo#ected #eca(se se #elieved tat te !ict(re 'o(ld take a'ay er so(l.

(t(mn 'as a season of glorio(s yello'. 2e as!ens and te #eeces inters!ersed among te darkgreen of te conifers dro!!ed teir leaves, and teir !leasant odor !ervaded te (s(ally #rigt, clear airalong te trails. ne evening - 'as #alancing on a dead tree !rotr(ding from a small lake, fising andadmiring te colors of te fall s(nset. 2e still, cool air anno(nced te ending of te season and dee!silence !revailed. S(ddenly a lo(d re!ort startled me so tat - almost fell into te lake: a #eaver ad itte 'ater 'it is flat tail to frigten me off.

Britis 4ission, eaded #y Sir +ames Cad'ick, oined (s in 19JJ. -t incl(ded among oters my oldfriends 6(dolf Peierls, tto risc, and P. B. 4oon. 7ater tey 'ere oined #y &illiam Penney 8tef(t(re 7ord Penney and Sir =eoffrey 2aylor, a firstclass matematical !ysicist endo'ed 'it aneAce!tional com#ination of int(ition and analytical !o'er, tr(ly a giant 'en it came to !ro#lems ofmecanics, ydrodynamics, and classical !ysics in general. 2aylor ad #een a close friend of6(terfords, a meteorologist, and an aviator in &orld &ar -. ;e came from a great scientific family,'ic co(nted among its mem#ers =eorge Boole 81N1QGJ, te inventor of Boolean

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alge#ra, and te s(rveyor Sir =eorge Everest 81%9$Q1NGG, after 'om te mo(ntain is named. 4anyyears later e came to Berkeley as a ;itccock 7ect(rer.9F

2e Britis mission (nfort(nately also incl(ded Mla(s (cs, a =erman ref(gee 'o #ecame a 6(ssians!y. - ad eAcanged only a fe' 'ords of introd(ction 'it im, #(t e !assed (nder o(r 'indo' everyday at noon, !res(ma#ly going to l(nc. Elfriede noted is sad as!ect and, not kno'ing 'o e 'as,nicknamed im )il Poverino) 8te !oor so(l. Se 'as dismayed later in earing tat te )Poverino)

'as a s!y.&e often sa' te Brodes, te 2ellers, and 6ossi, #eca(se 'e 'ere neig#ors and ad kno'n eac otera long time. 2e !ianists risc, &eissko!f, Bloc, and 2eller adorned te same neig#orood. ll !layed 'ell, #(t 'it differing !roficiency, styles, and !rograms. 2eir m(sic, according to Elfriede,'o ad a fine ear, revealed teir !ersonalities like an o!en #ook.

Common devotion to fising and nat(ral inclination tied me to te S'iss ;ans Sta(#D is 'ife Erikaand Elfriede 'ere friends, and te Sta(# cildren 'ere of te same age as o(rs. Sta(# came fromStanford, 'ere e ad 'orked 'it Bloc, and after te 'ar ret(rned to L(ric. -n te evening 'eoccasionally !layed !oker at te Sta(#s o(se. &e !layed in a very amate(ris (nso!isticated 'ay.Sometimes +on von /e(mann oined (s. - do not remem#er tat e 'on !artic(larly often, #(t e

kne' te odds of every card com#ination and of every move.-n te fall of 19J3, /iels Bor and is son age arrived at 7os lamos. Sortly #efore, in Co!enagen,e ad #een 'arned tat e 'as a#o(t to #e arrested. ;e fled immediately, and after several advent(rese ad landed at 7os lamos. or sec(rity reasons e 'as given te false name /icolas Baker and te7a# irection ordered (s to !retend tat 'e did not recogni*e im, !ro#a#ly a (seless !reca(tion, #eca(se many kne' is tr(e identity. Bor lived in a small o(se neAt to (ller 7odge 'it is son, #(ttraveled a lot.

Soon after Bors arrival, !!eneimer convened a meeting at is o'n ome, inviting E(ro!ean !ysicists already !ersonally ac0(ainted 'it Bor, as 'ell as a sec(rity officer, called in as a !reca(tion against mis(nderstandings 'it te military a(torities. age Bor 'as also

@ 19J @

!resent and el!ed materially #eca(se e s!oke more distinctly tan is fater and on re0(est re!eated'at is fater ad said. Bor gave a detailed acco(nt of conditions in enmark and of is !ersonaladvent(res. ;e ten eA!anded on 'at e kne' a#o(t te rest of E(ro!e. -t 'as te first time 'e adad direct information from an eye'itness. 2e atmos!ere 'as som#erD almost all tose !resent adrelatives or friends in E(ro!e, and te ne's 'as t(s !ersonally relevant.

fter re!orting on events in enmark, Bor concl(ded #y saying tat (nfort(nately one ad to eA!ecttings to #e m(c 'orse for oter co(ntries, #eca(se te /a*is considered te anes ryans, of /ordicrace, and treated tem as s(cD a!!arently tey even o!ed tat #y #efriending tem tey migt t(rntem into allies. t tis !oint, /ora 6ossi, Br(nos 'ife, asked: )B(t ten 'y dont te anesreci!rocate and colla#orate 'it te 6eic<) - still remem#er te eA!ression on Br(nos face, 'ileBor !atiently tried to eA!lain te reasons 'y te anes did not 'ant to colla#orate 'it te /a*is. /ora, a grandda(gter of Cesare 7om#rosos, as se often em!asi*ed, 'as given to very selfass(red(tterances on -taly. nce ermi started contradicting er 'it sensi#le, lo'#ro' arg(ments, as 'as isa#it. /ora did not kno' o' to re!ly and tried to s(t im (! #y saying someting along te lines of:)ont tink te /o#el Pri*e allo's yo( to (nderstand tese tings #etter tan - do.)

(ring Bors visits - ad long and fre0(ent !ysics conversations 'it im, mainly on n(clear fission.



;e (sed to come to my la#oratory asking a#o(t eA!erimental data and ten started reasoning alo(d,smoking a !i!e tat needed constant ligting. ;e m(m#led so #adly tat age, 'o accom!anied im,often re!eated some !rase to make it intelligi#le. - made every effort to (nderstand te 'ords Bor'as (tteringD teir content 'as o#vio(sly im!ortant and instr(ctive, #(t - ad great diffic(lty. - askedBor as m(c as !ossi#le to re!eat, #(t tere 'ere limits to o' often - co(ld do so and - feltem#arrassed at a#(sing is co(rtesy. - often remained (ncertain and fr(strated.

t l(nc time - listened to t'o rater silly radio soa! o!eras: a sentimental story a#o(t a n(rse, 'ic'as #roadcast eAactly at te time 'en )il Poverino) !assed (nder o(r 'indo's, and te #i#lical

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story of +e*e#el. or some reason, - dont recall 'y, - mentioned tese !rograms one day to Bor, 'oad (st ret(rned from a tri! to &asington. ;e ans'ered 'it great glee: )2en yo( 'ill #e a#le togive me te latest ne'sD d(ring my tri! - lost track of +e*e#el.)

- 'as at 7os lamos on +(ly ?, 19J3, 'en 4(ssolini 'as to!!led, and, nat(rally, - follo'ed events in-taly in te ne's!a!ers. 2e com#ined ine!tit(de of te -talians and of te llies, es!ecially of te

mericans, allo'ed te =erman occ(!ation of -taly and te tragedies tat follo'ed. ;o'ever, in 7oslamos, 'e did not kno' m(c of 'at 'as a!!ening in te =ermanocc(!ied *ones. nly in +(ne of19JJ, after te llies entered 6ome, did - receive te ne's - coveted most. 2e first tro(!s entering6ome ad orders to look for maldi and oter !ysicists to collect information on te =erman atomic !roect, and t(s, tro(g military intelligence, - o#tained some ne's from ome. !!eneimer calledme into is office and told me tat my fater 'as safe, #(t tat my moter ad #een ca!t(red #y te /a*is in one of teir man(nts of cto#er 19J3. - 'as st(nned, and !!eneimer re!eated te ne's tome several times, #eca(se e do(#ted 'eter - ad (nderstood. 4y fater did not s(rvive longD edied of nat(ral ca(ses in is ome in 6ome, at Corso Kittorio ??9, on cto#er J, 19JJ, at eigtyfive.

-t took a long time #efore comm(nications 'it -taly co(ld #e reesta#lised and - co(ld o#tainfirstand ne's. nly in 19J%, on my first !ost'ar visit to -taly did - learn te details, al#eit even ten

only !artially. 2e tragic and !ainf(l !age of my !arents end is #(ried in te de!ts of my so(l andm(st rest tere.

2e main and most im!ortant 'ork of my gro(!, te st(dy of s!ontaneo(s fission, ad #een started inBerkeley #y Mennedy, Sea#org, &al, and myself as early as 19J1, #(t te min(sc(le amo(nts ofmaterial availa#le and te still (nso!isticated tecni0(es (sed at tat time allo'ed (s to o#tain onlylarge (!!er limits to s!ontaneo(s fission rates, data of little !ractical interest. -n te #eginning, as 'ereceived increasingly enriced sam!les, 'e st(died U?3 'it everincreasing acc(racy at 7os lamosDte al!a activity 'as moderate and te efficiency

@ 19G @for te detection of s!ontaneo(s fission co(ld easily #e cali#rated (sing a kno'n ne(tron so(rce.mong oter tings, 'e fo(nd tat te )s!ontaneo(s) fission at 7os lamos 'as greater tan atBerkeley, 'ic 'as not s(r!rising #eca(se cosmicray ne(trons, more a#(ndant at a ig altit(de tanat Berkeley, 'ere o#vio(sly res!onsi#le for te effect. &e ad only to screen te cam#ers s(ita#ly tomake it disa!!ear.

2e diffic(lt, #(t im!ortant, !art of te 'ork came 'it te st(dy of P(?39 . nce 'e ad milligramsam!les, 'e soon recogni*ed tat P(?39 ad a rate of s!ontaneo(s fission ig eno(g to interfere



serio(sly 'it te !ro!osed metods of #om# assem#ly tro(g !redetonation. 2ese findings, startingin !ril 19J3 'it a fe' co(nts, #ecame firmer 'it #etter sam!les and longer o#servation times. &ealso cecked te n(m#er of ne(trons emitted !er s!ontaneo(s fission. By +(ly 19JJ, o(r res(lts #ro(gtte 7os lamos la# to a real crisis, alto(g te relevant information 'as #ased on a fe' co(nts only.S!ontaneo(s fission in !l(toni(m 'as so fre0(ent tat te !l(toni(m alternative for making a #om#'as eAcl(ded (nless one co(ld invent and develo! a totally different assem#ly metod. 2e

!redicament 'as grave indeedD it meant tat a#o(t alf of te total 'ork of te !roect migt #e (selessfor 'ar !(r!oses. 2e statistical acc(racy of o(r meas(rements 'as lo', #(t - 'as s(re tat 'at 'ead seen 'as real and not a freak o'ing to malf(nctioning of te a!!arat(s. Even if 'e ad seen onlytree or fo(r events, - 'as !re!ared to g(arantee tat tey 'ere fissions and noting else.

Soon 'e noticed anoter im!ortant effect. Pl(toni(m coming from stronger ne(tron irradiations gavemore s!ontaneo(s fissions. -n te #eginning 'e 'ere !er!leAed #y tis finding, #(t soon 'e reali*edtat s!ontaneo(s fission came from te isoto!e P(?J$ and not from P(?39 . 2e first 'as !rod(ced inte !ile #y ne(tron irradiation of te second. -t 'as t(s !ro!ortional to te s0(are of te total ne(tronfl(A (sed. ;o'ever, ig fl(Aes 'ere necessary for !rod(cing eno(g !l(toni(m. -t 'as !ossi#le toenvisage se!arating te main !rod(ct, P(?39 , from P(?J$ , #(t te !ros!ect of se!arating !l(toni(misoto!es 'as not all(ring. &e confirmed tat P(?J$ 'as te isoto!e 'it ig s!ontaneo(s

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fission #y irradiating P(?39 'it ne(trons and o#serving tat te formation of P(?J$ increased tes!ontaneo(s fission of te sam!le.1$F

s a conse0(ence of tis discovery, te 7os lamos !roect took a sar! t(rn. ort(nately, teim!losion metod invented and s(ggested #y Set /eddermeyer, a former !(!il of C. . ndersons,avoided te !redetonation !ro#lems connected 'it te slo'ness of te g(n assem#ly of te #om#. /eddermeyers invention ad at first #een discarded, #(t no' it 'as given te igest !riority and 'astransformed into a tecnically via#le !ro!osition. Kon /e(mann, =eoffrey 2aylor, and ermicontri#(ted materially to its teoretical analysis. or te !ractical !art, a ne' division (nder =eorge B.Mistiako'sky 'as carged 'it !re!aring eA!losive lenses and assem#ling tem. 6ossi and Sta(# adan im!ortant !art in so'ing tat te im!losion 'as really com!ressing te material and 'orkingaccording to !lan. 2ro(g Sta(# - 'as a#le to follo' te develo!ment of tis tecni0(e.

&en 'e irradiated P(?39 'it ne(trons to form P(?J$ , 'e also formed a si*ea#le amo(nt of element9, americi(m. - tried to !ers(ade Mennedy and &al to investigate it at 7os lamos, #(t tey 'eredee!ly a#sor#ed in (rgent 'ar 'ork and did not 'ant to s(#tract !art of teir effort from te main !(r!ose of te la#. Sea#org, to(g not allo'ed into 7os lamos, o#tained te !l(toni(m tat ad #eenreirradiated for (s and eAtracted americi(m from it. - 'o(ld ave liked to ave #een less !atriotic andconscientio(s tan Mennedy and to ave !(rs(ed tat investigation at 7os lamos.

-n addition to reg(lar gro(! assignments, - once in a 'ile received re0(ests from !!eneimer to lookinto s!ecial !ro#lems tat arose s(ddenly and (neA!ectedly. or instance, once e told me to goimmediately to ak 6idge in 2ennessee, to te #ig isoto!e se!aration !lants. ne of tese consisted ofmany (ge mass s!ectrogra!s, called cal(trons, #(ilt (nder te g(idance of 7a'rence and teBerkeley !ysicists. 2e enriced (rani(m 'as cemically !(rified and converted to s(ita#lecom!o(nds for f(rter 'ork. /o#ody, o'ever, ad cecked 'eter te !rocess migt some'ereacc(m(late eno(g material to



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start a n(clear reaction. -t 'as no oke. &it #ad l(ck tere migt ave #een a real catastro!e. Beca(seof com!artmentali*ation, te local cemists ad not considered tat danger. 6icard odson and -r(sed to ak 6idge to st(dy te sit(ation and (rge instant ado!tion of a!!ro!riate !reca(tions ifnecessary. t te same time 'e 'ere (nder orders not to reveal secret information. Certainly, o'ever,it 'as #etter to stretc secrecy r(les tan to inc(r a n(clear disaster. &e caref(lly ins!ected te !lant

and fo(nd several s!ots tat 'ere o(trigt dangero(s, 'ic 'e d(ly corrected.11F &en - ret(rned to7os lamos - ad a strange s(r!rise. - fo(nd in my s(itcase, 'ic - ad ealo(sly g(arded #eca(se itcontained secret doc(ments, an alarm clock in a nicely 'ra!!ed #oA. ;o' it got into my s(itcase is stilla mystery.

noter time !!eneimer asked 6ossi and me to fig(re o(t te effects of a n(clear eA!losion of acertain !o'er and to 'rite im a re!ort on te s(#ect. &e 'ere even told to consider te !sycologicaleffects on an enemy. &e locked o(rselves in a room and started fig(ring tem!erat(res, !ress(res,radiation density, and so on. &e ad #een at 'ork for some time 'en 'e eard ermis voice, comingfrom a near#y corridor. - !ro!osed cons(lting im. -t t(rned o(t tat e ad already done a good !art ofte calc(lations and estimates on is o'n. &e agreed 'ell as far as 'e ad gone. &it is el! 'e 'erea#le to finis te o# in a sort timeD it 'as later !retty 'ell s(#stantiated #y fact. s to te !sycological !art of te assignment, o'ever, alto(g 'e disc(ssed it at some lengt, 'e co(ld notreac any solid concl(sion and 'e ref(sed to make !redictions.

Strange tings a!!ened in 'artime 7os lamos. ne day !!eneimer called me and asked me tomake a rater senseless eA!eriment, 'ic consisted in eA!loding a carge near a (rani(m salt. 2eo(tcome 'as easily !redicta#le, #(t !!eneimer noneteless insisted tat - !erform te eA!eriment,and - com!lied, o#taining te eA!ected res(lt. - ten asked !!eneimer 'y e ad 'asted my time intis 'ay. !!eneimer ans'ered tat e ad kno'n te o(tcome in advance too, #(t tat President6oosevelt ad !ersonally asked tat te eA!eriment #e done and tat e ad felt #o(nd to com!ly.Possi#ly te !resident received a n(m#er of claims to inventions tro(g irreg(lar

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cannels and occasionally ski!!ed reg(lar a!!raisals. 2o 6oosevelts credit, o'ever, e ad ad agood eno(g nose to recogni*e te im!ortance of atomic energy 'en it 'as !ro!osed to imirreg(larly.

-n te s!ring of 19J te atomic #om# !roect 'as reacing te ome stretc. 2e 'ay of making te #om# ad #een fo(nd and te design ad #een fiAed. issiona#le material 'as arriving in a!!recia#leamo(nts. 2e !(r!ose of te la# 'as canging from researc and tecnical invention to !rod(ction andtesting. &e t(s !re!ared eA!eriments tat 'o(ld el! reveal te !erformance of te #om#.

n(clear eA!losion is a very com!leA event, 'it mecanical, termal, o!tical, cemical, and n(clear

as!ects. 2ere 'as o#vio(sly !lenty to meas(reD te energy released 'as te overall central !arameter,'ic co(ld #e inferred in many different, inde!endent 'ays. Eac meas(rement ad its !artic(lardiffic(lties, #(t one 'as common to all of tem: te eA!eriment co(ld not #e re!eated. -f sometingfailed, tere 'as no second cance. 2is 'as a most (n(s(al condition for !ysicists and 'orriedevery#ody. second !ro#lem 'as tat 'e did not kno' even te order of magnit(de of several of te0(antities to #e meas(redD 'e t(s re0(ired instr(ments or families of instr(ments a#le to cover a vastrange.

-n order to ave at least an idea of te 'orking conditions 'e co(ld eA!ect, 'e decided to set off a !ileof ordinary eA!losive at te site of te f(t(re test and to make on it te same ty!e of meas(rements 'e



'o(ld later make on te atomic #om#. lto(g normal eA!losives co(ld sim(late only !art of teeffectsH#eca(se, for instance, tey do not emit ne(trons or gamma raysHtis 'as neverteless #ettertan noting.

&e 'ere !re!aring tis !reliminary eA!eriment 'en, on !ril 1?, 19J te la#oratorys lo(ds!eakersanno(nced te s(dden deat of President 6oosevelt. Every#ody r(sed into te corridors of te #(ildingsD some seemed st(nned, oters 'ere aggard or co(ld not s!eak, and several ad tears in teir

eyes.2e !reliminary eA!eriment 'as !erformed on 4ay %, 19J. &ile 'e 'ere in te desert setting (! teeA!eriment, 'e received ne's of ;itlers s(icide, of te s(rrender of =ermany and of te end of te

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'ar in E(ro!e. ne of my reactions 'as: )&e ave #een too late.) or me ;itler 'as te !ersonification of evil and te !rimary (stification for te atomic #om# 'ork. - am s(re tat tisfeeling 'as sared #y many of my colleag(es, es!ecially te E(ro!eans. /o' tat te #om# co(ld not #e (sed against te /a*is, do(#ts arose. 2ose do(#ts, even if tey do not a!!ear in official re!orts,

'ere disc(ssed in many !rivate conversations.2e efforts to com!lete te #om#, o'ever, contin(ed (na#ated. 2e n(clear eA!losives, !l(toni(m andU?3 , 'ere #y no' arriving reg(larly from ;anford, &asington, and ak 6idge, 2ennessee,res!ectively. 2e 7os lamos !ersonnel converted tem into metal, sa!ed tem, and !re!ared teordinary eA!losive lenses for te im!losion, te initiators, te f(ses, and everyting else re0(ired forte #om#, finally delivering a com!lete, 'orking 'ea!on to te military. 2e military 'ere in carge oftarget selection, trans!ortation, and delivery. f co(rse, !olitical and strategic decisions on te (se ofte #om# co(ld, (nder te U.S. Constit(tion, #e made only #y te !resident of te United States ascommander in cief.

-n +(ly many of te scientists !artici!ating in te test moved to te desert. (r gro(! 'as carged 'it

meas(ring !rom!t gamma rays emitted at te instant of te eA!losion 8as disting(ised from tose d(eto fission !rod(cts and te total gamma radiation at several distances, as 'ell as s(ndry ne(tronintensities. &e !lanned and #(ilt te instr(ments in te la# and ten tested and cali#rated tem in tedesert, readying tem for te real test.

2e /e' 4eAico desert 'ere 'e 'ere 'orking is not com!letely aridD on te contrary tere isa!!recia#le !reci!itation, #(t te rain is concentrated in very fe' violent storms, 'ic in a fe'min(tes can transform a dry arroyo into a t(r#(lent stream carrying (ge amo(nts of 'ater. -t is notrare for some#ody to lose is car or even dro'n in crossing an arroyo tat only a fe' min(tes earlier'as dry. - co(ld not #elieve it, (ntil once Elfriede and - ad a narro' esca!e in s(c a stream in o(r car.2e desert vegetation, often c(rio(sly ada!ted to te dry climate, is !rimarily sr(#s and cact(s, 'itsome grass and no trees. nimals esca!e te s(n #y going (ndergro(nd. 4any are noct(rnal.

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6attlesnakes and oter re!tiles, s(c as gila monsters, as 'ell as s!iders, scor!ions, and oter (n(s(alcreat(res are !lentif(l.

2e final test received te code name )2rinity,) and its a!!ointed director 'as Mennet Bain#ridge,'o seemed to me rater disorgani*ed. ;e often canged sced(les, and e !osted is allim!ortantdaily orders in vario(s !laces, so tat 'e did not kno' 'ere to find tem. ;e ended #y !lacing tem



in te lavatories, saying tat every#ody 'o(ld see tem tere. ort(nately, !!eneimer m(st avesensed te !ro#lem and gave Bain#ridge as second in command +. ;. &illiams, 'o 'as eAcellentlys(ited to andle a sit(ation re0(iring te laying of many miles of ca#les, #(ilding roads and seltersand oter civil engineering o#s. Bain#ridge and &illiams ad to coordinate a very com!licatedo!eration s(#ect to a tigt sced(le, involving la#orers, military !ersonnel, contractors, tr(ck drivers,and !rima donna !ysicists.

&e !ysicists lived in se!arate #arracks, identical to tose of te military !ersonnel, and 'e alsoenoyed teir eAcellent food. &e started 'orking intensely at day#reak. 2e early morning o(rs 'erete #estD as te s(n rose iger in te sky, te eat #ecame o!!ressive, te ligt #linding, and 'e'ilted. -n te evening, 'e fell eAa(sted on o(r cots, only to start again te neAt s(nrise. -n tis 'ay 'es!ent several days meas(ring te scattering #y air and gro(nd of gamma radiations emitted #y a strongradioactive so(rce sim(lating a #om#. +(st as - ad done many years earlier at te fficers 2rainingScool in S!oleto, - took 'it me a renc novel #y =ideD it trans!orted me into a 'orld totallydifferent from te one s(rro(nding me.

n +(ly 1J, 19J, everyting 'as finally ready for te test. -n te evening a tremendo(s t(nderstorm #roke. - ad gone to slee!, #(t soon - 'as a'aked #y a deafening noise, 'ose origin - co(ld not gras!.- got (! and fo(nd tat Sam llison too ad arisen. &e took a !o'erf(l flasligt and 'ent o(t to see'at 'as a!!ening. &e fo(nd tat a ole near o(r #arracks ad filled 'it 'ater, and in it to(sandsof frogs 'ere cele#rating a love feast. &e ret(rned to slee! still (ncertain 'eter te 'eater &o(ldallo' te test, #(t sortly te anno(ncement tat te test 'o(ld !roceed at day#reak 'oke (s (!.

!!eneimer, =eneral =roves, and many oter a(torities 'ent to

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!revio(sly assigned o#servation !laces. - 'as 'it ermi, in te o!en, at a#o(t ten miles from teeA!losion. s a !reca(tion 'e 'ere lying do'n on te gro(nd, and 'e ad very dark glasses to !rotecto(r eyes. S(ddenly te 'ole landsca!e 'as in(ndated #y an eAtremely #rigt ligt, incom!ara#ly

#rigter tan tat of te normal eA!losive 'e ad tested in 4ay, and tat looked, and 'as, m(c #rigter tan s(nligt at noon. -n fact, in a very small fraction of a second, tat ligt, at o(r distancefrom te eA!losion, co(ld give a 'orse s(n#(rn tan eA!os(re for a 'ole day on a s(nny seasore. tte moment of te eA!losion, for an instant, te to(gt !assed my mind tat may#e te atmos!ere'as catcing fire, ca(sing te end of te 'orld, alto(g - kne' tat tat !ossi#ility ad #een caref(llyconsidered and r(led o(t.1?F

-mmediately after te eA!losion, ermi stood (! and dro!!ed some small !ieces of !a!er, 'icinstead of falling straigt do'n 'ere sifted 'en te sock 'ave reaced (s. ermi meas(red te siftand !(lled o(t a seet of !a!er on 'ic e ad a calc(lated ta#le of te sift as a f(nction of teenergy released. ;e t(s o#tained an instant estimate, al#eit cr(de, of te eA!losions energy.

or te rest of te day, 'e collected te data registered #y te different instr(ments and !re!ared toret(rn to o(r #ase at 7os lamos. 2is 'ork lasted (ntil late in te evening, 'en, dog tired, 'ede!arted for o(r mesa. fter several o(rs of driving, 'e arrived at 7os lamoss g(arded gate, 'ere asentinel sto!!ed (s. fter some disc(ssion te !ost commander decided to let te civilians in, alto(git 'as !ast midnigt, te official time at 'ic te gate 'as closed, #(t e 'as adamant in ref(singentry to te military #eca(se tey ad no reg(lar !ass. - ad 'it me a !air of yo(ng mem#ers of teSE 8S!ecial Engineering etacment and fo(nd it !re!ostero(s, after s(c a day, to !revent temfrom slee!ing in teir reg(lar #arracks. - started arg(ing and at te same time initiated a s(rre!titio(smarc to'ard an emergency tele!one - ad s!otted and tat - kne' connected directly to te to!



military commander at 7os lamos. &en - came 'itin reac, - deftly gra##ed it and instantly ad tecommanding colonel on te line. ;e so(nded slee!y, and - fear - ad a'akened im. -n a fe' 'ords -eA!lained te !redicament. ;e ten s(mmoned te commander of

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te g(ard to te !one and ordered im to let my men in. 2e commander of te g(ard, alto(go#vio(sly annoyed, ad to o#ey. /eAt day, o'ever, te colonels ad(tant tele!oned me 'anting tokno' te names of te SE men 'o ad #een 'it me te !revio(s nigt. - s(s!ected some#ody'anted revenge on s(c small fry for te dist(r#ance of te colonels sl(m#ers. - acted s(r!rised andinsisted - co(ld not remem#er te incident. 2at closed te e!isode.

2e #om# test ad s(cceeded #eyond eA!ectation and te energy released 'as near te maAim(mantici!ated. lto(g 'at ad a!!ened at lamogordo 'as a secret, several !ersons ad seen teligt of te eA!losion from a great distance, and among te !eo!le 'o ad stayed at 7os lamos at tetime of te test, tere 'as te feeling tat someting eAtraordinary ad a!!ened. t te test site it 'asstrictly for#idden to take !ict(res of te event, #(t some#ody ad sm(ggled in cameras, and a yo(ngSE man in my gro(! took color !ict(res of te eA!losion. n is ret(rn to 7os lamos, e develo!edtem and tey 'ere ready #efore te official ones. ;e so'ed tem to me, and to avoid tro(#le 'e'ent to !!eneimer and gave im a co!y. - #elieve it 'as immediately dis!atced to President2r(man. 2e yo(ng !otogra!er, o'ever, 'as not !ermitted to !rofit in any 'ay.

#o(t te time of te 2rinity test, tere 'as intensive !olitical activity in several la#oratories connected'it te #om#. 2e Cicago scientists es!ecially, goaded #y S*ilard, tried to infl(ence te (se of te #om#. ermi 'as involved in iglevel committees on te s(#ect, and - gave im my o'n o!inions, #(t - 'as not a'are of 'at 'as going on #eind te scenes in &asington and else'ere. ermi s!oketo me admiringly of =eneral =eorge 4arsall, of is s!eed in com!reending diffic(lt and ne' !ro#lems and of is s(reness of (dgment in very com!licated sit(ations. Considering te times andcirc(mstances, - can ardly see o' President 2r(man co(ld ave acted very differently from te 'ay

e did.&e cele#rated +a!ans s(rrender #y taking te day off. Elfriede, ermi, and - drove to te Kalle =rande,'ere 'e took some !ict(res tat ave #een re!rod(ced many times. -n te same !eriod, ermi told metat e eA!ected to #ecome a cele#rity and asked me to take !ict(res

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of im for te !(#lic. 2(s 'e took a 'ole roll of tirtysiA 7eica !ict(res in my office at 7os lamos.

- ave #een asked inn(mera#le times my to(gts immediately after te #om#s eA!losion and in tefollo'ing days. - did not ot tem do'n at te time and recollections 'o(ld !ro#a#ly #e distorted. -

certainly reoiced in te s(ccess tat cro'ned years of eavy 'ork, and - 'as relieved #y te ending ofte 'ar.

- cannot remem#er my longrange to(gtsD d(ring te 'ar - 'as mostly concerned 'it its !rogress,and 'it !ersonal !lans for te immediate f(t(re. 4ore general ideas evolved 'it time and so(ldal'ays #e dated in re!orting tem. 2ere 'as o!timism for te f(t(re in te sense tat one tr(stedmankinds rationality more tan 'as 'arranted. 2e confidence in and eA!ectations of te 7eag(e of /ations after te first 'orld 'ar and te United /ations after te second so' o' o!timistic mankindcan #e and also o' ready to #ank on (to!ian dreams.



4any scientists, like every#ody else, n(rt(red ill(sions a#o(t te farsigtedness, intelligence, andreasona#leness of teir fello' men. Some !oliticians too 'ere sim!leminded, oters cynically #elievedtey co(ld !reserve tecnical advantages tat 'ere #y nat(re transient. 2e tecnical !eo!le kne' tatte #om# co(ld not remain an merican mono!oly, and -, like many oters, gave te a(torities tat0(estioned me a correct estimate of te time re0(ired #efore oter co(ntries 'o(ld ave te same'ea!on.

&it over forty years of indsigt, it seems to me tat most develo!ments 'ere (n!redicta#le and oftende!ended on accidents. Politicians do not come o(t 'ell as far as intelligence and farsigtedness areconcerned, and tey often acted on erroneo(s information. Be tis as it may te Bom# !ossi#ly ad te #eneficial effect of !reventing maor 'ars #et'een te s(!er!o'ers, #y ins!iring m(t(al terror.

(ring o(r stay at 7os lamos, 'e #ecame U.S. citi*ens. &e ad a!!lied for citi*ensi! in 1939, andafter te stat(tory !eriod an eAaminer came to 0(estion (s. ;e co(ld not enter 7os lamos, so teeAamination took !lace in a g(ard !ost at te gate. 2e eAaminer started

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'it Elfriede, 4c4illan acting as 'itness. 2e eAaminer asked er: )o yo( #elieve in !olygamy<)Elfriede: )/o)D te eAaminer ten t(rned to 4c4illan, 'o confirmed: )2o te #est of my kno'ledge,no.) fter several 0(estions to Elfriede on merican government and te Constit(tion, te eAaminert(rned to me. By ten it 'as a#o(t noon, and te eAaminer 'anted to 0(it. ;e said: )- am s(re tat a !erson like yo(, #efore coming to te United States, as st(died its Constit(tion and as informedimself in detail a#o(t it.) - assented to tis flattering s(rmise, and tis ended my eAamination. fe''eeks later 'e 'ere s'orn in at te s(!erior co(rt in l#(0(er0(e, and te (dge !roclaimed (sciti*ens of te United States. fter te ceremony 'e ret(rned ome #y a s!lendid deto(r along te+eme*. fe' days later, o'ever, a very a!ologetic and em#arrassed (dge tele!oned me to say tate ad to set aside te citi*ensi! decree #eca(se e ad overlooked te fact tat te la' !roi#itednat(rali*ation decrees for a certain !eriod #efore a !residential election. ;e #egged me to take te

n(llification in my stride and not to raise a f(ss, !romising to remake me a citi*en immediately after teelection. /at(rally, - agreed, and t(s 'e #ecame citi*ens t'ice. ;o'ever, d(ring te !eriod 'en - #elieved - 'as a citi*en tanks to te invalid decree, - ad signed some !atent affidavits s'earing tat -'as a citi*en. - asked te !atent la'yer 'at to do. ;e told me to sit tigt, and tat if and 'en a !ro#lem arose, )&e sall ask te S(!reme Co(rt.)

&it te end of te 'ar, 'e started tinking and talking serio(sly a#o(t o(r immediate f(t(res andlongrange !lans. - decided to contin(e my (niversity career rater tan stay !ermanently at 7oslamos, as - co(ld easily ave done. ;o'ever, - did not ave a (niversity #ase, a fact tat !rod(cedm(c (ncertainty, as te neAt ca!ter 'ill so'.

ermi 'as leaning to'ard moving !ermanently to Cicago, #(t, as (s(al, 'at interested im most

'ere scientific !roects. ;e sensed tat te f(t(re 'as 'it !article !ysics and 'it a sardonic smile0(oted te (ces motto )Eiter rene' yo(rself or !eris.) - ad less

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f(t(ristic to(gts. ne eA!ected great !rogress in ne(tron !ysics from te (se of n(clear reactorsDa#ove all - 'o(ld ave liked to ret(rn to 'ork on trans(ranic elements.

-n te neAt ca!ter - sall tell te reasons and te events tat made me ret(rn to Berkeley.



an official letter dated !ril %, 19J, offered me reintegration into te -talian (niversity system andret(rn to my old Palermo cair. - ans'ered declining te offer #eca(se #y ten - 'as esta#lised in teUnited States. - co(ced my ans'er in friendly, a!!reciative terms, as te s!irit of te offer deserved.m#assador 2arciani also asked me for a descri!tion of te -talian contri#(tion to te 4anattanProect, and - sent it to im 'itin te limits of te ten!revailing secrecy r(les.

- s!oke to ermi a#o(t my sit(ation, #(t initially e did not !ro!ose me for a o# at Cicago, !ro#a#ly

#eca(se e loated even te a!!earance of ne!otism and of favoring -talians. n te oter and, ementioned me to Professor +oyce C. Stearns, 'o 'as moving from Cicago to &asington Universityat St. 7o(is, 4isso(ri. . ;. Com!ton 'as a#o(t to #ecome cancellor of &asington University.Com!ton 'anted to revitali*e te sciences, and es!ecially n(clear science. ;e ad ired my old friend+. &. Mennedy, . C. &al, and several oter cemists as !art of tat !rogram, and e ad similar !lansfor !ysics.

-n te meantime, Berkeley ad so'n some signs of life in te sa!e of a letter from 6aymond Birgeoffering me te !osition of assistant !rofessor, 'ito(t ten(re and 'it a salary s(ita#le for a #eginner.- fo(nd te offer ins(lting. Birge 'as o(t of to(c 'it te realities of te sit(ation. 4y only !ossi#leans'er 'as not to ans'er and sit tigt 'aiting for events to mat(re.

2is ca(sed me considera#le annoyance. -n is );istory of te Pysics e!artment,) Birge remarkstat !art of te corres!ondence is missing from my !ersonal file.1F 2is missing corres!ondence didnot so' too m(c ac(men on te side of te (niversity. -n any case, it 'as clear to me tat (nless -ad some good offer from else'ere, Berkeley 'o(ld not move on its o'n initiative. 2is ty!e ofde!lora#le #eavior is ca(sed, - #elieve, #y te lack of selfconfidence on te !art of administrators anddecision makers 'o do not tr(st teir o'n

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(dgment. (rtermore, tey 'ant to #e smart and save money for teir instit(tion #y !aying tefac(lty as little as !ossi#le, mostly 'it co(nter!rod(ctive res(lts.

rom Birges );istory,) it seems tat te ead of te Pysics e!artment at &asington University, .7. ;(ges, ad asked for information a#o(t me already in 4arc 19J. inally, in (g(st 19J,&asington University made a firm offer of an associate !rofessorsi! at ],$$$ a year. 2is offer #ecame my #aseline. &asington University 'as a good (niversity, and even if it did not aveBerkeleys accelerators, it 'as a !lace 'ere one co(ld 'ork. 6. 7. 2ornton, a close friend of mine,ad #een tere #efore te 'ar and ad #(ilt an eAcellent J?inc cyclotronD no' e ad #een offered anim!ortant !osition, some'at !arallel to tat of Mennedy. ll told, te !lace 'as attractive. ;o'ever, -to(gt tat in te long r(n Berkeley 'o(ld ave s(!erior facilities, and - 'rote to Birge to find o(t'eter e 'o(ld im!rove on te St. 7o(is offer.

By coincidence, my letter 'as mailed on (g(st N, immediately after te eA!losion of te ;irosima

#om#. Birge m(st ten ave reali*ed tat s!eed 'as needed. ;o'ever, e started #y 'riting a longdelaying ans'er dated (g(st 11. 2ere 'ere also some (ndergro(nd mane(vers - did not s(s!ect.!!eneimer 'rote an am#ig(o(s letter on my #ealf.?F 7a'rence too seemed to #e 'avering #et'een me and oters 'o later did not ave !artic(larly disting(ised careers.

;o'ever, after te ice 'as #roken #y te St. 7o(is offer, Cicago came along. - 'ent tere onSe!tem#er ?$, 19J, to ins!ect te sit(ation on te s!ot. - ad not yet ans'ered Birges last delayingletter, #eca(se after te first offer of an assistant !rofessorsi! and Berkeleys !resent o#vio(seagerness, - #elieved it 'as #etter for me to let tem ste' in teir o'n (ice. -t 'as also a 'ay to lettem reali*e te ina!!ro!riateness of teir first offer. Ultimately, Cicago considera#ly #ettered te St.



7o(is offer, and tis !(t me in a 0(andary.

- 'as strongly attracted to Cicago #y ermis !resenceD on te oter and tere 'ere dra'#acks.ort(nately, te !ro#lem 'as to coose te #est of t'o good offers. Ultimately, in order to come to adecision, - 'ent to Berkeley to s!eak 'it te !rinci!als and to a!!raise te

@ ?1$ @sit(ation on te s!ot. - #elieve, o'ever, tat - al'ays ad a s(#conscio(s !reference for Berkeley.

- arrived in te Bay rea #y train on te nigt of cto#er 1, and - remem#er - sle!t on a #enc at testation #eca(se tere 'as no 'ay of finding a room or trans!ortation to Berkeley. /eAt day - started myeA!loration #y s!eaking at lengt 'it Birge, as ead of te !ysics de!artment, 'it 7a'rence asdirector of te 6adiation 7a#oratory, and 'it . . +enkins as a tr(sted friend, conversant 'it telocal sit(ation. Clearly a favora#le 'ind 'as #lo'ing, and 'itin te day - s(cceeded in raisingBerkeleys offer to a f(ll !rofessorsi! at ]G,$$ a year, 'ic - #elieve 'as te to! of te reg(larscale.

t tis !oint - decided to acce!t te offer, 'ic f(lfilled my desires and eA!ectations. ;o'ever, -

some'at delayed my final ans'er, #eca(se - 'anted to re!ay Berkeleys !revio(s dillydallying.7a'rence 'isely admonised some colleag(es not to #e ealo(s tat - ad overtaken tem. n tecontrary, tey so(ld reoice, #eca(se my !romotion co(ld only #enefit tem too in te f(t(re. -remem#ered te lesson.

&en - sent my final acce!tance, 7a'rence 'rote to me on /ovem#er ?, 19J, )/eedless to say - ammigty glad tat yo( made te rigt decision, alto(g - cant (nderstand 'y it took yo( so long.) -never told im 'y, #eca(se it 'o(ld not ave el!ed.

4y a!!ointment started effective +(ly l, 19J, #(t - #egan serving in te s!ring of 19JG. t te time,ideas on relations #et'een te 6ad 7a# and te (niversity, on financial s(!!ort for researc, and on te !ossi#le infl(ence of te military 'ere still conf(sed. - co(nted ere on te !olitical savvy of

7a'rence, 'o certainly 'o(ld kno' o' to t(rn te ta#les to is advantage. - ad a solid (niversity #asis and financial and instr(ment s(!!ort from te 6ad 7a#. 2is informal arrangement left me free inmy researc and at te same time ens(red s(!!ort for my 'ork. 7a'rence genero(sly and intelligently'as 'illing to let me enoy te advantages of te 6ad 7a# 'ito(t is aving direct a(tority over meand 'ito(t !aying meD - o!ed to re!ay im #y doing good 'ork.

s a researc !rogram - 'anted first to finis several st(dies started at 7os lamos, s(c as my 'orkon s!ontaneo(s fission, and some oter

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as!ects of trans(ranics. /eAt - 'anted to #ring to a concl(sion te (nfinised 'ork, initiated in 19J$,on canging te alflife of a radioactive s(#stance. - also 'anted to investigate te cemistry of teelement astatine, 'ic 'e ad discovered #efore te 'ar. - started tis 'ork immediately 'it te el!of Clyde &iegand and of a cemist, r. 6. 7eininger, ired 'it 6ad 7a# money, and some grad(atest(dents - fo(nd at Berkeley.

- 'o(ld ave liked to contin(e my 'ork in n(clear !ysics 'it a strong cemical com!onent. - !lanned my o!erations on a small scaleD fo(r or five !eo!le. 2is 'as a serio(s errorD - did not(nderstand 'at com!etition a'aited me. - also !referred to 'ork in (niversity #(ildings on cam!(s, #eca(se alto(g an eAcellent 4aecenas, 7a'rence 'as too demanding a #oss. - fo(nd it eAtremely



diffic(lt, o'ever, even 'it Birges el!, to get te (niversity to fiA (! even a single room as anade0(ate la#. B(ildings and =ro(nds 'orked slo'ly and inefficiently.

Soon - reali*ed tat Sea#org ad a systematic and tigtly knit net for controlling researc ontrans(ranics. 2ro(g is connections, esta#lised at te 4etall(rgical 7a#oratory at Cicago andelse'ere, e 'as !ractically te only !erson a#le to sec(re irradiated materials. (rtermore, e 'ason te declassification committees and tro(g tem co(ld infl(ence 'at 'as !(#lised. &it is

great organi*ing a#ility, e 'as a#o(t to create 'itin te 6ad 7a# a very s(#stantial cemistryla#oratory, and 7a'rence ad given im strong s(!!ort and a free and. - did not ave te im!ressiontat 7a'rence liked im es!eciallyD to tell te tr(t e seemed at least e0(ally friendly to me, #(t,'isely, e did not 'ant intrala#oratory s0(a##les, and in te end 'at co(nted 'it im 'as s(ccessand si*e of te enter!rise.

or a 'ile - to(gt tat #y sticking to my o'n s!ecialties, s!ontaneo(s fission and radiocemicaleffects, - 'o(ld #e a#le to 'ork in !eace. B(t - soon reali*ed tat - 'as eaded for tro(#le. Sea#org'anted te mono!oly on trans(ranics, and e o!erated on s(c a large scale tat - co(ld not com!ete'it im 'it a small gro(!. 4oreover, is a!!etites migt easily eAtend f(rter. colla#oration on ane0(al footing 'as also !recl(ded. -n fact, (nless one 'as 'illing to acce!t a !osition s(#ordinate toSea#org, 'ic - 'as nat(rally (n'illing to do,

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all n(clear 'ork even remotely connected 'it cemistry 'as #ecoming !ro#lematicD n(clear !ysicsact(ally disa!!eared from te !ysics de!artment, #eing transferred to te cemistry de!artment as)n(clear cemistry.)

t te same time, several !ysicists 'o ad al'ays ad a d(al interest in n(clear !ysics and inaccelerators em!asi*ed teir interest in te develo!ment of te latter, 'ic ad al'ays #een7a'rences !rimary interest. 2e a#(ndant ne' financial s(!!ort o!ened (! (neA!ected !ossi#ilities,and an im!ortant discovery #y Kladimir Keksler and Ed'in 4c4illan, !ase sta#ility, made it !ossi#le

to reac relativistic energies #y a so!isticated tecni0(e and not eAcl(sively #y #r(te force. lso 'atad #een learned from radar 'ork d(ring te 'ar fo(nd im!ortant a!!lications to accelerators.Berkeley !ysicists t(s t(rned to ne', igerenergy accelerators, 'ic co(ld give access to !article !ysics.

;iger energies migt not only reveal (neA!ected novelties, #(t co(ld also !rovide te key toim!ortant old !ro#lems still a'aiting sol(tions, s(c as te detailed st(dy of te n(cleonn(cleoninteraction. ne migt o!e to d(!licate 6(terfords feat on Co(lom# forces and discover te tr(en(clear forces tro(g te st(dy of n(cleonn(cleon collisions. ct(ally, te !ro#lem is m(c morecom!licated tan 'e #elieved. rom te !oint of vie' of modern )cromodynamics,) 'ic gives teforces #et'een 0(arks, )n(clear forces) are a secondary !enomenon. 7ooked from te !oint of vie'

of cromodynamics, tey are similar to molec(lar Kan der &aals forces looked at from te !oint ofvie' of electrodynamics. B(t in te immediate !ost'ar era, tere 'ere teoreticians 'o #elieved tato#servation of socalled )! 'aves,) of ang(lar moment(m 1, in n(cleonn(cleon scattering 'o(ld solveall !ro#lems, or at least 'o(ld #e a gigantic ste! for'ard.3F

-n tis long !eriod, - 'as torn #et'een !ysics, 'ic - (nderstood, and te com!elling necessity ofattending to #(siness !ro#lems for 'ic - ad no inclination, and tat !ert(r#ed me emotionally. 4y #roters, eac for a different reason, made tis even more !ainf(l. ngelo 'rote almost daily letterstat !osed !ro#lems and (!set me.



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4arco #eaved in a 'ay tat evoked mistr(st and fostered serio(s 'orry.

Since te end of te 'ar, - ad felt a need to visit -taly to reesta#lis contact 'it te s(rvivors andlook after #(siness interests.JF 2is ad #een im!ossi#le in 19JG. /ot only 'as te U.S. governmentrel(ctant to give a !ass!ort to someone 'o ad 'orked on te atomic #om#, #(t trans!ortationdiffic(lties and te devastation of -taly added f(rter o#stacles.

-n te s(mmer of 19J%, - decided to go alone, leaving my family in Berkeley. 2is 'as te first ofinn(mera#le transatlantic fligts. - left Berkeley on +(ne ?$ #y train and sto!!ed at Cicago to visitermi, at Scenectady to do some cons(lting for =eneral Electric, and in /e' ork City to visit my #roter ngelo. t Cicago 'e talked !ysics, and - invited ermi to come to Berkeley, 'ere 'eneeded a to! teoretician, #(t as often occ(rs in tese dealings, te !lan came to na(gt. t =eneralElectric, - fo(nd Bete, Plac*ek, and Pontecorvo. -n /e' ork - sa' ngelo for te first time in a long'ile.

;e 'as in a mistr(stf(l mood, and - tried to !ers(ade im tat - ad no intention of taking advantage ofim, #(t tat - 'anted only to come to a clear and fair settlement of o(r ineritance. )ngelo seems in avery nervo(s and sentimental stateD e s!ent te morning vomiting as a res(lt of te emotions of recent

days,) - 'rote to Elfriede. ll(ding to te invention of te atomic #om#, ngelo a!tly said tat te stateof te 'orld 'as as if, in ancient times, cats ad #y cance discovered fire.

n +(ne ?, - #oarded a C3 for -taly. Catolic !relate in clerical gar# 'as one of te !assengers.;e 'as o#vio(sly an im!ortant caracter, #eca(se Cardinal S!ellman and several #iso!s came to !ayteir res!ects to im. n te !lane tere 'as also a !riestling from 2eAas 'o s!oke only S!anis and'as terri#ly scared of flying. ;e t(rned to me 'it a dem(re air and said: )4a`ana, eo volente,estaremos en 4adrid.) 2en, seeing all te #iso!s, e started co(nting: )Un o#is!o, dos o#is!os, treso#is!osO) ;e too did not kno' 'o te dignitary 'as. &e sto!!ed in /e'fo(ndland, 'ere moreobispos

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so'ed (!. 7ater, in te middle of te nigt, 'e landed in 7is#on. - 'as looking at te sky 'en te !relate t(rned to me and said, - #elieve in Englis, )re yo( looking at te stars< &en - 'as a yo(ngman - traveled from 4ecca to +er(salem #y m(le, at nigt, and - learned ten to recogni*e teconstellations.) nd e started !ointing tem o(t to me. nce te ice 'as #roken, te conversation tooka s(r!rising t(rn. irst e en0(ired a#o(t myselfD - told im tat - 'as a !ysicist 'o ad 'orked at7os lamos, and e started s!eaking of tings atomic, of te 6(ssians !rogress and o' far advancedtey 'ere. ;e o#vio(sly kne' 'at e 'as talking a#o(t, and 'en - asked im in astonisment o'e ad learned all tis, is ans'er 'as: )2ere are !eo!le 'illing to risk teir lives for te love of=od.) &it tis, te conversation ended. &o co(ld ;is Eminence te cardinal #e< - 'ondered

8g(essing is rank from a caref(l eAamination of is attire, incl(ding te color of is socks. 2eans'er came on o(r arrival at 6ome, 'en a solicito(s c(stoms officer so(ted: )4ake 'ay,i!lomatic Pass!ort, E(gene Cardinal 2isserand,) and #ore im off. So - learned tat my fello'traveler 'as no less tan te dean of te College of Cardinals. ;is conversation left me very !er!leAedas to 'at to do. - 'ent to see te U.S. am#assador, #(t co(ld not s!eak to imD instead, - met te firstco(nsellor, 4r. 7le'ellyn 2om!son. &e ad a long conversation, and e im!ressed me as aneAtremely intelligent and 'ellinformed gentleman. 8;e later #ecame am#assador to 4osco'. 2einformation s(!!lied #y te cardinal 'as re!orted to &asington.

-n 6ome, - 'ent to stay at te old family a!artment at Corso Kittorio ??9, 'ere - fo(nd da 6iminiD it



'as !ysically (ncanged from te ome - ad left nine years earlier, #(t it ad lost its so(l, my !arents. rom te s(rvivors tales, - learned tat 'en te /a*is and ascists ad started teir man(ntin te fall of 19J3, many of my +e'is relatives and friends ad gone into iding. Unfort(nately, mymoter 'as not 0(ick eno(g, and se 'as ca(gt #y te /a*is. 4y fater esca!ed, as did da, 'olived in te same a!artment. 4y fater and some oters 'ere idden in a !a!al !alace (nder te !rotection of a igranking !relate, 4onsignore Carinci. 4y #roter 4arco 'ent into te ills

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#eind 2ivoli. =erman !oliceman !romised my fater to arrange te esca!e of my moter after erca!t(re and acce!ted a fee for doing so. &en e did not s(cceed, e ret(rned te ceck, 'it a !sycology not too different from tat of te !rofessional assassin S!araf(cile in Kerdis igoletto .

- scattered a small sam!le of tecneti(m on my faters tom# at te Kerano Cemetery in 6ome, mytri#(te of love and res!ect as a son and a !ysicist. 2e radioactivity 'as min(sc(le, #(t its alflife of(ndreds of to(sands of years 'ill last longer tan any oter mon(ment - co(ld offer.

s a relief from te #(siness !ro#lems 'it 'ic - 'as immediately confronted, - 'ent 'enever

!ossi#le to s'im in te s(lf(r #ats of c0(e l#(le, not far from 2ivoli. 2e s(lf(r of te 'aters eased #ot my !ysical and my !sycic skin.

2o make my story more (nderstanda#le - sall se!arate te #(siness !art from te rest, starting 'it as(mmary acco(nt of family affairs, irres!ective of cronological order. - o!e to make it !ossi#le tofollo' te events tat ended 'it te a#andonment of an enter!rise tat ad #ro(gt !ros!erity to tefamily and 'elldeserved credit to my faters name.

Before - 'ent to (niversity, - ad never attended to any #(siness. /everteless, - ad eard dailyconversations a#o(t it, mostly at meals, and - 'as not ignorant of 'at 'as a!!ening aro(nd me, ofte !a!er mill, of investments, of commercial, ind(strial, !ersonnel, and legal !ro#lems. - ad,o'ever, no res!onsi#ilities in te matterD my fater did everyting. &en - came of age, e a!!ointed

me to te #oard of directors of is com!any. - remem#er ater !re!aring te min(tes of one of its #oard meetings and giving me a #lank seet to sign. &en - said tat - 'o(ld like to kno' 'at e 'asgoing to 'rite a#ove my signat(re, e ans'ered, more or less, tat it 'as none of my #(siness. - signedas a mem#er of te Comintern 'o(ld ave done on Stalins command 8'it all d(e res!ect to myfater. ny'ay, e o'ned all te sares of te com!any and ad every legal and moral rigt to do ase !leased 'it res!ect to it. ;e ad created and financed te

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#(siness entirely #y is efforts and ad made it !ros!er. /o#ody co(ld com!lain.

fter te 'ar - 'as confronted #y a ne' sit(ation, 'it t'o #roters and !artners 'o disagreed, made !ro#lems, and mistr(sted eac oter. ngelo sometimes ad keen !erce!tions and occasionallyfarsigted int(itions, #(t 'as mentally igly cangea#le, alto(g te eAtent of is insta#ility revealeditself only grad(ally and is clearer to me no' tan at tat time. 4arco, to(g intelligent, ad s(cserio(s and manifest caracter fla's as to render im (ntr(st'orty. f co(rse, tis too emerged onlygrad(ally, and - (nderstand it #etter no' tan ten.

- kne' tat my faters intention ad #een to divide is estate into tree e0(al !arts, one for eac cild.2is intent ad #een confirmed to me #y my co(sins rtom and 6avenna, #ot la'yers, 'o advisited my fater d(ring te 'ar. -t ad also #een confirmed to me #ot orally and in 'riting #y o(r



intimate friend Silvestro Simili 81N93Q19GN, 'o 'as dee!ly involved in all o(r !ost'ar affairs. ;ecame from a disting(ised Sicilian family and 'as a #rilliant #(siness cons(ltant and a !rofessor of #anking at te University of Catania, 'ere my #roter ngelo ad ta(gt economic istory. -n d(eco(rse, te t'o #ecame close friends, and 'en ngelo left -taly, e gave to Simili a general !o'er ofattorney. (ring te diffic(lt and dangero(s !eriod of racial !ersec(tion, Simili !roved to #e (n(s(allyimaginative and reso(rcef(l and a tr(e and co(rageo(s friend, t(s gaining te tr(st and friendsi! of

my fater. Simili 'as most am(sing as a !erson, keenly interested in te (man comedy, gifted 'it avery ra!id and sre'd mind, and !ersonally ca!tivating. ;e ended #y aving an im!ortant role in teSegrè affairs.

2e immediate !ro#lem facing (s 'as to settle my faters estate according to is intention of dividingit into tree !arts of e0(al val(e, even if formed #y different assets. 4y fater ad eA!ressed tisintention to me #efore - 'ent to merica in a conversation tat, alto(g 'ito(t legal 'eigt, 'as aclear eA!ression of is 'ises at te time. 4y (nderstanding 'as tat ater 'anted to leave te millsto 4arco, 'o 'as 'orking tere, real estate oldings to ngelo, 'o, in my faters o!inion, needed asafe investment tat 'as easy to administer,

@ ?1% @and sec(rities to me, since - 'as more likely to emigrate and to #e in need of li0(idity.

2ere 'as a 'ill dated 4ay ??, 19J?, d(ring te eigt of te !ersec(tions, 'ic left everyting to4arco. &e all kne', o'ever, tat it did not reflect aters real 'ises. -t necessarily took intoacco(nt #ot te la' re0(iring tat sares in a cor!oration #e registered in te name of te o'ner andte fact tat ngelo and - 'ere in te United States, a co(ntry at 'ar 'it -taly, at te time. n 4ay %,19JJ, 'en it 'as clear tat li#eration from te ascists and /a*is 'as not far a'ay, my fater admade a ne' ologra!ic 'ill and entr(sted it to a friend 'o 'as a 'ellkno'n 6oman la'yer. -n it esim!ly stated tat e 'anted is estate divided according to 'at -talian la' !rescri#ed if e died'ito(t a 'ill. 2is called for a division into e0(al !arts among is cildren. - do not kno' eAactly

'en 4arco learned of tis ne' 'ill, #(t te la'yer 'o ad !ossession of it affirmed tat e adcomm(nicated it to im immediately after o(r faters deat on cto#er N, 19JJ.

n cto#er 1G, 19JJ, o'ever, 4arco de!osited as te legal 'ill of my fater te old one, dated 19J?.;e did not comm(nicate te eAistence of te 19JJ 'ill eiter to ngelo, to me, or to Simili, ngelosre!resentative. 2e la'yer 'o ad te 19JJ 'ill limited imself to notifying 4arco of it and did notde!osit it. 2is is most strange, #(t it is confirmed in 'riting #y a letter from ngelos la'yer.

s te racial la's in -taly 'ere a#rogated 'it te fall of ascism, 4arco recovered te sares of myfaters !a!er com!any, te SocietT cartiera ti#(rtina, or SC2, from te vario(s friends to 'om teyad #een assigned for safekee!ing and ad tem all assigned to imself. 2e friends to 'om tesares ad #een assigned all !roved 'orty of my faters tr(st, and indeed ad rendered a signal

service.Simili 'o(ld ave !referred to see te ret(rned sares assigned to te estate or to te #roters and 'as'orried tat assignment of tem to 4arco alone migt give im a !osition of strengt 'it res!ect tote oter #roters in any f(t(re negotiation over te division of te estate. -n tis delicate sit(ation,Simili 'orked diligently to arrange a division, in e0(al sares, taking into acco(nt te o!erationalneeds of

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te !a!er mill. Ultimately, on /ovem#er ?$, 19JJ, #efore Simili kne' of te eAistence of my faters19JJ 'ill, e and 4arco ad an eAcange of letters in 'ic Simili ackno'ledged tat it 'as myfaters desire tat te !a!er mill so(ld go to 4arco alone and 4arco ackno'ledged tat my fater'anted is estate divided into !arts of e0(al val(e. 2is co(ld #e acieved #y com!ensation 'it oterassets.

-n 19JG, a#o(t t'o years after my faters deat, 4arco revealed to Simili te eAistence of my faters

'ill of 19JJ, 'ic 'as ten de!osited, and 4arco transferred to is #roters a certain n(m#er ofsares of SC2, alto(g retaining a controlling maority. 2e negotiations #et'een 4arco and Simili toreassign at least !art of te sares to te oter eirs 'ere long and la#orio(s and took !lace 'ileSimili 'as ignorant of te 19JJ 'ill. -f e ad kno'n of it, e 'o(ld ave ad a !o'erf(l 'ea!on atis dis!osal, and tings 'o(ld ave #een m(c sim!ler.

Until te end of 19J, 'ile at 7os lamos, - ad no comm(nications 'it -taly, and even later - kne' !ractically noting of all tis (ntil - 'ent to -taly in 19J%. Simili ad 'ritten to me several letters, #(tgave little detail. - s(rmise e 'rote tem o!ing to facilitate a fair division according to my faters'ises, and trying to smoot tings over. 2e main !ro#lem 'as tat 4arco 'anted com!lete controlof te mill and tat ngelo did not tr(st im.

Ultimately, Simili fo(nd a com!romise form(la #y creating t'o classes of sares 'it different votingrigts. 4arco o#tained te o!erational control of SC2, #(t not te rigt to sell te #(siness or cange itsca!itali*ation. Profits 'o(ld #e divided into tree e0(al sares. 4arco, in addition, 'o(ld receive avery ig salary and a !ercentage of sales. - 'as ca(tioned #y a friend tat tis last condition 'aso#ectiona#le, and tat te #on(s so(ld #e tied to !rofits and not to sales.

ngelo !assed from great love to ferocio(s atred for tose e 'as dealing 'it. -n te love !ase, eidoli*ed tem and endo'ed tem 'it almost s(!er(man 0(alities. -n te atred !ase, e gravelyins(lted te same !eo!le. 4ost of tem, after eA!eriencing te loveate cycle, did not 'ant f(rterdealings 'it im. nly Simili consistently tolerated ngelo, in !art #eca(se e relised strange and !aradoAical

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caracters, in a s!irit similar to tat of te !lay'rigt Pirandello, is fello' Sicilian, in !art o(t of iso'n !ride and interest, and last, #(t not least, o(t of tr(e friendsi!.

-n retros!ect, - #elieve, - may ave #een too !atient 'it ngelo. ;e 'rote me more tan a to(sandletters, and eac of tem (!set my digestion or dist(r#ed my slee!. Elfriede 'as rigtly fed (! 'itim, and - so(ld ave follo'ed er advice to sto! ans'ering is letters. 4y !atience and tolerancederived in !art from a certain regard - felt for ngelos keen intellect, and in !art #eca(se in severalres!ects - felt tat - to some eAtent resem#led im.

ne of te f(ndamental diffic(lties in my -talian affairs arose from my ina#ility to find a !ersonalre!resentative of my o'n, inde!endently of ngelo, alto(g it is tr(e tat 'e ad very similarinterests and tat it 'as not (nreasona#le for (s to #e re!resented #y te same !erson, namely, Simili.Simili did is (tmost to avoid 0(arrels #et'een te #roters, #(t tis 'as #eyond even is remarka#le !o'ers. ;e 'as te only !erson tr(sted #y ngelo, al#eit intermittently. (ring love !eriods, Similico(ld control ngelo com!letely. Simili told me re!eatedly tat e #elieved tat (ltimately te manifestand !o'erf(l financial interests of te !arties 'o(ld !revail over (nealty mental states. ;e 'as'rong in tis o!timistic eA!ectation. ;e ad (nderestimated te !o'er of (ncontrolla#le !assions.

s far as 4arco 'as concerned, 'e started #y offering im eAtremely favora#le terms, leaving te



management of SC2 to im, 'it te ig rem(neration and !ercentage on sales mentioned earlier.;o'ever, no concession satisfied imD e al'ays 'anted more and, m(c more o#ectiona#le, e feltte need to take advantage of is !artners at every o!!ort(nity. Possi#ly, tis 'as is 'ay ofdemonstrating is s(!eriority over is #roters to imself.

4arcos !erformance as cief eAec(tive 'as mediocre. SC2 started after te 'ar in a mirac(lo(slyfavora#le condition #eca(se its !lant ad s(ffered only minor damage and tere 'ere s(#stantial

acc(m(lated reserves. &e all kne' tat it 'as im!erative to rene' te !lant, and 4arco !lanned a ne'mill at Ponte 7(cano, near 2ivoli. ;e esitated in te eAec(tion of tis !lan, o'ever, and madesavings in constr(ction

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tat in indsigt !roved ill advised. ;e acc(sed is #roters of o#str(cting is 'orkD to tem it lookedas if e ad never ad a definite !lan. ;e 'anted only cas and a free and. -f cornered on te s(#ect,e took offense and said tat e 'o(ld give all information to o(r re!resentatives, not to (sD tat e'anted tem to eval(ate financial statements tat 'ere rater ard to (nderstand. ;e fo(nd it(ndignified to give eA!lanations, and e sro(ded is !om!o(s s!eeces in a smokescreen of selfserving !raise. Unfort(nately, - fo(nd tat 4arco 'as often far from candid.

(r tr(st 'as not enanced 'en 'e accidentally fo(nd tat e ad s!ec(lated in 'ood !(l!, #(ying itimself and, if te !rice increased, reselling it at te iger !rice to te factoryD if te !rice fell,o'ever, e delivered te 'ood !(l! to te factory and let it #ear te loss. Similarly, e #o(gt landadacent to te ne' !lant, 'ic e kne' 'o(ld #e needed, in is o'n name and sortly after'ardresold it to te com!any at considera#le !rofit for imself. ngelo ad antici!ated tis o!eration andasked 4arco eA!licitly a#o(t it, #(t e got only an evasive re!ly. Similar deals 'ere concl(ded #y4arco 'it stock of a s(#sidiary cor!oration. - omit serio(s errors of (dgment e made concerning te !a!er and !(l! marketD tese are risks inerent in te o#.

-n 193, reconstr(cting events, ngelo came to te concl(sion tat o(r fater m(st ave left a legal 'ill

'e did not kno' a#o(t, and tat to facilitate is 'resting control of SC2, 4arco ad not !rod(ced it atte time of o(r faters deat. - co(ld scarcely #elieve ngelos y!otesis, #(t e insisted, and - 'roteto 4arco on (g(st 3, 193, from te Brookaven /ational 7a#oratory, 'ere - 'as 'orking,demanding a clear yes or no on te s(#ect. 4arco re!lied com!laining a#o(t is #roters ingratit(de #(t evading te cr(cial 0(estion, saying: )- kno' tat any consideration or !ro!osal #y me in te mostfavora#le y!otesis is received #y yo( 'it (n#elief and s(s!icion, and t(s - a#stain from enteringinto any detail of o(r relations #y letter.) ;e asked, instead, tat te tree of (s meet.

-n te meantime, o'ever, ngelo ad g(essed 'o ad ad my faters 19JJ last and legally #inding'ill, and te la'yer in 0(estion ackno'ledged aving ad it and aving informed 4arco of itscontents,

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tr(sting tat e 'o(ld comm(nicate it to (s. 4arco ad, in fact, committed a serio(s offense, and 'egave im te alternatives eiter of reconstit(ting total !arity as sti!(lated in aters 'ill or of facing acriminal com!laint. Confronted 'it tis coice, 4arco ca!it(lated, and 'e ret(rned to a division ofSC2 in e0(al sares. ;e t(s lost control of te com!any.

- ad told ngelo re!eatedly tat tis 'o(ld not el! (nless 'e ad a ne' cief eAec(tive on and.ngelo 'as in a !ase of love for Simili and insisted st(##ornly tat e so(ld take over te



management of SC2. Simili 'as most rel(ctant to acce!t te o# and said tat e 'as not te rigt !erson for te daytoday management of an ind(stry. ;e insisted tat e 'as a financier, not anind(strialist. - ad to ret(rn to merica to my !ysics 'ork and 'as in a 0(andary.

Simili took over, #(t e 'as faced 'it assignments e did not relis and for 'ic e 'as not s(ited.;e ended #y vainly trying to #ring 4arco #ack in, o!ing tat e ad learned is lesson, and !era!stat e co(ld reac a mod(s vivendi 'it im.

ngelo ten t(rned to oter managers. ;e imself ad noting to do eAce!t to #rood, #(t e ref(sed to #(dge from te vicinity of /e' ork, 'ere e resided, and - ended #y #eing re!eatedly forced to r(sto -taly des!ite te fact tat - ad (niversity d(ties and eA!eriments in !rogress at Berkeley. - tereforegave my !o'er of attorney to my co(sin Bindo 6imini, 'o ad 'orked at SC2 #efore te 'ar. ;e ads!ent te 'ar years in So(t merica, #(t on ret(rning to -taly at te end of te 'ar ad not res(medis old o# 'it te firm, !artly #eca(se 4arco did not 'elcome im, and !artly #eca(se #y ten ead oter interests.

2e management of SC2 in !ost'ar -taly 'as not an easy o#D 'itness te fact tat several maor !a!ermills ended in #ankr(!tcy. n te oter and, some of te smaller firms !ros!ered. -n any case, 'en4arco 'as fired in 193, e ad already #adly (rt te firm. -n te end, it 'as sold to United Pa!er

4ills, a innis gro(! tat ad an interest in o#taining an -talian s(#sidiary, 'ic gave it access to teCommon 4arket. 2e final agreement 'as signed in ecem#er 199. - ad gone to Stockolm tocollect te /o#el Pri*e, and - 'as at

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te =rand ;otel !(tting on te !ants tat 'ent 'it my friend =iacomo nconas elegant tailcoat to goto te ceremonies 'en Bindo called demanding tat - dro! everyting and come to 6ome to endorseit. 2ere 'as no need for tis, and - did not do so, #(t it sortened my stay in S'eden, and Elfriede, not'ito(t reason, never forgave Bindo for is illtimed insistence.

2e #roters Segrè 'ere left 'it only a minority interest in SC2, and all tree of (s s(#se0(ently soldo(r remaining sares to United Pa!er 4ills. 2e inns ke!t te name and eAternal a!!earance of teold firm. fter losing a good deal of money 'ito(t s(cceeding in revitali*ing SC2, tey decided toclose te 2ivoli mill and concentrate everyting at Ponte 7(cano, greatly red(cing te n(m#er of'orkers. 2is !rod(ced a !rotracted strike, and te inns sold o(t to an -talian firm, c(tting teir losses.2e 2ivoli mill never reo!ened. 2e strike ended 'it great losses for every#ody, es!ecially for testrikers. 2e availa#le o#s 'ere inevita#ly red(ced to a#o(t onetird of 'at tey ad #een. -n vie'of te arcaeological significance of te 2ivoli mill, 'ic occ(!ied an im!ortant 6oman site, te-talian government eAercised te rigt of eminent domain and sei*ed te !remises.

- #itterly regret te time, !sycic energy, and effort - devoted to family #(siness after te 'ar. &itgreater 'isdom - co(ld ave avoided m(c (na!!iness, financial loss, and #itterness. - 'rote to

Elfriede nearly every day d(ring tis stormy !eriod, and tese letters virt(ally form a diary of my stayin -taly. 2is !art of my story is #ased on tem.

);ere 4arco and amily live like 'ealty lords as #efore te 'ar,) - 'rote on +(ne ?N, 19J%,immediately after my arrival in 6ome. )da too lives 0(ite 'ell and it is clear tat it 'o(ld #e morea!!ro!riate for tem to send relief !ackages to (s tan vice versa. 2ey ave maids, ca(ffe(rs, etc.)

Some s(rvivors 'ere eager to tell me teir advent(res, 'ic 'ere fre0(ently 0(ite arro'ingD oters'o(ld clam (! im!enetra#ly. - did not s(cceed in learning many tings - 'o(ld ave liked to kno'.Sometimes - 'as given contradictory acco(nts. -t 'as clear to me tat my



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friends, relatives, and ac0(aintances 'ere still in a state of sock. -nanimate o#ects, on te oter and,s!oke dis!assionately, #(t te emotion of ret(rning to te old 2ivoli o(se, of 'alking once more in tecent(ryold olive groves, and of seeing te Killa dEste and te !a!er mill again sorely tried my

e0(animity. letter dated +(ly , 19J%, records tat )- 'ent s'imming at c0(e l#(le, 'it Bindo 'o #ro(gtalong a girlfriend, to !reserve old traditions, and 'e ad an eAcellent l(nc at a resta(rant at Killadriana (nder one of tose cool !ergolas and 'it a Castelli 'ine tat 'e miss so m(c inmerica. . . . 4any tings are very different from 'at 'e imagined. - ave often s!ent te eveningtalking to daD going to #ed only at midnigt. . . . 4y im!ression is tat ere one lives 1$$ times #ettertan in California and tat if 'e 'ere retired, 'e so(ld come ere at once. n te oter and it iscertain tat s(ddenly some #ig eA!losion may occ(r, #(t !eo!le do not 'orry too m(c, !ossi#ly'isely given te !olitical sit(ation in -taly at tat time, te coalition government co(ld easily avet(rned into a comm(nist dictatorsi!F. s to !leasantness of lifestyle tere is no com!arison 'it ere.2e #ea(ty of te !lace alone 'o(ld s(ffice. (rtermore tere are ere so many !eo!le 'e kno', so

many familiar faces, tat one does not ave tat feeling of loneliness -, once in a 'ile, mention atBerkeley. s far as 'ork is concerned, o'ever, tings ere go #adly, ciefly #eca(se te !rofessorsare not !aid eno(g to make a living 8]$ !er mont and tere is a great eAod(s of te yo(ngergeneration. =iven te !revailing conditions, 'at tey do is admira#le, #(t for &issenscaft, mericais #etter. -n any case - no' tink tat a tri! to -taly is !refera#le even to tro(t fising, and tat is sayingeno(g.)

n +(ly 11, - gave a seminar at te Pysics -nstit(te. -n talking 'it te !ysicists tere, )teconcl(sion 'as tat, 'it little money, tey live ere a#o(t te same as 'e do 'it o(r salary inmerica, and 'it !lenty of money one lives $ times #etter ere. - #elieve encefort tat 'en - ammad at Berkeley, te talk sall not #e of going to Cicago, #(t to 6ome.) n +(ly 1J, - re!orted on avisit 'it 4arco to 2ivoli: )2e !arental o(se is in #ad sa!e #eca(se a #om# eA!loded in its vicinity.(rtermore many !eo!le 'o ave lost teir omes are

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s0(atting in it and tere is no 'ay of evicting tem. - t(s do not see any !ossi#ility of ina#iting it inte neAt years. fter l(nc - sa' Uncle =(ido 2reyesF 'o is very 'ell !reserved 8N? years old andas not #ecome !artic(larly nicer tan e 'as. t 3 P.4. Co(nt Emo arrived #y !lane and - talked 'itim (ntil dinner time.)

rom a letter dated +(ly 19: )mong oter tings tat !o!!ed (!, tere is a #randne' silver carvingset tat some#ody gave to my !arents on teir 'eddingO 2ere are also many #ooks tat #elonged to

Uncle Cla(dio and to my !arents ome. -n eAcavating te c(lt(ral layers de!osited over almost acent(ry, one (nderstands 'y - ave #ecome a sort of living encyclo!aedia, as yo( say, and one astr(ly te im!ression tat o(r cildren gro' (! as #ar#arians. . . .)

rom 7imonta 8near Bellagio, on 7ake Como, (g(st : )n riday - sa' CarloF Perrier at 2(rin. -ad l(nc 'it im and is #roter at te Pilarmonic Cl(#, in a great 1Nt cent(ry !alace 'it #(tlers in 'ite stockings and livery, #(t 'it average food. 7ater - gave my talk at EnricoF Persicos-nstit(te and Sat(rday morning - left for 4ilan, all te time in a ferocio(s eat. t 4ilan - sa' 6en*o6avenna a co(sin, formerly mayor of te city of erraraF. Poor fello'D te =ermans killed a#o(t ten



relatives of is. . . .)

rom lassio, on (g(st 1$, - 'rote: )- came to 7aig(eglia, 'ere a(sta Segrè BeltramiF 'ass(!!osed to #e. 2e (nket 'as a #ad idea. 2ravel 'as a disaster #eca(se te trains are cro'ded #eyond #eliefD same 'it te otels. . . . rom =enoa - came to 7aig(eglia and - ave vo'ed not to ret(rn to te6iviera. -t is #ea(tif(l, #(t not to my taste. . . . ne as te im!ression of !eo!le enoying life and'ito(t seA !ro#lems. lso #oys and girls a#o(t 1N are very #ea(tif(l and make me tink of 19?1, at

orte dei 4armi, 'it +. 2ey certainly am(se temselves and - 'o(ld #e glad if Cla(dio and issisters co(ld ave s(c eA!eriencesD tey are !leasant and ed(cational even if some'at !ert(r#ing. lltold - ave lived less idiotically tan one 'o(ld ave eA!ected, and - 'o(ld like it if te cildren too'o(ld enoy life. . . . - ave not seen in merica 1Nyearold #oys and girls looking as if tey enoyedlife as m(c as ere. ne co(ld say te same, o'ever, of !eo!le in general. ;ere one sees elegance as #efore te 'ar. . . .

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) . . . -t is remarka#le o' com!licated te (!#ringing of a E(ro!ean is, and o' many ingredientsenter into it, at least in my case. ften - tink tat Cla(dio and is sisters are fed s(c a #land and !rimitive fare tat tey 'ill gro' (! like E..7. and not like, =od for#id, !!eneimer 'o, o'ever,- #elieve as not digested te food, or vital no(risment, as ante says. 8-f yo( 'ant to see tereference look it (! in te ryme indeA (nder digesto.)

(g(st 1G, on te train to lorence: )- ave rater canged my mind a#o(t -taly. . . . or instance it isim!ossi#le to send a 'ire from te Central 6ailroad Station at 6ome. ;ere every#ody #eaves like aselfis !ig, and tey let me 'ork like a dog, 'ile 4arco stays at =ressoney an l!ine resortF andngelo takes it easy in /e' ork.)

(g(st 1N: )t lorence - ave seen =i(liana and E(genio rtom my co(sin and er (s#andF. 2eylive in a #ea(tif(l villa 'it a garden in lorentine style. - 'ent after'ards for dinner at 4arignolle'ere tere 'ere 4arcella and Uncle =(ido as 'ell as Silvia and er (s#and. 4arignolles gardens

and te fields are (ncanged and - find again and recogni*e te trees - kne' one #y one as a cild.)Uncle =(ido so'ed tat e ad !reserved te !(ngency of is 'it. 4y #roter 4arco ad #een madea ca(aliere del la(oro knigt of 'orkF, a ig decoration conferred #y te -talian government on tefo(nders of im!ortant ind(stries or #(sinesses. ater ad #een !ro!osed for it, #(t is nominationcame to na(gt #eca(se of te regimes antiSemitic !olicy. fter te 'ar, e #eing dead, tegovernment conferred te order on 4arco, 'o ad s(cceeded im in te management of SC2. );o'is te knigt of is faters 'ork<) Uncle =(ido in0(ired a#o(t 4arco 'it a smile.

)rom lorence - took te train for Padova, 'ere - o!ed to find 7oren*o EmoF,) te letter contin(es.);e 'as not tere. &it a sre'd move - located a co(sin of is and e told me o' to get erean*oloF, and ten - arrived ere on a small tr(ck. -t is one of te fe' times in tis tri! - 'as glad yo(

and te cildren 'ere not 'it me. 2e 7ords of te 4anor are not ere, #(t 'ill ret(rn today ortomorro' and - ave made myself at ome 'ile - 'ait for tem. . . .

)2e an*olo villa is fantastic.F Unfort(nately it is located in a flat,

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ric, and ot co(ntryside, #(t te villa itself is s!ectac(lar. -t 'as #(ilt #y Palladio aro(nd 1$. -t asfrescoes #y Paolo Keronese or !(!ils, and f(rnit(re, r(gs, etc., all m(se(m !ieces, 'ell ke!t, clean andalive. dd tat it as modern !l(m#ing, central eating and all modern conveniences. 2e alls,



st(dies, and dining room are f(rnised 'it 1Gt cent(ry !ieces, 'it te Emo armsD eac co(ld #e tecenter of a modern o(se. Since - am ere alone tey serve me in a dining room in a style - kne' onlyfrom my readings of 7ord a(ntleroy, eAce!t tat a local yo(ng girl serves te meals. -n my #edroomtere are J or !aintings eac of 'ic, - s(rmise, co(ld !rovide te finances of a family. s (s(al, intese s(rro(ndings tey look 0(ite differently from 'at tey 'o(ld in a m(se(m. . . . or #reakfast,for te first time since - ave #een in -taly, - ave ad delicio(s #read and #(tter 8nat(rally from te

Co(nts estates, served on a silver tray tat !ossi#ly 'eiged kg. -t is s(r!rising tere is so m(csta#ility in te 'orld tat it is feasi#le to acc(m(late and !reserve a !ro!erty like tis one for cent(ries. esterday - s!ent te evening reading Kenetian istory in a #ook on te Emo familyD te listof teir #ea(tif(l names alone is a !leas(re. or instance, te #roters Emo a#o(t 13$ marry CiaraV(erini, Catar(**a di =iorgio 7oredan, =inevra Corner, a da(gter of /icolI Kendramin, etc. ternames: 4a#ilia Kenier, Belella Pisani, Elisa#etta 4oro, ndrianna di ngelo Badoer, Cornelia diKincen*o =rimaniD it looks like a directory of te 4aggior Consiglio. 2ere is a doc(mented familytree (! to Pantaleone Emo, 'o, at te Serrata del =ran Consiglio, 'as registered among te Kenetianno#ility 'it all is descendants. 2e Ca!odilista seem to me to #e small fry com!ared 'it te Emo.ll told - tink Bar#ara 7oren*os Canadian 'ifeF migt #e some'at (neasy. -t is a miAing of t'odifferent 'orlds, tat migt give strange res(lts. -n reading tese istories it seems tat te livingelement in s(c a family is te family and not te individ(al mem#ers, 'ile in te modern 'orld teo!!osite seems to #e a!!ening. -n any case - #elieve tat s(c tings are easier to (nderstand for an-talian 8even a +e'is one tan for an merican, te second in te 'ole Emo genealogy.)

&en 7oren*o ret(rned, 'e 'ent to Kenice togeter. - ad started

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feeling sick even #efore going to an*olo, and in Kenice - tried to #oard a slee!ing car train for 6omeD #(t it 'as f(ll. one dollar #ill given to te cond(ctor made im discover tat an (strian girl ad #een over#ooked, and 'it !olite eAc(ses e tre' er o(t of er com!artment and gave it to me. S(c'as ten te !o'er of a dollar.

4y emotions in -taly, te eat, and te many #itter !ills - ad to s'allo' from 4arco and from ngeloand is eccentricities 'ere altogeter more tan my g(ts co(ld #ear and te concl(sion of te o(rney'as tat - develo!ed a d(odenal (lcer. n my ret(rn to Berkeley at te #eginning of Se!tem#er, - gotte idea tat te o#ective sym!toms - ad migt #e d(e to a stomac cancer. 2e s(s!icion 'as !essimistic, #(t not entirely foolis, as 'e (nfort(nately sa' some years later in ermis case. - 'ent tomy friend r. =iacomo ncona, 'o tried to reass(re me, #(t noneteless sent me to a radiologist, aman - kne' 'ell from te 6ad 7a#. ;e eAamined me very caref(lly and said tat e co(ld not seeanyting s(s!icio(s eAce!t a !ossi#le d(odenal (lcer. - asked im o' many cancers esca!ed im, to'ic e ans'ered: )#o(t ?$ !ercent.) 4y to(gt 'as ten immediately, )nd 'at if - am in te?$ !ercent<) ncona ten sent me to a 'ellkno'n gastroenterologist, 'o, aving st(died me,

concl(ded #y asking, )&at is yo(r favorite form of relaAation<) - ans'ered, )2ro(t fising in temo(ntains.) ;e ten !rescri#ed tro(t fising in te mo(ntains and advised me to forget diets, dr(gs,and sym!toms. - follo'ed is orders in Elfriedes com!any, and after some monts - recovered.

- ad fo(nd it necessary to organi*e my researc gro(! at Berkeley d(ring my a#sence in s(c a 'aytat - co(ld remain informed a#o(t 'at 'as a!!ening and not alt o(r 'ork. 2is #ecame easier astime 'ent on and Cam#erlain and &iegand mat(red scientifically. inally, 'e arranged tings so tatany one of (s co(ld go a'ay for a !eriod of (! to a#o(t siA monts 'ito(t great disr(!tion.



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C%a*ter Nine+

Ri*ening Cro*s -"#/.0"#/=2,

Smell o& Ri*e 5%eat

Season of mists and mello' fr(itf(lnessO+on Meats, )2o (t(mn)

t Berkeley after te 'ar - fo(nd myself for te second time in my life 8te first ad #een at Palermofree to 'ork according to my tastes 'ito(t te need to !rod(ce a certain n(m#er of !a!ers or res(lts inorder to s(rvive in te !rofession. -t is said tat Kerdi al'ays com!lained of aving to com!ose iso!eras (nder cr(el deadlines, and tat only thello and 'alstaff& te master!ieces of is old age, 'erecom!osed according to is 'ises, in f(ll freedom. &it all d(e res!ect to te differences, my o'neA!erience ad #een similar. irst te -talian com!etitions and te com!(lsion to !ile (! !rinted !a!er,

later my !osition as a ref(gee at Berkeley, and later still te eAigencies of 7os lamos ad forced me to'ork on sortrange !roects tat co(ld #e #ro(gt to fr(ition ra!idly or to oter'ise 'ork (nder great !ress(re. /o' tat - ad )arrived,) - co(ld tackle longerrange !roects, and - to(gt tat te n(cleonn(cleon interaction 'as a 'orty s(#ect of investigation. -t seemed to #e at te very core of teeA!loration of n(clear

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str(ct(re, te n(cle(s #eing an assem#ly of n(cleons. 4any famo(s !ysicists ad devoted great effortsto its teoretical st(dy: &erner ;eisen#erg, Ettore 4aorana, E(gene &igner, -gor 2amm, and otersad !rovided dee! teoretical insigts into te !ro#lem, and lo'energy eA!eriments ad sed ligt on

many as!ects of it, alto(g limited to states of *ero ang(lar moment(m. 2e iger energies no'availa#le o!ened (! to eA!eriment states of iger ang(lar moment(m, and tey co(ld give significantne' information. 2o !re!are myself for tis eA!erimental !rogram, - started learning 'at 'as kno'na#o(t te n(cleonn(cleon collision #y giving a grad(ate co(rse in n(clear !ysics 'it em!asis ontat !artic(lar area.

2e ra!idly develo!ing accelerators offered (ni0(e o!!ort(nities.1F (ring te 'ar, te great magnet !lanned for an ordinary cyclotron 'it an energy of 1$$ 4eK, to 'ic - ad made a smallcontri#(tion, served to !rovide te magnetic field for !rototy!es of mass s!ectrogra!s. fter te 'ar,it ret(rned to an accelerator, #(t of a different ty!e from tat !revio(sly !lanned. 2e !lans for te ne'macine incl(ded fre0(ency mod(lation and te (se of te !asesta#ility !rinci!le, it 'as to #ecomete 1NJinc Berkeley syncrocyclotron. 2is macine started 'orking at te end of 19JG and ad along and glorio(s istory. -nitially, it accelerated only an internal de(teron #eam to a#o(t 19 4eK.2ese de(terons im!inging on any target !rod(ced an eAternal ne(tron #eam of a#o(t 1$$ 4eK, tefirst 'e (sed in te ne(tron!roton collision investigation started in 19J%.

2ese ne(trons ca(sed a f(nny e!isode. asty investigation of te ang(lar distri#(tion of te ne(tron #eam, !erformed as soon as te accelerator started f(nctioning, indicated a for'ard distri#(tion, aseA!ected, #(t 'it a minim(m at deflection *ero. 2is 'as re!orted in a collo0(i(m attended #y!!eneimer, and e immediately gave a learned teoretical eA!lanation of te !enomenon. - listenedto it and ten said tat it 'as #etter to ceck if #y cance tere 'as not a lead #rick (st in front of te



target, !roecting a sado'. -mmediately after te collo0(i(m some#ody r(sed to ceck myy!otesis. -t 'as correct.

-n te s(mmer of 19JN, 'en Cam#erlain, 'o, as !revio(sly noted,

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after aving served in my gro(! at 7os lamos, ad gone to Cicago and o#tained is P.. (nderermi, ret(rned to Berkeley as an instr(ctor and reoined my gro(!. (r detailed st(dy of ten(cleonn(cleon collision 'as greatly enanced at te end of tat year #y te availa#ility of an eAternal !roton #eam. or many years te meas(rements 'e did #et'een 19JN and 19 remained a(toritative.?F

4any !eo!le colla#orated in te eA!erimental side of te enter!rise incl(ding ;. . ork, Cam#erlain,Clyde &iegand, and 2om !silantis.3F 2e contri#(tion of all tese colleag(es, !ostdoctoral fello's,and grad(ate st(dents 'as essentialD 'ito(t it, it 'o(ld ave #een im!ossi#le to carry on teenter!rise. 4eas(ring not only a#sol(te collision cross sections, #(t also !olari*ations, correlations, andsimilar #ea(ties, 'e collected a 'ealt of eA!erimental data. 2e neAt ste! 'as to derive from tem te

!ase sifts of te !artial s, !, d, etc., 'aves. or tis analysis, !silantis, ;enry Sta!!, and /icolas4etro!olis (sed te 7os lamos com!(ter.JF

-n te end, te !ro#lem t(rned o(t to #e less f(ndamental tan eiter 'e or te teoreticians #elieved inte 19J$s. t te time, it 'as #elieved tat te n(cleonn(cleon force 'as a !rimary nat(ral forcemediated #y !ions according to ;ideki (ka'as ideas. Progress as canged te o(tlook. &e no' #elieve tat te tr(e f(ndamental forces are tose #et'een 0(arks, descri#ed #y cromodynamics. /everteless for n(clear !ysics in a strict sense, te n(cleonn(cleon force is still of ca!italim!ortance, inde!endently of its origin. Even 'it tis reservation, o'ever, o(rs 'as an im!ortant !iece of 'ork of d(ra#le val(e, or at least as d(ra#le as s(c tings are in !resentday !ysics.

-n addition to researc - reg(larly ta(gt one or t'o co(rses, (s(ally one to (!!erdivision

(ndergrad(ates and one to grad(ate st(dents. ver te years - greatly varied te s(#ects. ften - ta(gtn(clear !ysics and 0(ant(m mecanics, trying to make te s(#ect sim!le 'ile at te same time !resenting significant !ro#lems. -t seems tat te reactions to my co(rses 'ere of t'o kinds: one gro(!of st(dents 'ere very a!!reciative, oters not so m(c. - #elieve my lect(res 'ere not as !olised asoters, #(t tey ad a degree of fresness tat made tem

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a!!ealing. - #elieve one sa' - 'as not reciting a teAt#ook, #(t rater telling from eA!erience as a !racticing scientist.

Seminars 'ere an im!ortant com!onent of my teacing. - often eld tem 'it some oter !rofessor,s(c as Cam#erlain, 'it an attendance of a#o(t ten st(dents. St(dents !re!ared to eA!lain some goodrevie' article, often from Annual e(iews of 3uclear Science& to te a(dience. - tried to !ay attentionand to learn someting ne'. - also demanded tat te s!eaker (nderstood 'at e 'as saying. -t 'ass(r!rising o' often form(lae 'o(ld occ(r 'ere te s!eaker did not really kno' te meaning of tesym#ols e 'as (sing, or diagrams 'ere te s!eaker co(ld not eA!lain 'at 'as !lotted.Unfort(nately, - ad a tendency to fall aslee!, es!ecially 'en - did not (nderstand. t a sligtly igerlevel - tried to elicit an eA!lanation of te vario(s )-t is easily so'n)s tat adorn te scientificliterat(re. ll told, - o!e te co(rses gave not only s!ecific information on tecnical !oints, #(t also aned(cation in scientific attit(de.



- 'ell remem#ered o' once as a yo(ng assistant !rofessor - ad c(t a #ad fig(re on one of te rareoccasions 'en Cor#ino attended a seminar. ;e ad asked for a s(#tle, to(g necessary, eA!lanationin a 0(estion of adia#atic demagneti*ation, and - o#vio(sly demonstrated tat - did not kno' 'at -'as talking a#o(t.

-n te same vein, a fe' years #efore is deat, in a conversation in 'ic - com!lained a#o(t te manys(#ects tat are s(!!osedly )'ell kno'n) #(t in fact are (st te o!!osite, ermi s(ggested - make a

note of any s(c 0(estions - came acrossHs(c as validity conditions for Borns a!!roAimation, s(#tle0(estions of B and ; in magnetism, signs in te energy eA!ressions in termodynamics, inn(mera#le0(estions related to !ases in 0(ant(m mecanics, and so onHand tat 'en e retired, e 'o(ld 'ritea #ook giving all te eA!lanations. Unfort(nately, tis did not come to !ass. -t 'o(ld ave #een te #estseller in !ysics. f co(rse, tere are many oter !ysicists 'o co(ld 'rite s(c a #ook. - o!eone of tem 'ill o#lige, and 'rite it 'it ermis clarity and sim!licity.

-n tat !eriod - also started to #(sy myself 'it !ysics literat(re,

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in 'ic - ad a longstanding interest. -mmediately after te 'ar, kno'ledge ac0(ired 'ile 'orkingon military !roects 'as classified and co(ld #e (sed only #y tose 'it a!!ro!riate clearances. 4(cof it, o'ever, ad only little and indirect military val(e, alto(g it 'as im!ortant for scientific andtecnological !rogress. 4oreover, te very eAistence of secret re!orts !rod(ced a'k'ard res(lts, #eca(se, 'ile cleared !ersonnel kne' tat certain tings ad #een done or co(ld #e done #y metodsand tecni0(es develo!ed d(ring te 'ar, tey co(ld not (se or teac 'at tey kne' 'ito(t violatingmilitary secrecy. 2e government ad started a #ig declassification !rocess, #(t #y its nat(re it 'as aslo' o!eration, very #(rea(cratic and occasionally even s(#ect to mani!(lation.

- ten to(gt tat it migt #e a 'orty endeavor to com!ile a #ig treatise on te model of te !re'ar=erman Handbuch der -hysi/ edited #y ;ans +. &. =eiger and Marl Sceel, #(t limited fororgani*ational and time reasons to n(clear !ysics. -t co(ld not #e 'ritten #y any one !erson, #eca(se

eac ca!ter 'o(ld re0(ire te eA!ertise of one or more s!ecialists 'it firstand information. -assem#led a gro(! of eA!erts and directed te com!ilation, in tree fat vol(mes, of E;perimental

3uclear -hysics& 'ic 'as very s(ccessf(l 8it 'as even translated into 6(ssian. 2e enter!rise tooklonger tan - ad antici!ated, o'everD te first vol(me a!!eared in 193 and te last in 199.F

-n te same s!irit of el!ing disseminate scientific information, - also started to 'ork for Annual e(iews of 3uclear Science . 2e series 'as initiated #y oters, #(t - soon #ecame one of its mainstays,and in 19? its editor. - ke!t te o# (ntil 19%%, 'en - retired #eca(se - to(gt yo(nger forces so(ldcarry on.GF 2e 'ork 'as !ractically (n!aid, #(t it el!ed to kee! me c(rrent, and - #elieve it as not #een te smallest service - ave !erformed for te !rofession.

- remained in Berkeley d(ring all of 19JN. ermi came tere to teac te s(mmer session, after 'ic

'e 'ent to 7os lamos for a fe' 'eeks togeter. ;e drove all te 'ay from California, #eca(se e didnot tr(st any#ody else. -n 19J9 te !ro#lems of SC2 re0(ired my !resence in -taly, and - ret(rned tere'it Elfriede and cildren. - 'o(ld ave liked to s!end a good !art of te time at 2ivoli, #(t Elfriede

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dem(rred. - never fatomed te ca(se of Elfriedes dislike for 2ivoli. !ossi#le eA!lanation, alto(gstren(o(sly denied #y er, may ave #een te contrast #et'een er (na!!y cildood at stro'o, andlater at Bresla(, and my o'n at 2ivoli.



-n Se!tem#er 19J9, - attended an international !ysics conference at Basel, 'ere for te first timesince #efore te 'ar, 'e 'ere once again a#le to meet o(r old E(ro!ean colleag(es and friends andre!ort at least in !art on te great novelties develo!ed d(ring te 'ar. - s!oke tere of o(r 'ork onn(cleonn(cleon collisions.%F 2e great &olfgang Pa(li 'as in te a(dienceD e listened saking isead from left to rigt and sim(ltaneo(sly sifting is eavy #ody (! and do'n. fter my s!eec, - 'asgoing a'ay 'it te S'iss !ysical cemist Egon Bretscer, 'o ad #een at 7os lamos, 'en Pa(li

accosted me and said: )- ave never eard a 'orse re!ort tan yo(rs.) - did not ans'erD 'at co(ld -say< B(t Pa(li t(rned to Bretscer and added: )- stand correctedD 'en yo( s!oke and e mentionedte occasionF it 'as even 'orse.) &ere(!on e de!arted. noter !ysicist, 'o kne' Pa(li 'ell andad 'itnessed te !erformance, smiled at me and said: )ont listen to im. o(r s!eec m(st ave #een 0(ite interesting to im #eca(se e oscillated all te time, 'ic means tat e 'as listeningcaref(lly.) - kne' Pa(li 'ell eno(g to kno' tat tere 'as no reason to 'orry a#o(t is remarks.

-n an eAc(rsion follo'ing te Basel meeting, 'e 'ent to te Cosmic 6ay 7a# at 2esta =rigia near te2eod(le Pass (nder te 4atterorn. - revisited te Bre(il #asin 'ere - ad s!ent memora#le dayst'enty years earlier. 2e Bre(il 'as already s!oiled #y ne' otels and ski lifts, 'ic ad transformedtat l!ine gem into a v(lgar commercial resort. t te Cosmic 6ay 7a#, 'ork 'as !roceeding ciefly(nder te leadersi! of =il#erto Bernardini. Several of te -talian !ysicists 'ere fed (! 'it te

diffic(lt 'orking conditions tat !revailed tere, o'ever, and sortly tereafter, Bernardini, =ianCarlo &ick, and oter friends of mine !acked (! and came to 'ork in te United States, at least for afe' years.

Back in Berkeley, 6o#ert Brode, rancis +enkins, and - ke!t o(r eyes o!en for !romising yo(ng recr(itsto te staff of te !ysics

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de!artment. 2is 'as one of te reasons for attending te ann(al meetings of te merican PysicalSociety in &asington, .C., 'ic f(nctioned as a !lacement market. -ntervie'ing !ossi#le

candidates in 19JN, - recalled te days 'en - ad attended similar meetings looking for 'ork, !artic(larly my diffic(lt time in 19J$. 2e ta#les ad no' t(rned. 2e sit(ation in 19JN 'as radicallydifferentD #efore te 'ar tere ad #een fe' o#s, 'ereas no' a#le candidates co(ld al'ays cooseamong several eAcellent !ositions. Birge, to(g ead of te de!artment, ardly took te initiative inte selection of yo(ng recr(its, #(t te University of California 'as in a !ase of eA!ansion and0(alitative im!rovement, 'ic facilitated te recr(itment !rocess. -f one co(ld find an o(tstanding !ros!ect, 'e co(ld co(nt on te administration #eing a#le to find te means to make an attractive offer.(rtermore, for !eo!le interested in n(clear or !article !ysics, te accelerators and 6ad 7a# facilities'ere a !o'erf(l attraction. &e t(s 'ere a#le to ire many f(t(re cele#rities. Unfort(nately, severalleft #eca(se, es!ecially to teoreticians, te eastern United States offered strong com!etition #y reasoninter alia of its s(!erior sco!e for comm(nication and eAcange of ideas. ;arvard enticed a'ay several

of o(r #est yo(ng !rofessors, among tem Steven &ein#erg, Seldon =laso', and 4icael 2inkam.-n 19J9 te 6egents of te University of California, its s(!reme a(tority, came (! 'it te idea ofre0(iring a loyalty oat of te fac(lty, demanding among oter tings tat tey declare tat tey 'erenot mem#ers of te Comm(nist Party. 2e 'ording of te oat 'as relatively armless, #(t it 'as notarmless to demand it of !rofessors 'ile eAem!ting all oter state em!loyees. 2e controversyeA!anded into #itter arg(ments, and in my o!inion te 6egents so'ed tat tey 'ere not (! to teirtask. 2ey seemed to me more concerned 'it teir !restige and 'it asserting teir !aramo(nta(tority tan 'it te 'elfare of te (niversity. 2e governor of California, Earl &arren, sided 'itte moderate faction among te 6egentsD te eAtremists 'ere led #y +. . /eylan, a former ;earst



la'yer noted for is eAtreme !olitical o!inions. 2is radical faction !revailed, and tose 'o did nots'ear te loyalty oat 'ere dismissed.NF

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-n !ysics tis res(lted in serio(s losses, among tem =eoffrey Ce', &olfgang Panofsky, 4arvin

=old#erger, =ian Carlo &ick, and 6o#ert Ser#er. or teory, it 'as a #ody #lo'D for eA!eriment,someting a #it less. 7(ckily all tese men fo(nd eAcellent !ositions and 'ere not forced to makesevere !ersonal sacrifices, eAce!t for te inconvenience of moving. /one of tem 'ere comm(nists, #(t tey ref(sed on !rinci!le to take a discriminatory oat.

7a'rence took a ard line, follo'ing 6egent /eylan and tose 'o demanded te oat. ;e did nota!!reciate te nat(re of te o#ections of te nonsignersD to im tey seemed #y*antine 0(i##les.=rotes0(e e!isodes ens(ed. ne involved te s!ecial !ass re0(ired at te time for admission to te 6ad7a#. 7a'rence s(mmoned &ick to is office and, in te !resence of lvare*, c(rtly asked &ick'eter it 'as tr(e tat e ad not signed te oat. &ick, taken #y s(r!rise, gave an e0(ally c(rtaffirmation. 7ooking straigt into is eyes, 7a'rence res!onded: )2en yo( can no longer 'ork at te6adiation 7a#.) &ick, in t(rn, coldly offered to ret(rn is !ass to te sec(rity officer, and 7a'rencesaid, )Please do.) &ick gave 7a'rence te !ass, and tat ended te intervie'. Under te a!!arentcoldness of te 'ords, feelings ran ig. -t 'as clear to &ick tat 7a'rence 'as acting illegally, #eca(se e ad no a(tority for 'itdra'ing te !ass, and tat e 'as in a v(lnera#le !osition. lvare*at once (nderstood te im!lications and ramifications of 7a'rences action. ;e m(st ave ca(tionedand calmed im do'n, and after a fe' days lvare* called &ick on te !one and asked im to forgette 'ole incident. Ernest, e said, sometimes acts in a fit of emotionD !lease do not take 'at e saidserio(sly. &ick got #ack is !ass.

- !ersonally sym!ati*ed 'it te nonsigners, #(t - 'as not incensed #y te controversy. 4y friends+enkins and Brode, 'o sared my o!inions on te s(#ect, insisted tat te oat and te connectedeAcitement 'ere transient l(nacies of a ty!e tat ad occ(rred many times in te istory of te United

States, and tat tey 'o(ld !ass. -n any case, - signed te oat, alto(g - to(gt s(c oatsmeaningless.

- calc(lated tat - ad s'orn my allegiance to king, 4(ssolini, !arty, constit(tions, and instit(tions atleast fifteen times, and - even remem

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#ered a !rono(ncement #y Po!e Pi(s Y-, elicited #y a ascist oat, eA!licitly stating tat (nder certaincirc(mstances one co(ld take s(c oats 'it mental reservations tat made tem void.9F - d(g te !a!al doc(ment o(t in te li#rary and translated it, and some colleag(es to 'om - ad sent it !osted it

in 7os lamos, 'ic administratively de!ended on te 6egents of te University of California. tBerkeley it circ(lated less o!enly.

&it all tis #re'ing, it 'as not clear o' te sit(ation 'o(ld evolve, and - to(gt it advisa#le todistance myself a little from te University of California and to 'ait te t(rn of events, !re!ared to goelse'ere if 'orst came to 'orst. -n te meantime te nonsigners ad started a legal action against te6egents, 'ic (ltimately 'ent to te s(!reme co(rt of te state of California. 2e co(rt r(led tat teoat 'as (nconstit(tional, forced te 6egents to a#olis it, to reinstate te !rofessors 'o ad resignedor #een fired, and to !ay tem damages. ll tis, o'ever, 'as still in te f(t(re.

2e (n!leasant atmos!ere created #y te oat deteriorated f(rter, for me, 'en Br(no Pontecorvo



(neA!ectedly defected to te USS6. ;e 'as vacationing in -taly from is !ermanent !ost in England,'en a#o(t cto#er ?$, 19$, e traveled to inland 'it is family and vanised. ;e left no traces, #(t it 'as reasona#ly s(!!osed tat e ad gone to 6(ssia. - do not kno' te reason for is fligt. necan form(late several y!oteses, fe' of tem flattering to im. -n 19J$, esca!ing from te /a*is,Pontecorvo ad so(gt asyl(m and fo(nd os!itality in te United States, tere#y indirectly inc(rring amoral o#ligation to'ard te co(ntry. - ad no information a#o(t is disa!!earance oter tan 'at -

read in te ne's!a!ers. lto(g - ad #een Pontecorvos friend since is st(dent days in 6ome, adel!ed im o#tain a o# at 2(lsa in 19J$, and ad seen im at te Basel conference, - certainly 'as not !rivy to is secrets.

fter Pontecorvos fligt, several officers of te U.S. government 0(estioned me, #(t only as a 'itness,and 'it f(ll ackno'ledgment tat - ad not ad anyting to do 'it is disa!!earance. n te oterand, =. 4. =iannini, 'o ad an interest in o(r ne(tron !atents and dealt 'it oter !arties a#o(ttem, tele!oned to me as to(g e

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'anted to im!licate me in Pontecorvos actions, and 7(is lvare* attacked me, as - recorded in anote#ook on cto#er ?J, 19$:

lvare* enters my office. . Cam#erlain !resent. sks a#o(t Pontecorvo. 2en says it isim!ro!er to ask for com!ensation for te ermi !atent #eca(se 'e came to tis co(ntry andte selter received 'as to (s 'ort more tan a million dollars. &e are g(ests ere and 'eso(ld #e glad to #e a#le to re!ay in !art te US for te !rivilege of citi*ensi!. - ans'er -did not tink tat citi*ensi!s 'ere for sale. 2at te la' fiAed s(c tings. ;e said tat to #ring a s(it 8for !atent com!ensation 'as like settling a 0(arrel #y fistic(ffs in a #ar. -ans'ered tat a US co(rt 'ill not #e flattered #y te com!arison. ;e concl(ded tat -so(ld let im kno' 'en Pontecorvo 'rites me from 6(ssia.

- s!oke to Birge, 2ornton, and Brode a#o(t lvare*s o(t#(rst, and all tree advised to kee! my cool,

since no#ody s(s!ected me. n =iacomo nconas s(ggestion - also s!oke to a former Californias(!reme co(rt (stice 'o 'as is close friend. ;e listened intently and ten advised me to doa#sol(tely noting and 'ait for te storm to #lo' over. Pontecorvos fligt also made tro(#le for SergeScer#atskoy, is old #oss at 2(lsa, 'o 'as te son of a c*arist general.

4(c #igger and more omino(s tings 'ere #re'ing at Berkeley, o'ever, es!ecially after teeA!losion of te first 6(ssian atomic #om# 8(g(st ?9, 19J9. 7a'rence gre' increasingly concerneda#o(t te United Statess atomic 'ea!ons, 'ic seemed to im inade0(ate, and so(gt to im!rovetem 'it vario(s tecnical initiatives, 'ic ended in serio(s fail(res.1$F - ad eard of some oftese !lans, 'ic seemed ill advised to me, and - decided, feeling d(ty #o(nd, to s!eak to 7a'renceon te s(#ect, trying to give im my reasons and my n(merical estimates as 'ell - co(ld. ;e reacted

'it great veemence, acc(sing me of #eing (n!atriotic, la*y, selfis, and =od kno's 'at more. - 'asnot s(r!rised and did not lose my tem!er. - m(st also add tat 7a'rence, a!art from a fe' ins(lts, didnot do anyting against me, left me te (se of te macines, and contin(ed is s(!!ort as #efore.

-n te meantime, 7a'rence and 2eller 'ere striking an alliance for te #(ilding of te ydrogen #om#.2eller ad #een o#sessed 'it it since te time of 7os lamos, and tis ad given rise to serio(sconflicts

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'it !!eneimer, Bete, and oters. ermi, 'ose scientific !restige 'as !aramo(nt, 'as against teydrogen #om#, #(t felt it inc(m#ent (!on im to inform te government a#o(t te tecnical sit(ation,alto(g e advised against #(ilding s(c a 'ea!on.11F fter te develo!ment of te Soviet atomic #om#, 2eller redo(#led is efforts and entered an alliance 'it 7a'rence, te ir orce, and oterscientists and !oliticians to !(s te develo!ment of te ydrogen #om#.

- !ersonally did not 'ant to get involved in a military !roect tat - regarded as #eing of do(#tf(l

(sef(lness. -n any case te !ress(res eAerted on me 'ere moderate and easy to resist. /ot only did - nottake !art in te str(ggles, macinations, and intrig(es of tis !eriod, #(t - did not even kno' of tem. -'as not among 7a'rences confidants. &e #ot kne' te casm #et'een o(r ideas and it 'as not'ort is 'ile for 7a'rence to try to convert me to is vie's, es!ecially since - 'as (nim!ortant inscience !olicy. -, on my side, neiter kne' o' to a!!roac 7a'rence nor ad any o!e of cangingis ideas. n te oter and, - ad several conversations 'it 2eller, 'om - ad kno'n 'ell since mytime at te Pysics -nstit(te in 6ome. - soon reali*ed, o'ever, tat e 'as dominated #y irresisti#le !assions m(c stronger tan even is !o'erf(l rational intellect.

St(dents and !ostdoctoral fello's 'ere in a m(c more diffic(lt !osition tan -. or tem to say no to7a'rence migt serio(sly treaten teir careers, and 7a'rence also ad a tecnicoscientificascendancy over tem tat e lacked over me. 4oreover, alto(g !resented ciefly as a !atriotic d(ty,'ar 'ork 'as not devoid of financial attractions. - tried to give to my st(dents and yo(nger colleag(esmy candid a!!raisal of te sit(ation as - sa' it, #(t - al'ays concl(ded #y insisting tat te decisionm(st #e teirs alone. ll tese str(ggles !oisoned te scientific atmos!ere and !art of te scientificcomm(nity. 2oo often te !olitical a(torities 'ere de!rived of cool, informed tecnical adviceD toooften tey eard only confirmation of teir o'n 'isf(l tinking. Battles strangely similar to tose oftat !eriod still !ersist and are a serio(s treat to (manity.

t tat time - ad fre0(ent offers of (niversity !ositions, and, considering te t(rmoil generated atBerkeley #y te loyalty oat contro

@ ?39 @versy, - decided to go to te University of -llinois at Ur#ana to 'ait tings o(t. 2e cairman of te !ysics de!artment and local c*ar at Ur#ana 'as &. . 7oomis, an a#le and agreea#le !erson. ;e 'asentirely dedicated to te im!rovement of is de!artment, 'ic 'as ten (ndergoing eA!ansion, and'as striving to enric an already eAcellent fac(lty. =il#erto Bernardini ad moved to te University of-llinois from Col(m#ia, and Ur#ana 'as relatively close to Cicago, 'ere - co(ld visit ermi.Bernardini and - ad #een close friends since o(r st(dent days, and 'e ad !leasant eAcanges in ando(tside science, incl(ding memora#le !arties !laying scopone 8an -talian card game. onald Mersts #etatron seemed to #e an interesting accelerator, alto(g it failed to com!letely f(lfill my o!es. lltis 'as needed to com!ensate for te climate and s(rro(ndings, 'ic co(ld not com!are 'it toseof California.

Before going to Ur#ana, o'ever, - 'as a#le to s!end a fe' monts in E(ro!e and in 191 'e 'ent toParis, 'ere - rene'ed my ac0(aintance 'it te +oliotC(ries. - ad received a (l#rigt fello'si!for -taly and ad #een invited to give te ccademia dei 7inceis onegani 7ect(res. 82is 'as 0(ite anonor #eca(se tey ad #een given only once #efore, #y ermi, in 19J9. 2e lect(res - gave in 6omeand 4ilan in !ril 191 'ere later !(#lised in a #ooklet #y te 7incei.1?F

2e !resident of te ccademia dei 7incei, Professor rancesco =iordani, a !ysicocemist, told metat te cademy 'o(ld like to elect me a mem#er or onor me in some oter 'ay. Being an mericanciti*en, o'ever, - co(ld #ecome only a foreign mem#er, and tey 'o(ld ave !referred to ave me as



a national mem#er, 'it voting rigts. - said tat - did not mind #ecoming a foreign mem#er, 'ica!!ened in 19N, s(c #eing te s!eed at 'ic te cademy moves. -n te meantime, - 'as a'ardedte !restigio(s Canni**aro 4edal 819.

n te occasion of te onegani 7ect(res - also met r. 7(igi 4orandi, ten vice !resident of te4ontecatini Com!any, te #iggest -talian cemical com!any, te steel magnates alck, te !(#lisers4ondadori, te ne's!a!er !(#liser -. 4ontanelli, and several oter -talian !ersonalities, 'it 'om -

remained in contact.

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t te end of 191, -nternational B(siness 4acines Cor!oration offered me te directorsi! of ascientific la#oratory it !ro!osed to esta#lis, 'ic 'o(ld #e connected 'it Col(m#ia University in /e' ork and devoted to f(ndamental researc 'ito(t any sortterm commercial a!!lication. 2eoffer 'as all(ring and merited serio(s consideration. 2e (niversity connection, im!ortant for me,'o(ld ave #een !reserved #y a cair at Col(m#ia. n te oter and, - 'o(ld ardly #e a#le tocontin(e my n(clear 'ork, 'ic 'as too remote from -B4s interests. 2e salary -B4 offered 'asa#o(t t'ice 'at - 'as earning at Berkeley.

)r. Segrè, 'ere do yo( come from<) 2omas &atson, +r., te !resident of -B4, asked me in teco(rse of o(r disc(ssions.

)rom Berkeley, California,) - re!lied.

)Strange, - ave #een to California many times, #(t - ave never met a !erson 'o talks like yo(,)&atson said.

&e #ot started la(ging, and - eA!lained tat - 'as -talian. - also 'ent to see -B4s great researcla#oratory at Po(gkee!sie, a tri! of 'ic - remem#er #est te red flame of te a(t(mn foliage againsta dee! #l(e sky, a nat(ral s!ectacle - still vividly recall after so many years. (ring my negotiations'it -B4, - started form(lating some !lans for te f(t(re la# and s(ggesting some !eo!le it 'o(ld #e

desira#le to ire. mong tem 'ere Er'in ;an and 6icard 7. =ar'in. - ad eard of te first at teUniversity of -llinois and of te second from ermi, 'o ad !raised im to me in (n(s(al terms. 2et'o 'ere (ltimately ired #y -B4, and =ar'in is still tere in a senior !osition, 'ile ;an as #ecome a Berkeley !rofessor.

2o f(rter com!licate my deli#erations, - also received anoter attractive offer, from te Brookaven /ational 7a#oratory. &ile - 'as trying to make (! my mind, im!ort(ned #y tese fastidi grassi 8fattro(#les, as my fater 'o(ld ave called tem, te Berkeley sit(ation 'as im!roving. 2e 6egents'ere getting a to(g and deserved lesson from te California s(!reme co(rt, and at te same time teBoards com!osition 'as canging, as te most eAtreme mem#ers 'ere #eing re!laced at te end ofteir terms #y more moderate ones. -n te end, aving considered my o!tions, - decided to ret(rn toBerkeley.

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/ot tat everyting tere 'as easy. - ad to 'o##le #et'een te !ysics de!artment and te 6ad 7a#. -say 'o##le, #eca(se on te one and - needed te accelerators, and my 'ork 'as s(!!orted #y te 6ad7a#, #(t on te oter and - ad diffic(lties 'it 7a'rence. &at ad a!!ened in my early years atBerkeley ad left its scars, and #esides - did not like te little - kne' of 7a'rences military activities. -grant tat e 'as friendly and genero(s in giving me access to te macines, #(t - felt tat if - ad



entered te circle of is close friends, - 'o(ld ave lost my freedom. - t(s avoided going on is !ayroll even d(ring te s(mmer, 'ile almost every#ody else did. - 'anted to make s(re tat e co(ldnot consider me as is em!loyee. - also rater cildisly avoided a!!earing in gro(! !otos taken onte ina(g(ration of accelerators and similar occasions.

-t 'as not easy for me to s!eak to 7a'rence, as it ad not #een easy many years earlier to s!eak toCor#ino, and !ossi#ly 7a'rence too 'as (ncomforta#le 'it me. 2e differences #et'een o(r

scientific o(tlooks, c(lt(ral #ackgro(nds, and !olitical ideas 'ere o#stacles diffic(lt to s(rmo(nt. -clearly sa' tat 7a'rences relations 'it lvare* 8ten, #eca(se later tey canged a!!recia#ly,4c4illan, and even Panofsky 'ere different from 'at tey 'ere 'it meD tey ran on a m(csmooter and easier #asis. 6. 7. 2ornton and on Cooksey, t'o tr(e gentlemen and close friends of #ot 7a'rences and mine, 'en necessary acted as intermediaries. -t 'as easier for tem to s!eak 'it #ot !arties. - do not 'ant to a!!ear (ngratef(l to 7a'rence, and certainly - o'e im m(c, as - said inmy /o#el s!eec, #(t te tr(t is tat - rater avoided im. - note no' tat - ave al'ays called im)7a'rence) ereD every#ody in te la# called im )Ernest,) #(t it took me many years and considera#leeffort to do te same.

7ike everyone involved, 7a'rence recogni*ed tat my gro(! 'as doing good !ysics, and it did notcost im m(cD as a conse0(ence my re0(ests 'ere al'ays !rom!tly satisfied, and more tan once7a'rence !ersonally intervened to assign me time - needed on te accelerators. -n indsigt, - #elieve -so(ld ave made greater efforts to !ierce te cr(st tat se!arated (s, and !era!s 'e 'o(ld #ot ave

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!rofited from it, alto(g - am afraid a close friendsi! 'o(ld ave #een (nlikely.

-t is not easy for me to descri#e my scientific 'ork. 2e titles of my !(#lications s!eak to !ysicists, #(t 'ito(t eA!lanations, my 'ork is not easily (nderstanda#le to lay !eo!le. - m(st any'ayem!asi*e tat science 'as #y far my main occ(!ation, and tat it a#sor#ed my time and energies.Even 'en - 'as a'ay from te la#, - to(gt of !ysics, and - generated many ideas in !laces not

(s(ally connected 'it 'ork. 4o(ntain o(tings ad al'ays also #een scientific occasions.2e general tr(st of my 'ork, from te very #eginning, 'as to eA!lore vario(s more or less reconditeconse0(ences of modern teories, or to meas(re tings to(gt to #e im!ortant. 4y aims 'ere nots!ectac(larly inventive, like tose of !eo!le 'o look for (neA!ected ne' !enomena, and neiter'ere tey #ased on develo!ment of ne' tecni0(es tat made ne' regions accessi#le toeA!erimentation, alto(g accelerators, develo!ed #y oters, 'ere mostly essential to my 'ork. 4ystrong !oints 'ere a good kno'ledge of !ysics and a certain imagination, 'ic ena#led me to seetings not immediately a!!arent to every#ody. or many years te tecni0(es - (sed 'ere very sim!le,almost r(dimentary, and - s!oke of doing )!ysics 'ito(t a!!arat(s.) 7ater, mostly tanks toCam#erlain and &iegand, 'e refined kno'n tecni0(es and a!!lied tem 'it a critical eye, avoiding

errors and o#taining res(lts tat at te time 'ere te #est availa#le.Pysics strategy canged very m(c after te 'ar. 4any eA!eriments are rater o#vio(s, and te !ro#lem is only to !erform tem at te igest !ossi#le energy and 'it a clean tecni0(e. t Ur#ana -(sed to call s(c eA!eriments )#attlesi! eA!eriments,) im!lying a !arallel #et'een !ysics and naval'arfare. - com!ared te f(nction of dmiral /elson 'it tat of an admiral at te #eginning of &orld&ar --. /elson ad to g(ess 'ere te enemy 'o(ld #e, divine te 'eater, and mane(ver is fleetaccordingly, 'ereas a modern admiral 'o ad g(ns tat sot farter tan is o!!onents co(ld sim!lyit im 'ito(t danger of retaliation. 2oday in !ysics it is often !ossi#le to make discoveries sim!ly #y aving more !o'erf(l a!!arat(sHnot tat tis



2e ermi gro(! a!!lied for te ne(tron !atent directly after te discovery of slo' ne(trons. s soon ase eard of o(r findings, Cor#ino recogni*ed teir !otential !ractical im!ortance and (rged (s to filefor !atents. &e a!!lied 'it te el! of te attorney 7a#occetta, and te -talian !atent /. 3?J JN 'asgranted on cto#er ?G, 193. -t concerns a metod of !rod(cing radioactive s(#stances #y ne(troncollisions and in !artic(lar covers te increase of efficiency o#taina#le #y slo'ing te ne(trons 'itm(lti!le elastic collisions. Beca(se slo' ne(trons are central to n(clear !o'er !rod(ction, te !atent is

#asic to te n(clear ind(stry. -t is #asic also for military a!!lications tat (se #ot slo' and fastne(trons. 2e -talian !atent 'as later eAtended to oter co(ntries, incl(ding te United States. 2einventors 'ere

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ermi, maldi, Pontecorvo, 6asetti, and Segrè. &e agreed o'ever to sare !rofits 'it scargostino and =. C. 2ra#acci as 'ell, in e0(al sares.

2e increasingly !recario(s E(ro!ean sit(ation !rom!ted (s from te very #eginning, in 193, totransfer o(r rigts to an merican com!any, in te o!e tat te !atent migt #etter esca!e a !ossi#leE(ro!ean catastro!e. or tis reason, 'e entered into an agreement 'it =. 4. =iannini, a yo(ng #(sinessman 'e kne', 'o ad emigrated to te United States. =iannini took title to te !atent,saring in te !rofits as one of te oter !artners. Patent eA!enses 'ere !aid #y Pili!s of Eindoven,'ic also ad a sare in te !rofits. ermi and - tried to interest some of te #ig U.S. cor!orations,s(c as =eneral Electric, #(t 'ito(t s(ccess, alto(g ermi !ersonally tried to ill(strate te !otentialof te field to teir tecnical #ig'igs. 2eir reaction contrasted 'it te vision of Cor#ino and ofPili!s.?$F

fter te discovery of fission, 'en n(clear energy develo!ment started in earnest, te ne(tron !atent #ecame o#vio(sly f(ndamental to all a!!lications and ence of considera#le val(e. 2is 'as 'ell(nderstood #y ermi and #y myself, 'o 'ere involved in secret 'ork. n te oter and d(ring te'ar it 'as neiter !ossi#le nor desira#le to raise 0(estions a#o(t com!ensation for te !atent. t te

end of te 'ar, tere 'as a long !eriod of (ncertainty 'ile Congress de#ated te tomic Energy ct,'ic among oter s(#ects, 'as eA!ected to reg(late te 'ole 0(estion of !atent rigts andcom!ensation for teir eA!ro!riation #y te government.

ermi, as te cief inventor, ad te !aramo(nt voice in all decisions. fter te 'ar, in te transition !eriod, te U.S. government #argained doggedly 'it ermi tro(g is !atent la'yers. ;e 'o(ldreadily ave reno(nced is o'n rigts, as e ad done for oter most im!ortant inventions relative tote !ile, #(t e felt an o#ligation to !rotect te rigts of te -talian inventors. fter all, te inventionad #een made in -taly, ten years earlier, and te !atent ad #een granted long #efore te U.S.government ad any interest in te matter. 2e senanigans (sed #y te la'yers to o#str(ct andminimi*e te )(st com!ensation) mandated #y te la' ended #y disgr(ntling ermi to te eAtent tate

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declined rea!!ointment to im!ortant government advisory #oards on 'ic e served 8of co(rse'ito(t com!ensation. - #elieve tat te *ealo(s government la'yers, in finding !ossi#le conflicts ofinterest and oter tecnicalities, did grave damage to teir client. &ile te negotiations !roceededslo'ly and la#orio(sly, Pontecorvos fligt in cto#er 19$ f(rter com!licated matters. Ultimately,com!ensation for te ne(tron !atent 'as fiAed at ]J$$,$$$, 'ic #ecame a sort of standard for te



most im!ortant !atents. fter eA!enses, eac inventor received a#o(t ]?$,$$$.

2e istory of te !l(toni(m !atent is different. n re0(est of government agencies, Mennedy, Sea#org,&al, and - filed a !atent a!!lication on !l(toni(m. 2e a!!lication covered 'ork done #y (s, on o(ro'n initiative, #efore any government !artici!ation. -f te government, eA !ost facto, ad not asked (sto file te a!!lication, 'e migt not ave done so. 7ater, o'ever, te government canged its !ositionand 'anted to o#tain o(r rigts free of carge. 2ere 'ere years of mane(vering and negotiations on

te s(#ect, first 'it te 4anattan istrict and later 'it te EC.fter te 'ar, one did not kno' o' te la' 'o(ld treat !atents or !atent a!!lication rigts 'osecontent 'as classified secret and tat 'ere of !(#lic interest, as in o(r case. 2e 4c4aon ct of 19JGre0(ired te government to eA!ro!riate tese rigts, !aying )(st com!ensation.) s!ecial committee'as a!!ointed to determine )(st com!ensation,) #(t it ad ardly any g(idelines to go #y. 2e(ncertainty eAtended over several years.

t one !oint, te University of California made claims, and tese interacted even 'it te loyalty oatcontroversy. 2e maority of te 6egents 'ere determined to assert teir a(tority over te fac(lty inevery !ossi#le 'ay, and !atent rigts entered, alto(g remotely, into tis !ict(re. 7a'rence, astren(o(s defender of tis maority, took an adversary !osition against te inventors. mong oter

tings, e said e feared te effect tat com!ensation for o(r !atents 'o(ld !rod(ce on te morale ofte 6ad 7a#. Sea#org negotiated 'it great a#ility on #ealf of te inventorsD e s(cceeded in !lacatingevery#ody concerned and very effectively !rotected o(r interests.

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2e EC !aid ]J$$,$$$, te same as for te ne(tron !atent. Since tere 'ere no legal eA!enses, eacinventor received ]1$$,$$$, 'ic in tose times 'as an a!!recia#le s(m. &en te inventors settled'it te goverment, 6. =. S!ro(l, !resident of te University of California, 'rote (s a nice lettertanking (s for te monies e eA!ected 'e 'o(ld t(rn over to te (niversity. ;e m(st ave #eendisa!!ointed 'en 'e did not give im anyting. 7ater, 'en my dear friend +ose! Mennedy, m(c to

o(r grief, fell ill 'it stomac cancer, e 'rote me a letter tanking me for insisting tat tecom!ensation to te inventors ad #een f(lly earned, and tat 'e so(ld s!end it as 'e liked. 2e s(me ad ke!t gave im a certain !eace of mind for te f(t(re of is family.

- tink te cases of te t'o inventions 'ere very different. &en te government entered te !ict(re,te ne(tron !atent ad already #een granted and ad international validityD it 'as m(c more tan ana!!lication. 4oreover, it ad #een granted to inventors 'o ad noting to do 'it te U.S.government. - tink 'e 'ere vastly (nder!aid for it. 2e treatment 'e received as inventors from teU.S. government reflects te mindset of la'yers and #(rea(crats, 'o #elieved tat #y s0(ee*ing teinventors as m(c as !ossi#le, tey 'ere !ro!erly serving te government, and 'o also o!ed toac0(ire merit. 2ey may ave saved a fe' dollars, #(t o' m(c did tey lose in te advice a !erson

like ermi co(ld ave given te government< nd 'at a#o(t te good'ill of many oters<2e Britis ave done #etterD - do not #elieve tey ave #een lavis 'it money, #(t tey conferredknigtoods and even life !eerages on men like +on Cockcroft, 6(dolf Peierls, +ames Cad'ick,&illiam Penney, and Patrick Blackett. -t is an ineA!ensive form of com!ensation, #(t it givessatisfaction to many. - #elieve tat te !ettiness, te ealo(sy, and te inclination to litigation !revailingin a democracy s(c as te United States are in te long r(n so(rces of 'eakness.

-n 193 - 'ent to a =ordon Conference in 7aconia, /e' ;am!sire, 'ic gave me te o!!ort(nity ofvisiting !art of /e' England, and - s!ent te rest of te s(mmer at te Brookaven /ational7a#oratory, 'ere - fo(nd ermi and Cam#erlain. 6iccardo 6imini came to /e'



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ork too, accom!anying one of is 'ealty Ur(g(ayan !atients, and 'e s!ent many o(rs togeter. -nte same !eriod - first met te #rilliant !ysicist reste Piccioni, 'ose ideas on im!(lsea!!roAimation 'it virt(al !articles and similar s(#ects - 'as interested to ear. t Brookaven -

again 'orked on astatineD?1F - also did some cemical eA!eriments, 'ic - ave never !(#lised.4ean'ile, Clyde &iegand and some of my st(dents contin(ed o(r eA!eriments at Berkeley. mongte st(dents 'as 2om !silantis, 'o ad st(died cemistry, #(t ad recently come to me #eca(se e'anted to cange to !ysics. - soon recogni*ed is (man 0(alities as 'ell as is (ncommon scientifica#ility. (ring my a#sence, 2om and Clyde s(cceeded in !olari*ing te !roton #eam of tesyncrocyclotron #y collision. 2e metod 'as not ne'D it ad #een teoretically !redicted andeA!erimentally demonstrated at 6ocester, /e' ork,??F #(t !silantis s(cceeded in o#tainings(!erior res(lts and started te eA!loitation of !olari*ed !rotons, o!ening (! ne' !ossi#ilities to test(dy of n(cleonn(cleon collisions. 2e s(ccess o#tained and !silantiss s!irit of initiative im!ressedme, and - !ro!osed a fac(lty a!!ointment for im. ;e 'as one of te most !romising yo(ng !ysicistsat Berkeley, 'ere #e contin(ed to do #rilliant 'ork for several years. Unfort(nately, is #rigt flame

did not last longD some demon, still (nidentified #y me, attacked im. ;e lost some of is drive andlater so(gt to resign is Berkeley !ost. ;is friends on te fac(lty, myself among tem, tried to !ers(ade im to reconsider te decision and ask for a years leave of a#sence instead. 2e follo'ingyear, o'ever, e insisted on resigning. 2ereafter e eld several !ositions, #(t e ended #y acievingless tan is great !otential ad seemed to !romise. Ultimately, e moved to CE6/ in E(ro!e andelse'ere. ;e is an eAce!tionally agreea#le and gifted !erson and one 'om - sincerely love.

-n e#r(ary 19J, d(ring a visit at Cicago, - talked at lengt a#o(t o(r gro(!s !olari*ation 'ork 'itermi, my last serio(s scientific conversation 'it im. ermi develo!ed te form(lae at te #lack#oard 'ile - took notes, and e s(#se0(ently 'rote a !a!er on te s(#ect.?3F

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C%a*ter Ten+

Tri3m*%s and Tragedies -"#/=0"#872,

Odor o& La3rel and Cy*ress

Eret die ra(enO Sie flecten (nd 'e#en;immlisce 6osen ins irdisce 7e#en.

;onor to &omanO 2o er it is given2o garden te eart 'it te roses of eaven.Sciller, )&5rde der ra(en)1F

- ad #een invited more tan once to lect(re in Bra*il, in !art tro(g =.C. 7attes, 'o ad el!eddetect te first !ions formed #y te Berkeley syncrocyclotron. -n 19J te time seemed ri!e for a visitto 6io de +aneiro. (r cildren 'ere too yo(ng eiter to take along on s(c a tri! or to leave alone, so -'ent to Bra*il #y myself tat +(ly 'ile Elfriede stayed #eind 'it tem in Berkeley. &en te



mericaD 'e ad not #een in to(c. -n -taly, e ad #eg(n to feel serio(sly ill, and as soon as eret(rned to Cicago, e 'ent to Billings ;os!ital. 2e first doctor 'o sa' im, an intern, did notmake te correct diagnosis, #(t te cief s(rgeon sortly tereafter !erformed an eA!loratory o!erationand fo(nd a o!eless sit(ation.

s soon as !ossi#le after earing te ne's, - ca(gt a !lane to Cicago. - fo(nd ermi at Billings;os!ital, fed #y a t(#e tat ran directly into is stomac. 2e !atient 'as meas(ring te flo' of te

fl(id #y co(nting te dro!s, (sing a sto!'atc, as to(g !erforming a !ysiology eA!eriment. ;e 'as !erfectly a'are of is condition and started talking a#o(t o' many monts or 'eeks e migt s(rvive,and 'at e 'o(ld do in te sort s!an still allotted im. ;e asked me to s(mmon Ed'ard 2eller to seeim, adding 'it a sligtly ironical smile, )&at no#ler deed for a dying man tan to try to save aso(l<) ermi to(gt tat 2ellers #eavior in connection 'it te ydrogen #om# and in te!!eneimer earings ad #een re!reensi#leHamong oter tings, it ad s!lit te scientificcomm(nity into factionsHand e 'anted to make im reali*e tis. )2e #est ting 2eller can do no' isto s(t (! and disa!!ear from te !(#lic eye for a long time, in te o!e tat !eo!le may forget im,)e added. /eedless to say, as soon as - got #ack to Berkeley, - relayed te s(mmons to 2eller, 'o s(#

@ ?? @se0(ently 'ent to visit ermi. 2eller as given is o'n re!ort of tis visit.?F

ermi ten s!oke !essimistically a#o(t te 'orlds f(t(re. tomic #om#s 'ere making !ossi#le tedestr(ction of civili*ation. ll it 'o(ld take for tem to #e (sed 'as for a madman to come to !o'er ina great nation. Since tis a!!ened every fe' cent(ries, e reckoned tat civili*ation migt, 'it l(ck,last ro(gly tat long. ;e said, too, tat if e lived long eno(g and ad te strengt to do so, is lastservice to science 'o(ld #e to 'rite do'n is lect(res on n(clear !ysics, 'ic 'ere !reserved onlyin te form of notes taken #y st(dents.3F 2is 'as, in fact, is last effort at scientific 'riting. -n aligter vein, e told me tat e ad #een #lessed #y a Catolic !riest, a Protestant !astor, and a ra##i.t different times te tree ad entered is room and dem(rely and !olitely asked !ermission to #less

im. ;e ad given it. )-t !leased tem and it did not arm me,) e added.&e s!ent several o(rs talking a#o(t vario(s s(#ects. mong oter tings, ermi o#served tat sinceis 'ife, 7a(ra, ad (st finised er #ook Atoms in the 'amily& is deat 'o(ld come at te rigtmoment for !romoting it, and tat e o!ed te literary s(ccess e antici!ated for it migt el! erovercome te diffic(lt times se faced.

t te end of te afternoon - left. &en - got o(t of te os!ital, - felt illD te emotional (!eaval !rod(ced in me #y te visit 'as too m(c for my constit(tion. - co(ld scarcely stand, and - remem#ergoing into te first #ar - came across to fortify myself 'it a cognac, someting eAceedingly rare, !era!s even (ni0(e, in my life. - ret(rned to Berkeley gravely (!set, and as soon as !ossi#le - 'ent #ack to Cicago. - fo(nd ermi m(c 'orse and in a more som#er mode. ;e s!oke of is s(fferings

and of oter s(#ects - 'ill omit. &e talked (ntil late in te evening. (ring te nigt, - 'as a'akened #y a !one call anno(ncing tat ermi ad died. -t 'as /ovem#er ?9, 19J.

- stayed in Cicago for te memorial service at te University of Cicago. Searcing for an a!!ro!riateteAt, te (niversity ca!lain !ro!osed several tat did not seem rigt. inally, e s(ggested St. ranciss)Cantico delle creat(re) 8)2e Song of Broter S(n and ll ;is Creat(res). -t seemed to fit teoccasion, and e (sed it.

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ermis (neA!ected and !remat(re deat sook me dee!ly. Even no' ermi often a!!ears in mydreams. -n teir grief, is former !(!ils and friends so(gt an a!!ro!riate memorial. Ultimately, teidea of !(#lising is collected !a!ers crystalli*ed. 2e ccademia dei 7incei and te University ofCicago Press (ndertook to do so and a!!ointed me cairman of te editorial committee.JF

-n 19 'e moved from Berkeley to 7afayette, a s(#(r#an comm(nity a#o(t ten miles east of Berkeley, #eind te coastal ills. (r ne' o(se 'as on a deadend road on a illD te address 'as 3G Crest

6oad. -t ad #een !art of a large estate, ad a #ea(tif(l vie', and 'as in a most attractive nat(ralsetting.

(ring my lifetime - came to love tree omes in !artic(lar. 2e one in 2ivoli, te 2reves villa at4arignolle, and o(r o(se on Crest 6oad in 7afayette. /at(rally, - remem#er te otersH??9 CorsoKittorio at 6ome, my a!artment in Palermo, 1G1% S!r(ce Steet at BerkeleyH#(t - do not ave a s!ecialattacment to tem, and - do not dream of tem at nigt.

- loved te 2ivoli o(se 'ere - 'as #orn, #eca(se - s!ent my cildood tere. Conflict 'it 4arcose!arated me from it, #(t m(c more serio(s as #een te deterioration of te s(rro(ndings. 2e 2ivoliof my cildood does not eAist anymore, and even if te 'alls of te o(se are still tere, all te rest isgone: landsca!e, roads, gardens, neig#orood.

4arignolle 'as never my ome eAce!t d(ring s(mmer visits. 2e !lace str(ggles to s(rvive tecanges in te 2reves family. 2ose of my generation ave almost #ecome slaves of te villa, 'iletose of te neAt 'ill #e ard !(t to maintain its s!irit. -rresisti#le forces ave transformed teagric(lt(re, te society, and even te face of 2(scany.

=eology drove me from 3G Crest 6oad, te o(se - loved #est in te United States. &en - #o(gt it, -did not reali*e te serio(s geological !ro#lems affecting te location, nor te im!ortance of a lo'er lot,'ic 'as also for sale at te time, to its sta#ility. - never to(gt tat some#ody migt 'ant to #(ildon tat lot, #eca(se it 'as manifestly foolardy to do so. 2e s(rro(ndings of te !lace 'ere also

@ ?J @different from 'at tey are no'. 2ere 'as no ;ig'ay ?J, and te area no' occ(!ied #y a c(rc'as a #ea(tif(l meado' 'it a fe' old oak trees. 2e c(rc in d(e co(rse destroyed te #ea(tif(lsetting to create !arking lots and make money, 'ic convinced me tat it 'as an enemy of =od and;is 'orks. (rtermore, in 19G some#ody #o(gt te lot #elo' my o(se mentioned a#ove, and'ito(t my #ecoming a'are of it, o#tained a #(ilding !ermit. &en - sa' te ne' o'ner of te loteAcavating te slo!e in an o#vio(sly dangero(s 'ay, - 'arned im and took !otogra!s of te terrain, #(t - did not start a legal action, 'ic - 'o(ld !ossi#ly ave lost. (ring te 'inter of 19N, eavyrains ca(sed a slide on te eAcavated slo!e.

2is neig#or, in 19G$, s(ed (s #eca(se te slide e ad !rovoked ad damaged is o(seO &eco(nters(ed im, and e lost, #(t te damages a'arded to (s !aid only !art of te cost of a retaining'all 'e ad to #(ild to sta#ili*e te slo!eD nor did tey com!ensate for te de!reciation of o(r !ro!erty,not to mention te time lost and te ang(is ca(sed to (s. -n !ractice 'e never s(cceeded in re!airingte damage satisfactorily. Ultimately, in 19%N, 'e sold te o(se for m(c less tan it 'o(ld avefetced 'ito(t its istory.

- gras!ed too late te ty!e of o(se - 'o(ld likeD f(rtermore, my ideal ome as contradictoryelements in it and ence may not eAist. - like a co(ntry setting, #(t - never really enoyed gardeningD -like a 'ellfinised o(se, #(t - am not a andyman. ll told, dal#ert von Camissos !oem )SclossBonco(rt,) mo(rning te demolition of is cildood ome, !era!s #est reflects my feelings:



s(!erior co(rt to te S(!reme Co(rt, ref(sed to ear te case, #eca(se te stat(te of limitations ad r(nits co(rse.9F

ne day 'en - 'as com!laining a#o(t te aggravation ca(sed to

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me #y Piccioni, a famo(s !ysicist 'o 'as an old colleag(e of is ke!t eAclaiming, )Poor resteOPoor resteO) - resented tis and demanded, )&y !oor reste and not !oor Emilio<) 2o 'ic e !rom!tly ans'ered: )/oD !oor reste and not !oor Emilio, #eca(se reste is cra*y, and yo( are notO)

t te time of te anti!roton eA!eriment, maldi and is 'ife =inestra 'ere at o(r ome in 7afayetteas o(r g(ests. ;e and - esta#lised a colla#oration for te st(dy of !otogra!ic em(lsions eA!osed atBerkeley, taking advantage of te n(mero(s 'elltrained scanners availa#le in 6ome. &en maldiret(rned to -taly, some -talian ne's!a!ers 'rote ina!!ro!riate comments and tried to ascri#e to im a !art e ad not !layed. 2is misre!orting co(ld ave ad (n!leasant conse0(ences, #(t maldi settings straigt and 'e ke!t calm. 2e eA!eriment 'as 'idely acclaimed and soon 'e, and 7a'rence,started receiving n(mero(s com!liments on it. 7a'rence !olitely ans'ered tose addressed to im 'it

a form letter saying tat e ad !assed te congrat(lations to Cam#erlain, Segrè, &iegand, and!silantis, te !eo!le directly involved. Sortly after'ard, anoter gro(! in te la#, incl(ding Piccioni,o#served te antine(tron, o#taining it #y carge eAcange from te anti!roton.1$F

nce 'e ad discovered te anti!roton, 'e o#vio(sly 'anted to kno' te !ro!erties of o(r !article and #(ild on o(r initial s(ccess. Some )#attlesi! eA!eriments,) s(c as crosssection meas(rements, 'ere !ossi#le, and 'e !erformed tem, #(t o(r anti!roton so(rce 'as 'eak and it 'as soon s(r!assed #yoter accelerators tat 'ere coming on stream. &it o(r means 'e co(ld not do m(c more tan 'at'e ad already acieved. ;o'ever, in colla#oration 'it &ilson Po'ells gro(!, 'ic ad a !ro!ane #(##le cam#er, 'e o#tained some good !ict(res of antine(trons o#tained from anti!rotons #y cargeeAcange,11F and (sing !otogra!ic em(lsions 'e started develo!ing statistical information on teanniilation !rocess. -n te meantime, lvare*s gro(! ad develo!ed te ydrogen #(##le cam#er,

and - !ro!osed a colla#oration, #(t e felt 'e did not ave an ade0(ate contri#(tion to offer anddem(rred. Soon te lvare* gro(!, (sing teir ydrogen #(##le cam#er, started o#taining ca!italres(lts. Bogdan

@ ?9 @

4aglic, a (goslavian !ostdoctoral fello', !ioneered in detecting te first resonance #et'eenanniilation !ions, and tis 'as te c(rtain raiser for a 'ole series of #rilliant investigations.1?F Byno' 819NG tere are accelerators forming #eams of anti!rotons and (sing !rotonanti!roton collisionsin great storage rings. 2is is a meas(re of te !ace of !rogress in !article !ysics.

2eoreticians ad s!ec(lated on te ro and omega mesons, and mem#ers of my gro(! tried to seetem eA!erimentally 'it a #ig ne' instr(ment, !lanned and develo!ed ciefly #y !silantis and&iegand, 'ic 'e called te )fly eye) #eca(se it contained many scintillators tat formed a sort of #igcom!o(nd eye. 2e tecni0(e 'as state of te art, and tis 'ork contri#(ted, in a small 'ay, to tediscovery of te ro meson.13F

-n 19 te discovery of te anti!roton reo!ened te !ossi#ility of my 'inning a /o#el Pri*e. fter te'ar - ad started tinking tat my 'ork on te ne' cemical elements and on radiocemistry migt #ring me tat distinction. - sa' Sea#orgs efforts at getting it on similar gro(nds, #(t - did not kno'o' to stake my claim. - o!ed tat te /o#el Committee 'o(ld someo' s!lit te a'ard. !oll



among mem#ers of te Cicago section of te merican Cemical Society in 19J% ad cosen me asone of te ten #est radiocemists in te United States.1JF 7a'rence, too, as - fo(nd o(t many yearslater, considered me a good candidate.1F )Contrari ai voti !oi f(ro i s(ccessi) 8Events t(rned o(tcontrary to o!esD riosto, rlando furioso 1.9.D 'ile - 'as at a cocktail !arty at onald Merstso(se in Ur#ana in cto#er 191, - eard tat te /o#el Pri*e for cemistry ad #een given to4c4illan and Sea#org )for teir discoveries in te cemistry of trans(rani(m elements.) - 'as dee!ly

disa!!ointed.(ring te s(mmer of 19J, - met ;evesy in Bra*il. &e 'ere friends and - co(ld s!eak freely to im.2anks to is S'edis connections, e kne' many of te secrets of te /o#el Committee, and e toldme tat - ad not #een s!ecifically nominated in te year 191, 'ic ad a(tomatically eliminated me.;e advised me to try to interest ermi. -

@ ?G$ @

did not do so #eca(se - kne' !erfectly 'ell tat ermi co(ld not #e infl(enced in matters s(c ascom!etitions and a'ards.

;o'ever, a fe' years later, after ermis deat, is 'ido', 7a(ra, asked me to look at er (s#ands !a!ers #efore se gave tem to te 6egenstein 7i#rary at te University of Cicago. -n so doing, -fo(nd o(t, to my s(r!rise, tat #ot ermi and +ames ranck ad !ro!osed me re!eatedly for te /o#elPri*e in cemistry. - sa' also tat ermi ad !ro!osed, in !ysics, 4aria 4ayer, ;ans +ensen, and&olfgang Panofsky. ;is s!ontaneo(s !ro!osal dee!ly moved me, for te same reasons tat ad !revented me from asking for is s(!!ort. /omination #y im 'as, for me, almost as im!ortant asgetting te !ri*e. 4(c later - ad te o!!ort(nity to tell 4ayer, +ensen, and Panofsky tat tey ad #een nominated #y ermi, and all tree ad te same reaction. f tem, 4ayer and +ensen ad ad te !ri*e. Panofsky ad not.

2e discovery of te anti!roton ad some (n!leasant conse0(ences for te str(ct(re of my gro(! andfor relations #et'een its mem#ers. 'en and Clyde, 'o 'ere carter mem#ers of te gro(!,

develo!ed most of te electronic detectors and co(nters of different kinds. =etson =olda#er, tegro(!s eA!ert on !otogra!ic em(lsions, 'as recr(ited #y me in te early 19$s at Col(m#iaUniversity, 'ere e ad st(died 'it =il#erto Bernardini.

fter te discovery of te anti!roton and connected !(#licity, te moods of 'en and of Clydese!arately darkened. 'en 'anted to #e more inde!endent tan e already 'as, 'ic 'as ardly !ossi#le. ;e 'anted to ave is o'n gro(!, #(t o(r gro(! 'as so small tat - felt f(rter s!litting'o(ld serio(sly im!air its efficiency. 'en 'as ten invited to go to ;arvard, 'ere e s!ent a !eriodas a 7oe# ProfessorD on is ret(rn, e started a small se!arate gro(!. Clyde, too, 'anted to go it alone,and a#ove all to 'ork inde!endently of me and of 'en. Pera!s e 'anted to so' is !ersonal !ro'ess, alto(g is a#ility 'as 'idely recogni*ed, a#ove all #y me and #y is oter colleag(es in te

gro(!. -t is !ossi#le tat even !silantis ad similar 'ises, #(t #eing yo(nger, at te #eginning of iscareer, and of a s(nny dis!osition, e 'as less affected.

@ ?G1 @

-n my o!inion, te strengt of o(r gro(! came from te com#ination of different talents. /o#ody co(lddominate #y is o#vio(s and dis!ro!ortionate s(!eriority, as ad #een te case 'it te vario(s gro(!sled #y ermi. s tings 'ere, - firmly #elieved tat fragmentation or dissol(tion of o(r gro(! 'o(lddamage (s all and im!air o(r scientific o(t!(t. /o one else among (s ad 'ens critical mind, Clydes



tecnical a#ility, 2oms ent(siasm and o!timism, and so on. /or did - tink tat my contri#(tion 'asas negligi#le as it !era!s ten a!!eared to 'en and Clyde. ne element of discomfort 'as te facttat #ot ad #een my st(dents and co'orkers for over fifteen yearsD te !ro#lems to some eAtentresem#led tose tat arise #et'een faters and sons.

- to(gt tat for me te #est co(rse 'as to give #road a(tonomy to te yo(nger mem#ers of te teamand try to aid teir !ersonal initiatives as m(c as !ossi#le. Some of tese initiatives 'ent 'ell, some

'ere less s(ccessf(l. (r gro(! 'as too small to com!ete 'it te m(c larger gro(!s ten enteringte field of !article !ysics, #(t to enlarge it greatly did not s(it my mod(s o!erandi.1GF

fe' years after 'e received te /o#el Pri*e and 'en seceded from te gro(!, e canged is mindand, to my great oy, reoined (s. - eA!ected tat, #eing fifteen years yo(nger tan - 'as, e 'o(ld intime s(cceed me as ead of te gro(!, 'it !silantis as second in command. 2is a!!ened for 'en, #(t (nfort(nately 2om left Berkeley #efore e 'as offered te o!!ort(nity.

f te eA!eriments 'e did after te discovery of te anti!roton, - ave already mentioned te one onte ro meson. ters, s(c as te !ion #etadecay eA!eriment,1%F 'ere s(ccessf(l, #(t took m(ctime, a#ove all #eca(se te a(tors, in o(r tradition, !ro!erly insisted on meas(rements of s(!erior0(ality. 4(c later Clyde &iegand contin(ed eAcellent eA!eriments on mesic atoms on a small scale

'it a fe' st(dents.1NF fe' monts after te anti!roton 'ork, in te s!ring of 19G, - (neA!ectedly received a telegram fromte secretary of te Soviet cademy of Sciences inviting me to an international science conference

@ ?G? @

soon to #e eld at 4osco'. fe' o(rs later, a similar telegram reaced 'en Cam#erlain.7a'rence, 'om - cons(lted, o#ected to o(r going, mainly for !olitical reasons. - to(gt oter'iseand decided to acce!t te invitation, #(t - ad to mane(ver a little to avoid a direct clas 'it7a'rence. (r invitation 'as !era!s te first to come from te Soviet Union, and it arrived at a time

'en scientists, es!ecially tose 'o ad #een at 7os lamos, 'ere considered !rivy to )atomicsecrets,) and 'en very fe' mericans ad visited te Soviet Union. fter a fe' days, invitations alsoarrived for 4c4illan, lvare*, Panofsky, and oters, so tat it #ecame diffic(lt for 7a'rence to t'artso many !eo!le eager to go.

2e tri! to te Soviet Union lasted a#o(t siA 'eeks, and #esides 4osco' and 7eningrad, 'e also 'entto rmenia. -t 'as some time after te famo(s Mr(scev s!eec revealing Stalins crimes. 2e6(ssians did not kno' its teAt, #(t large eAcer!ts of it ad a!!eared in te &estern !ress, and o(r ostsasked (s a#o(t it. 4y im!ressions of 6(ssia are too s(!erficial to #e of val(e. &e 'ere o#vio(slyfavored g(estsH'itness o(r advantages, s(c as tickets to s(!er# #allet so's, o(r !riority in visitingte Mremlin, and similar !rivileges. 2o every#odys s(r!rise, incl(ding mine, - even s(cceeded ino#taining !ayment from te B(rea( of oreign 2ranslations for te translation of te first vol(me of

E;perimental 3uclear -hysics& 'ic - ad edited. &en - asked for royalties or com!ensation, addingtat - 'o(ld a!!reciate !ayment in U.S. dollars, te 6(ssian #(rea(crats 'ere non!l(ssed, andans'ered tat tey 'o(ld ask teir s(!eriors, and tat - so(ld ret(rn in a co(!le of days. &en -ret(rned, te ans'er 'as tat te s(!eriors ad to ask still iger a(torities and tat - so(ld ret(rn ina co(!le of days. - do(#ted anyting 'o(ld come of it. ;o'ever, after tree days, 'en - ret(rned toin0(ire, - 'as told tat te re0(est ad #een granted and tat - 'o(ld receive te money in /e' ork. -co(ld scarcely #elieve my ears.

n tis tri! - sa' Br(no Pontecorvo again for te first time since is defection. ;e 'as so little6(ssified tat at te conference te 6(ssians !resent told im to s!eak Englis, #eca(se tey ad



diffic(lties

@ ?G3 @

in (nderstanding is 6(ssian. Some of is colleag(es treated im as a )Party *ealot.)

2e !erson tat im!ressed me most among te scientists - met 'as -gor 2amm, 'o s(#se0(entlysared te /o#el Pri*e for !ysics in 19N. - immediately liked tis c(ltivated and refined gentlemans'arm !ersonality. ;e 'as also o#vio(sly a co(rageo(s !erson 'o, alto(g e dearly loved isco(ntry, did not esitate to el! it #y saying 'at e to(gt tr(e and fair.19F 7. . 7anda( seemed tome very arrogantD e reminded me of !!eneimer, alto(g of greater a#ility as a !ysicist. - also sa'Peter Ma!it*a, 'om - ad kno'n at Cam#ridge in 193J, as 'ell as is son, 'om - ad ten seen in acradle, #(t 'o no' looked like is fater t'entyt'o years earlier. mong oter a#le !ysicists, - mette likanian #roters, Pavel Cerenkov, +. . Smorodinsky, . . -vanenko, -. P. /ikotin, /ikolaiBogoli(#ov, and Kladimir Keksler for te first time.?$F 2e small fry 'ere scared to mention even temost innocent s(#ects. &en - asked a yo(ng cemist 'orking on tecneti(m 'at e 'as doing, eans'ered evasively and referred me to is s(!eriorsD 'en - !ressed im to say 'at e ad in a testt(#e e 'as olding, e said disconcertedly tat e did not kno'O (rtermore, in te la#oratories, -noted doors sealed 'it 'aA seals, as if tere 'ere great secrets #eind tem.

7ater 'e fle' to rmeniaD d(ring te fligt 'e !assed over te 2(rkis6(ssian #order, 'ere oneco(ld see an a#(ndance of military airfields. - asked for !ermission to take !ict(res, and te g(ide 'oaccom!anied (s assented freely. - 'as s(r!rised, #(t took te !otos. ears later - came to tink tismay ave #een foolardy on my !art.

-n rmenia 'e clim#ed to a ig altit(de o#servatory. sno'storm tra!!ed (s inside te o#servatory,and te rmenians, feeling at ome, started freely eA!ressing to(gts tat at sea level and among6(ssians 'o(ld ave #een dangero(s. - also sa' ancient c(rces and monasteries, in one of 'ic anold !riest took me aside and #itterly com!lained to me in renc a#o(t te negligence of tea(torities, 'o did not !rovide te necessary f(nds for te !reservation of te mon(ments of te !ast.

@ ?GJ @

- ret(rned t'ice to 6(ssia, te last time for te centenary of 4endeleyevs ta#le of te elements in19G9. -n 19%, some of te 6(ssian scientists 'e met ret(rned o(r visit #y coming to Berkeley, and -invited tem to o(r ome. n te 'ay tere, as l(ck 'o(ld ave it, 'e ad a #lo'o(t, te only time tisad a!!ened to me in tirty years. 2e 6(ssians 'ere am(sed #y tis fail(re of merican tecnologyand c(ckled freely, #(t fort(nately a colleag(e of mine, te !ysicist ;er#ert Steiner, 'as in te car.s a st(dent, e ad 'orked in a gas station and e so'ed te Soviet visitors te s!eed 'it 'icone canged a tire in te United States. 2e g(ests 'ere im!ressed. Unfort(nately, te 6(ssians

!ermitted #y teir a(torities to visit (s 'ere fe', al'ays te same, and often not tose 'e 'ere mosteager to see.

-n 19% 2s(ngao 7ee and Cen /ing ang !ro!osed te nonconservation of !arity in 'eakinteractions. Kery cr(dely, te nonconservation of !arity means te follo'ing: if one !erforms anar#itrary eA!erimentHfor instance, if one o#serves te dist(r#ance of a magnetic needle #y an electricc(rrentHand one looks at te eA!eriment or at its image in a !erfect mirror, and tere is no 'ay oftelling 'ic is 'ic, !arity is conservedD on te oter and, if it is !ossi#le to tell a!art o#ect andimage, !arity is not conserved. -n all eA!eriments !erformed (! to 19%, !arity seemed to #e conserved.

-n te same year, te ta( and teta meson decays 8no' tey are #ot called M mesons so'ed a



!ec(liarity. 2e !articles ave te same lifetime and te same mass #(t decay in final states of different !arity. 7ee and ang s(ggested tat tey 'ere one !article 'it t'o different modes of decay. 2ere aremany eAam!les of d(al decay, #(t te diffic(lty in tis s!ecific case 'as tat te decay to t'o states ofdifferent !arity necessitates a !arity cange in te decay. 2is ad never #een seen in electromagneticor strong decays #(t ad not #een r(led o(t eA!erimentally in decays #y 'eak interaction.

7ee and ang !ointed tis o(t. CienSi(ng &( and er colleag(es at te /ational B(rea( of

Standards so'ed, in a case of #eta decay, tat te 7eeang y!otesis 'as correct: !arity 'as notconserved. &itin a fe' days tis s(r!rising res(lt 'as eAtended to m(on decay

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#y 6icard =ar'in, 7eon 7ederman, and =a#riel &einric at Col(m#ia University, and it t(rned o(ttat Kalentin 2elegdi at te University of Cicago ad !revio(sly ad indications of te same !enomenon. 2e sensational discovery removed an old and firmly esta#lised !re(dice and o!enedne' ori*ons to te teory of 'eak interactions. Every#ody r(sed to 'ork on te s(#ect, 'it aneagerness reminding me of tat follo'ing te discovery of fission in 1939, or of igtem!erat(res(!ercond(ctivity in recent years.?1F ermi may ave ad some to(gts on te s(#ectD e adoccasionally cry!tically remarked to me tat no#ody ad ever inverted s!ace 8like a glove,transforming a left and into a rigt one, #(t e left no 'ritten doc(ment of 'at e ad in mind. - 'asdee!ly interested in te discovery of !arity nonconservation and tried to read and (nderstand te ne' !a!ers on te s(#ect tat flooded te literat(re. 7ess agreea#ly, from a narro' and selfis !oint ofvie', - reali*ed at once tat te ne' discovery !ost!oned te !ossi#ility of my 'inning te /o#elPri*eD - 'as s(re 7ee and ang 'o(ld ave !riority. 2o(g l(ck, #(t tere 'as noting - co(ld do.

-n cto#er came te anno(ncement of te a'arding of te /o#el Pri*e in !ysics to 7ee and ang. /o#ody 'as s(r!risedD it 'as an almost !erfect o!!ort(nity to follo' literally te 'ises of lfred /o#el as eA!ressed in is 'ill. - 'as c(rio(s 'eter te sages of Stockolm 'o(ld also incl(de C. S.&(, #(t tey did not. 4any years later - 'as !leased 'en se 'on te im!ortant &olf Pri*e.

-n +(ly 19N - 'ent to =eneva for an international scientific conference at CE6/. t te same timetere 'as a disarmament conference #et'een United States and te USS6. 7a'rence and Panofsky'ere among te merican eA!ertsD -gor 2amm, 'om - ad come to kno' in 4osco', among te6(ssians. - met 2amm on te street and, kno'ing tat 'e #ot liked iking, - s(ggested 'e ike 4o(ntSaleve, in rance. ;e ans'ered tat e co(ld not #eca(se e did not ave is !ass!ort. oolislytinking tat e ad sim!ly left it at is otel, - said, )7et (s go and fetc it.) 2amm ten eA!lained tome tat e did not ave is !ass!ort #eca(se on is arrival te Soviet cons(l ad im!o(nded it. - #l(sed at my lack of tact in asking, and - am still ama*ed at a co(ntry tat 'o(ld take a'ay te !ass!ort of one of its im!ortant

@ ?GG @delegates at an international conference, and tat of a man of 2amms stat(re.

- sa' 7a'rence only in !assing. &ile e 'as in =eneva e ad a serio(s rec(rrence of a colitis tatad long afflicted im. ;e ret(rned to Berkeley and 'ent to Stanford University ;os!ital. - 'as'orried #y is condition and looked in a medical man(al for information a#o(t is illness. - fo(nd tatit is an insidio(s disease 'it ac(te !eriods alternating 'it remissions. 2e !atient (sed to tis cyclemay delay an o!eration too long, (ntil it #ecomes dangero(s. - ad read tis 'en - eard te sadanno(ncement of 7a'rences deat on (g(st ?%, 19N, in circ(mstances similar to tose descri#ed in



te man(al.

7a'rence 'as an intense, im!(lsive, o!timistic, and very active individ(al, more a doer tan a tinker,and a #orn leader of men. ;e 'as f(ll of contradictions, 'ic made im (n!redicta#le. ;is !ersonality'as f(ndamentally genero(s and magnanimo(s, #(t e co(ld occasionally #e !etty. ;is o!timism andent(siasm, #asic ingredients to is s(ccess, led im sometimes #eyond 'ere e so(ld ave gone asa scientist. ;e enoyed life to te f(ll and dre' great satisfaction from is scientific s(ccesses and tose

of is associates, #(t e also !(rs(ed cildis am#itions of consorting 'it ric and !o'erf(l !eo!le.;is !olitical activity, te dark side of is life, is scarcely kno'n to me. -n is yo(t e started as ali#eral in te mid'estern tradition of 6o#ert 7a ollette, as one migt eA!ect given is family originsD #(t e ended as a reactionary. - !ersonally am gratef(l to im for te el! and te o!!ort(nities e gaveme.

t te #eginning of 19%, Sea#org told me tat e to(gt 7a'rences nomination 'o(ld eindis!ensa#le for te a'arding of te /o#el Pri*e to anyone 'orking in te 6ad 7a#. - said tat - 'o(ldnot s!eak to 7a'rence on tis s(#ect, #(t tat if e, Sea#org, 'o(ld do it, - 'o(ld #e gratef(l. fe''eeks later, 7a'rences secretary, 'ito(t a 'ord, so'ed me, on 7a'rences orders, a letter fromStockolm ackno'ledging recei!t of my nomination #y 7a'rence. /o 'ord on te s(#ect !assed #et'een (s.

lso in 19N, - 'as given te ;ofmann medal of te =erman Cemical Society. t first - 'as (ncertain'eter or not to acce!t it, given

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recent =erman istory, #(t - decided, - #elieve correctly, to do so. -t 'as a ig distinction, and - liked #eing recogni*ed #y cemists. - 'ent to &ies#aden at te end of Se!tem#er 19N to receive te medalat te meeting of te =esellscaft e(tscer /at(rforscer (nd hr*te. -t is a #ig affair, 'it scientistsof all s!ecialties and also !iloso!ers. - s!oke, in =erman, on a s(#ect - 'as interested inHtat is, onsystems similar to atoms, #(t constit(ted of !articles different from electrons and ordinary n(clei,

someting on te #orderline #et'een s!ectrosco!y and cemistry.??F t &ies#aden - fo(nd tto;an, 'it 'om - rene'ed an old friendsi!. &e sat neAt to eac oter in te front ro' at aconference addressed #y te !iloso!er Marl +as!ers, 'o ad attracted a (ge cro'd. 2e s!eaker'as rater teatrical and, - to(gt, tried to look like te old =oete, #(t - did not ave te im!ressione said m(c. ;an ad fallen aslee!, #(t at a certain !oint +as!ers started attacking science andscientists. EAactly at tat moment, ;an 'oke (!, t(rned to me, and said: )By scientists& e means yo(and me.)

2e deat of 7a'rence necessitated te a!!ointment of a ne' director for te 6adiation 7a#oratory.2e o#vio(s coice 'as Ed'in 4c4illan. ;e #elonged to 7a'rences old g(ard, e 'as an eminent !ysicist 'o ad greatly contri#(ted to te la#oratorys s(ccess, e 'as a disting(ised accelerators

eA!ert, and e 'as 'ell liked #y most of te !ersonnel. ;e lacked 7a'rences carisma, #(t tat co(ldardly #e d(!licated.

Under 4c4illan, te la#oratory canged its name, #ecoming te 7a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory87B7, 'ile te la#oratory in 7ivermore #ecame te 7ivermore 7a'rence 7a#oratory 8777. 2eadministration #ecame less ca!ricio(s tan it ad #een (nder te creator of te la#, #(t also lessent(siastic and more #(rea(cratic. 4c4illans assignment 'as to(g. 2e (navoida#le com!arisons'it is !redecessor and te im!laca#le !ersonal ostility of lvare*, 'o antagoni*ed im constantly,added to te diffic(lties.

- s!ent a good !art of 19N in 6ome as a =(ggeneim ello'. -n a!!lying for te fello'si!, - gave



ranco 6asetti as one of my referencesD a co(!le of 'eeks later, - received a letter from te o(ndationasking me for a letter of recommendation for 6asetti, 'o ad also

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a!!lied and ad given my name as a reference. 2e accident 'as comic, #(t also em#arrassing, and -

'rote to te o(ndation eA!laining o(r !redicament and innocence of coll(sion in te matter. &e #otreceived fello'si!s, and later - served for many years as a cons(ltant to te o(ndation.

- devoted te time of my fello'si! to te !re!aration of te t'o vol(mes of ermis collected !a!ers.Since e ad died at s(c an (nfort(nately early age, tere still 'ere many 'itnesses 'o 'ere a#le to'rite valid istorical introd(ctions to individ(al !a!ers. - took res!onsi#ility for te organi*ation of tis'ork. - felt an o#ligation, aving #een close to ermi in -taly as 'ell as in merica, and - remem#ered,'ito(t 'anting to make ridic(lo(s com!arisons, tat 4aA'ell ad edited Cavendiss collected !a!ersand 4arie C(rie tose of er (s#and. 2e o# re0(ired considera#le time and effort even 'it te el!of oter mem#ers of te editorial committeeD maldi, nderson, Persico, 6asetti, and &atten#ergcarried a s(#stantial !art of te load, as did several o(tsiders. 2e #iogra!ical introd(ction - 'rote forermis collected !a!ers served me as te #asis for is #iogra!y, 'ic - !(#lised ten years later.?3F

n +an(ary 19, 199, te University of Palermo gave me an onorary degree, 'ic - iglya!!reciated. n te occasion - visited Palermo for te first time since te 'ar. 2e city ad greatlydeteriorated and te elegant s(rro(ndings of o(r o(se at te #eginning of Kiale della 7i#ertT ad #adlydecayed. - sa' again te -stit(to fisico in Kia rcirafi and several of my old Sicilian friends. fter o(rstay in Palermo, 'e to(red Sicily once more and visited Syrac(se, 'ic 'e did not yet kno'.

little later, in e#r(ary, - ad to go to Scandinavia. - 'as invited to visit Bors -nstit(te inCo!enagen, and to Stockolm and slo to lect(re for /ordira, an association of Scandinavian(niversities. - 'as t(s a#le to see Bor again, as 'ell as te t'o Sieg#ans, fater and son,?JF skarMlein and oter colleag(es. - ad a friendly rece!tion every'ere, and - s(s!ected tat - ad not #eeninvited solely to so' me te 'intery attractions of Scandinavia.

n my 'ay #ack - sto!!ed at ;am#(rg, 'ere - lect(red on e#r(ary

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1G, 199, on te invitation of &. +entscke, a !ysicist - ad #efriended in Ur#ana in 19? and 'olater #ecame director of CE6/. - s!oke at te old Stern -nstit(te, 'ere - ad 'orked a#o(t tirty yearsearlier. -n te a(dience 'ere some !rofessors 'o ad #een Sterns assistantsD - kne' tey ad #ecome*ealo(s /a*is (nder ;itler and avoided tem.

By cance - ad read a ne's!a!er advertisement !laced #y a detective 'o s!eciali*ed in locating !eo!le. (t of c(riosity, - 'rote to im a fe' days #efore my arrival in ;am#(rg, asking im to findmy old girlfriend, )-.) ll - ad to go #y 'ere er maiden name and er address in te 193$s, #(t for avery modest fee te detective s(!!lied me 'it er married name, address, and tele!one n(m#er, as'ell as a descri!tion of er (s#and, is !rofession, and teir financial and family sit(ation.-mmediately after te detective left my ;am#(rg otel, - called er n(m#er. Se ans'ered erself, anddid not ave te im!ression se 'as eAcessively s(r!rised. &e made an a!!ointment to see eac oterte neAt day, and 'en 'e met 'e s!oke a#o(t some of te !ast and little of te !resent. Se did not #elieve in te reality of te /a*i crimes, 'ic, in an intelligent !erson, asto(nded me. 2e denial can #e only eA!lained #y te terri#le diffic(lty of facing te facts. Se ad t'o da(gters, 'om - did notsee. fe' years later tey sent me a !rinted anno(ncement of te deat of teir moter.



n my ret(rn to -taly, in 4arc 199, - attended an a'ard ceremony for old em!loyees of SC2, myfaters !a!er mill, and - 'as asked to confer te medals. - dee!ly a!!reciated #eing cosen for tis aste re!resentative of te family.

&en - ret(rned to Berkeley, te date for te anno(ncement of te /o#el !ri*es 'as a!!roacing andsome S'edis o(rnalists called me from /e' ork asking for #iogra!ical details. - 'as ig in te #alloting of te a'arding committee, tey said. 2at year, contrary to all !recedents, te /o#el

committee ad leaked information to te !ress a#o(t a 'eek #efore te final vote. 2(s tey ke!t me,and oter o!ef(ls 'o ad #een named, on tenterooks for a 'eek. inally, on cto#er ?G, - eard teanno(ncement on te radio, and sortly tereafter - received an official telegram. /eedless to say, #efore te anno(ncement - did not kno' if and o' a !ri*e given for te anti!roton

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'o(ld #e divided #et'een Cam#erlain, myself, &iegand, and !silantis, since te !a!er re!orting tediscovery ad #een signed #y all fo(r of (s in al!a#etical order. 2e S'edis cademy of Sciencesdecided to a'ard te !ri*e to Cam#erlain and myself. Cam#erlain 'as at ;arvard at te time, and etele!oned me to !lan te s!eeces 'e 'o(ld give at Stockolm. - left te coice to im, and e askedto s!eak a#o(t te tecni0(e follo'ed in revealing te anti!roton, leaving to me te conse0(ences ofte discovery. - 'illingly agreed.

2e tri! to Stockolm 'as more or less te same as tat of all oter la(reates, very interesting andsatisfactory. 2e tree cildren accom!anied (s. melia ad ca(gt !oison oak a fe' days earlier, ander face 'as #adly s'ollen. - told er tat if se did not scratc erself, se 'o(ld most likely recover #efore te time of te ceremonies. So it 'as. - al'ays admired te 'ill!o'er of te little lady.

ollo'ing tradition, - gave a sort s!eec of tanks on #ealf of all te la(reates at te royal #an0(ettat cele#rated te a'arding of te !ri*es.?F s - ave o#served else'ere, - ad #orro'ed my friendnconas tailcoat for te occasion. - ad also o#tained a 'ite 'aistcoat tat ad #een (sed #y severalBerkeley /o#el Pri*e 'inners from 4c4illan, 'o asked me to sign it. ne of its 'earers even told

te king of S'eden te story, saying: )Sir, !lease look caref(lly at tis 'aistcoat. o( ave seen itre!eatedly.) t te royal dinner - ad a most interesting conversation 'it te king, 'o kne' -talyvery 'ell indeed.

7ater in te evening, at te st(dents dance, - ad to give a second s!eec. ;ere is 'at - said:

St(dents, 7adies and =entlemen:

lto(g 'e ave a !oet in o(r midst Salvatore V(asimodoF, 'o 'o(ld #e far moreelo0(ent tan - can #e, - ave #een cosen to ans'er yo(r gracio(s and eartfelt greeting,and - 'ill do my #est.

&e /o#el la(reates, alto(g 'e 'ork in 'idely diverse fields, sare at least one ting in

common: 'e s!end a good !art of o(r life teacing and 'orking 'it st(dents and yo(ng !eo!le like yo(, te ne' generation on 'ic te f(t(re de!ends. Us(ally 'e are #eforeyo( to disc(ss o(r s!ecial fields of interest. 2onigt 'e may 'ell s!eak to yo( in #roaderterms.

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-t as almost #ecome a c(stom to tell animal fa#les on tis occasion. 2'o years ago !era!syo( eard a 'ise riental one from my friends 7ee and ang. - do not kno' te origin of



te one - am going to tell yo(. Pera!s it is S'edis, and so yo( may already ave eard it.2e !erson 'o ta(gt it to me 'as an old V(aker lady from Pennsylvania 7oren*o EmosgrandmoterF.

2'o frogs 'ere lea!ing and frolicking in a meado' 'en tey s!ied a strange o#ect.Being c(rio(s, tey decided to investigate it, and te 'ay frogs investigate tings is #y (m!ing into tem.

-n tis !artic(lar o#ect tey fo(nd temselves very m(c at ome, #eca(se it 'as a !ailf(ll of milk. or a time tey ad a s!lendid time s'imming a#o(t. 2en tey felt tired and #egan to seek solid gro(nd, #eca(se, as yo( kno', frogs cannot live indefinitely in a li0(id.

4(c to teir consternation tey fo(nd tat tere 'as no island in tis !ond of milk. Panicstricken, tey tried to (m! o(t of te !ail, #(t te 'alls 'ere too ig and too slick andtey fell #ack. gain tey (m!ed and fell #ack, and ten again and again. 2e sit(ation #ecame more and more des!erate.

t last one of te frogs gave (!. 2e 'alls 'ere far too ig, te s(rfaces far too smoot toclim# (!, e reasoned. Clearly tere 'as no o!e. ;e fell #ack and dro'ned.

2e oter frog, !era!s a little less intelligent, #(t far more st(##orn and !ersistent,contin(ed (m!ing. ver and over e lea!ed (! and fell #ack. ;e 'as at te !oint ofcom!lete eAa(stion and nearly resigned to oining is fello'.

nd ten e felt someting firm and ard (nder is legs. little island of #(tter 'asforming. &it a fe' more (m!s, e c(rned an island tat 'as #ig eno(g so tat e co(ldrest and ten (m! o(t of te !ail, and so e 'as saved.

- leave te moral to yo(, #(t it m(st #e a !o'erf(l one #eca(se - still remem#er te oldV(aker lady of Pennsylvania telling me te story in 19J$, d(ring te darkest days of te'ar.

- al'ays liked te story, 'ic - fancied reminiscent of my o'n eA!erience. n tis occasion my

a(dience #esto'ed on me te )rder of te al'ays smiling and (m!ing little frog.)- ad time to see skar Mlein and 7ise 4eitner 8#y ten rater aged in Stockolm. - also 'ent toU!!sala to Mai Sieg#ans instit(te to give a lect(re, #(t - ad to (rry to 6ome for SC2 #(siness.

- ave al'ays regretted tat neiter my !arents, my (ncle Cla(dio,

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Cor#ino, nor ermi 'ere a#le to see me getting te !ri*e. 4y !arents satisfaction 'o(ld very likelyave eAceeded my o'n. - can ardly imagine tat of Uncle Cla(dio, 'o gave me a !air of goldc(fflinks sim!ly #eca(se - ad received a s(!erior grade in a mecanics eAam. By no' - ad all te

!(#lic recognition - co(ld o!e forD selfesteem is someting else. - #elieve - never got a s'ollen ead.2at tere is no onor tat can affect my accom!lisments is a ard fact - ave al'ays ke!t in mind.

2e reason for te !restige of te /o#el Pri*e for !ysics is tat, all told, it as #een given 'ell. 2isdoes not mean tat tere ave not #een some l(cky mediocrities 'o ave received it and someeminent deserving scientists 'o ave #een !assed over. or te former, it 'as a stroke of l(ckD for telatter, a!art from 'orldly disa!!ointment, it is (nim!ortant. Persons s(c as Einstein, Planck,6(terford, and Bor ave given te a'ard its !restige. -f one or more of tem ad not received it, teloss 'o(ld ave #een entirely to te !restige of te !ri*e, not to tem. Considering all te la(reates, one



!ointing (!'ard, a tin cane, and strange attire tat seemed a caricat(re. - looked at im from myiding !lace for a fraction of a min(te and ten greeted im in te most nat(ral 'ay, 'ito(t so'ingte sligtest s(r!rise. )&at lang(age sall 'e s!eak<) e asked. )ny,) - re!lied, as if - kne' temall. By no' 'e 'ere com!eting in one(!mansi!. &e settled on renc, miAed 'it m(c Englis. -tt(rned o(t tat ali, 'o 'as accom!anied #y is attractive and interesting 'ife =ala 8'ose istory -did not kno', intended to invite me to dinner. - did not say - ad already eaten #(t ate once more,

ligtly. fter a 'ile, it m(st ave #een a!!arent tat te com!etition in one(!mansi! 'as a dra',and te game s(#sided.

ali eA!lained to me tat e 'as tr(ly interested in modern !ysics and tat e ad read several articlesin te Scientific American , 'ic 'as o#vio(s from te 'ay e s!oke of 0(anta, te (ncertainty !rinci!le, antimatter, and so on. ll tese ideas ad, o'ever, s(ffered a sea cange in is mind tat -co(ld not gras!, #(t tat 'as o#vio(sly sincere and interesting. ;is !aintings of soft 'atces #endingand dri!!ing as if tey 'ere ceese ad idden !ysical and !sycic meaning for im. ;e eA!lained tome tat te madonna e ad !ainted 'as )anti!rotonic) #eca(se only te anniilation of matter co(ldgive s(fficient force to !ro!el a 'oman to eaven. s e s!oke - #ecame convinced tat e ad a 'ayof seeing te 'orld different from tat of a scientist, certainly more s(#ective, #(t also valid in its o'nterms. &e ten !assed to artistic tecni0(e. ;e said e !ainted many o(rs a day, slo'ly and 'it

eAtreme care. )-f yo( look at my !aintings 'it a magnifying glass, yo( 'ill discover many tings, #eca(se - often !aint (sing a magnifying glass, and details are almost invisi#le 'ito(t it.) - o!ed tate migt give me a dra'ing in eAcange for 'at - ad sent im, #(t instead e sent me a #ook ofre!rod(ctions of is 'ork 'it a dedication. - regretted not aving read te #ook #efore o(r meetingD italso contained te 'ole istory of is 'ife =ala. Se ad listened to o(r lively conversation, s!eakingonly rarely, mostly el!ing (s 'en 'e searced for 'ords, #(t - sa' se 'as is constant model ando#vio(sly in many 'ays an ins!iration.

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-n 4arc 19G$ - gave te ac(lty 6esearc 7ect(re at Berkeley, for 'ic - ad #een selected #eforereceiving te /o#el Pri*e. 2is lect(re is a ig local onor conferred on mem#ers of te Berkeleyfac(lty #y teir colleag(es.?GF ollo'ing te lect(re, - 'as on te selection committee for ten years orso, and tere, contrary to 'at ad a!!ened on oter Berkeley committees, - sa' a certain s!irit of !artisansi! #ased on disci!lines. Ultimately, on lvare*s s(ggestion, te Berkeley cademic Senateresolved to a!!oint t'o fac(lty researc lect(rers yearly, one for te (manities and one for science.

2e year 19G$ 'as saddened #y several tragedies. n !ril ?3, Corneli(s Bakker !erised in anair!lane accident. &e ad #een friends since 193$, 'en 'e colla#orated in Leemans la#oratory. fterte 'ar Bakker ad visited me in Berkeley, and 'e ad even cond(cted a small investigation togeter.;e ad later #ecome te director general of CE6/, and - ad visited im at =eneva. maldi andBernardini to(gt of nominating me as is s(ccessor at CE6/. - 'as some'at s(r!rised, #(t - agreed

to stand for te a!!ointment. 2e CE6/ directorsi! 'o(ld ave given me a ne' activity tat at myage and at tat !ase of my career a!!ealed to me. ;o'ever, te nomination 'as received coolly and acam!aign for anoter !erson 'as immediately startedD - ten 'itdre' my candidat(re.

fe' monts later an (neA!ected #lo' str(ck (s. (r dear friend rancis +enkins, 'o ad el!ed (sso m(c in diffic(lt times, and to 'om 'e 'ere very close, fell inc(ra#ly ill and died. (ring tes(mmer, Elfriede and te cildren ad gone on a to(r of /e' 4eAico, revisiting 7os lamos. - did notleave Berkeley #eca(se - kne' of +enkinss condition and 'anted to #e on and in case - co(ld in any'ay #e of el!. - 'rote a dee!ly felt o#it(ary and s!oke at is memorial service. -n 19G% is 'ife,;enriette, also died, to o(r dee! sorro'.



-n te a(t(mn of 19G$, te 6ockefeller o(ndation invited me to go to /igeria for tat co(ntrysinde!endence !roclamation, sced(led for cto#er 1. -t 'as a (ni0(e o!!ort(nity, and Elfriede and -stayed tere for a#o(t tree 'eeks as g(ests of -#adan University. -t 'as my first tri! to frica, and -kne' very little a#o(t it. - #o(gt ligt clotes s(ited to te climate and a !it elmet of te kind once(s(al in frica,

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#(t - 'as told on arrival to s(!!ress tis eadgear at once, as it 'as considered a sym#ol ofcolonialism. fter o(r first official dinner, 'it every#ody formally dressed in #lack tie, - 'as s(r!rised'en te ladies retired and te men 'ent to (rinate on te osts la'n.

ne evening 'ile to(ring te co(ntry, 'e visited te #a of Benin, 'o lived in a #ig m(d !alace,togeter 'it is co(rt, 'ic incl(ded many 'ives and a#o(t fifty cildren. 2e antro!ologist 4. +.;erskovits, 'o 'as also in te !arty, asked te #a many 0(estions on (stice and la' in Benin, ando' e reconciled tem 'it Britis la' and te religio(s commandments of te several !revailingfaits. 2e #a ad #een ed(cated in England, s!oke te lang(age 'ell, 'rote 'it a modern fo(ntain !en, and ad inscri#ed !otogra!s of several mem#ers of te Englis 6oyal amily. ;e com!laineda#o(t is cildren, 'o all 'anted to go to Eton, an eA!ense e co(ld not afford. s e s!oke, some oftese cildren so'ed (! stark naked in te rece!tion all, only to #e !rom!tly dismissed.

fter a 'ile te #a !olitely inted tat e ad eno(g of te antro!ologists 0(estions and t(rned tome, saying tat e kne' - 'as a !ysics !rofessor and o!ed - co(ld el! im to clear (! te conf(sione felt 'en tey told im te eart 'as s!erical, 'ile old traditions said it 'as fiat and so ita!!eared to im. (rtermore, e co(ld not (nderstand o' te s(n disa!!eared every day from acertain !art of te ori*on and rea!!eared on te o!!osite side te neAt morning. - tried as #est as -co(ld to eA!lain tese mysteries to im, and e ten !assed to te moon. ;o' far 'as it< &o(ld temericans or te 6(ssians arrive tere first< n te moons distance - gave im some information, #(t- ref(sed to !redict 'o 'o(ld arrive tere first. n my ret(rn to Berkeley - #o(gt an ill(strated

astronomy #ook for yo(ng !eo!le for te #a. - did not 'ant to offend im, o'ever, so - sent it to im'it a letter to te effect tat - to(gt it migt interest some of te cildren - ad seen at is co(rt.

t te !roclamation of inde!endence, te man slated to #ecome te first !rime minister of inde!endent /igeria, Sir #(#akar 2afa'a Bale'a, made a s!eec tat im!ressed me greatly for is realism, and

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e0(ili#ri(m. ;e !ointed o(t grave !ro#lems facing te ne' nation and some of te necessary remedies.&itin a fe' monts e 'as m(rdered.

-n my academic career, - long avoided administrative 'ork. 2is 'as easy to do, #(t - neverteless

ended (! so(ldering many res!onsi#ilities in tis field too, es!ecially in later years. s a r(le - aveacce!ted assignments if asked to #y te (niversity, te government, or some oter !(#lic instit(tion, #(t- never strove to oin #oards, directorates, committees, and so on. Since tere are al'ays many !eo!leeager to serve in s(c offices, tose 'o do not so' a keen interest in te o#s do not get tem.

;o'ever, at te University of California at Berkeley - ave ended #y serving on most of tecommittees of te cademic Senate. Some 'ere a 'aste of time, #(t - remem#er te B(dgetCommittee, on 'ic - served from 19G1 to 19G, as a s(!erior scool and as an occasion for reallyel!ing. 2is committee !ractically controls all academic !romotions and a!!ointments. -t 'as tencom!osed of five mem#ers indirectly elected #y te 'ole fac(lty. - 'as im!ressed #y te dedication



and fairness dis!layed #y its mem#ers in 'orking on assignments tat 'ere often 0(ite delicate. - didnot see eAam!les of !artisansi! or of slo!!y !roced(res, and all te mem#ers la#ored assid(o(sly atteir o#. -t is (stly said tat tis committee as #een te so(rce of te 0(ality of te Berkeley cam!(s.

- ave occasionally #een s(mmoned to &asington #y te /ational Science o(ndation or te /ationalcademy of Sciences, or invited to serve on !anels of /S and similar organi*ations, and - ave #een a tr(stee, advisor, mem#er of visiting committees, and so on for several (niversities. - al'ays

conscientio(sly did my ome'ork and said 'at - to(gt. - did not ave te im!ression tat - 'as !artic(larly !o!(lar as a mem#er of committees. 4ay#e - s!oke too m(c and not di!lomaticallyeno(g. -n te 6ad 7a#, - ad fe' administrative f(nctions, eAce!t in te direction of my o'n gro(!.(r vie's 'ere too divergent and o(r !ersonalities too different to make me (sef(l to 7a'rence in

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te direction of te la#. -ndirectly, - carried some 'eigt, #(t not #y reason of any official !osition.

- 'as infl(ential in te !ysics de!artment #eca(se te cairmen, on teir o'n, cons(lted 'it andlistened to me. - 'as insistently offered te cairmansi!, #(t - did not acce!t it, #eca(se at te time -

'o(ld ave ad to sacrifice too m(c of my scientific 'ork. 7ater - served as cairman for t'o years,from 19G to 19G%.

- ave also #een on selection committees for fello'si!s. =enerally tere 'ere eAcellent candidates,and as regards te first !laces tere 'as only te !redicament of coosing among tem. 2e less'orty 'ere also !retty o#vio(s. 2e !ro#lems arose at te dividing line.

7etters of recommendation al'ays !lay an im!ortant role. n te many occasions 'en - 'as asked to'rite tem, - al'ays tried to el! te addressee #y giving im as m(c information as - co(ld, goodand #ad, and trying to !(t myself in is soes. - #elieve one of te res(lts 'as tat my letters carried'eigt. - once recommended an eAcellent former st(dent, red /oel S!iess, 'o ad done is P..'it me. 7a'rence read my letter and reinforced it 'it one of is o'n, in 'ic e added te

comment: )s yo( kno', Segrè is rater conservative in is statements a#o(t !eo!le, and is letter, -'o(ld say, is a strong recommendation) 8'ic certainly 'as my intention.

2e reci!ient of a letter of recommendation m(st kno' te a(tor to (nderstand te im!ort of te letter.-t is said tat Einstein 'as so nice to every#ody tat is letters ended (! #eing disco(nted. ermi 'asstingy 'it !raise, #(t !recise in is statements. nce e 'rote tat 6icard =ar'in ad #een one ofte very #est of is st(dents. )ne says tis of every#ody,) commented te !ersonnel director of te6ad 7a#, to 'om te letter 'as addressed. )B(t if ermi says it, it is most im!ortant,) - re!lied.

-n e#r(ary 19G?, rt(r ;. Com!ton came to Berkeley as a visitor, togeter 'it is 'ife. Besides #eing a great !ysicist, Com!ton 'as also an a!!ealing (man #eing. ;e ad acted co(rageo(sly andno#ly d(ring te 'itc(nts of Senator +ose! 4cCarty of &isconsin, #(t e ad #een very ca(tio(s'it res!ect to ref(gee scientists and foreigners in general, seeming 'orried a#ove all tat tey 'o(ldtake

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!ositions a'ay from mericans. /o', after te great s(ccesses acieved 'it atomic energy, after isclose ac0(aintance 'it ermi, and so m(c 'ater (nder te #ridge, e 'as a canged man. &e invitedim to dinner, and - 'ent to listen to is s!eeces, 'ic 'ere in te nat(re of sermons on science andreligion. Unfort(nately, 'ile still at Berkeley, Com!ton fell ill and died, 'ito(t #eing a#le to



com!lete is anno(nced series of lect(res, alto(g e ad given most of tem. 2e 6egents ref(sed to !ay te onorari(m agreed (!on, #eca(se Com!ton ad not f(lfilled is contract. Some#ody asked meto fill in and give one or t'o lect(res so tat te 'ido' migt #e !aid. - 'illingly com!lied.

-n 19G3 te ccademia dei 7incei asked me for s(ggestions for te onegani 7ect(res, named for tefo(nder of 4ontecatini, te largest -talian cemical com!any. - to(gt tat it migt #e more'ort'ile to esta#lis a s(mmer scool rater tan contin(e te series of formal, !olised orations

tat te lect(res ad #ecome. - 'anted tem to teac someting ne' and !ractical for te #enefit ofyo(ng -talian cemists and tecnologists. - disc(ssed tis !ossi#ility 'it my friend r. 7(igi 4orandi,vice !resident of 4ontecatini.

- s(ggested tat materials science, 'ic 'as not m(c st(died in -taly, #(t 'as flo(rising in teUnited States, migt #e an a!!ro!riate field. 2e idea 'as to st(dy te tecnological !ro!erties ofmaterials scientifically, (sing all te tools of modern !ysics. Ceramics, modern metallic alloys,semicond(ctors, and !lastics 'ere s(ita#le s(#ects. 4(c of te tecnology ad #een kno'n for a longtime, #(t in recent years it ad #een transformed, !assing from an em!irical to a scientific stage. 2efr(its of te marriage #et'een science and tecnical !ractice are a#(ndant and !ervade modernind(stry.?%F

- o(tlined a !rogram for a s(mmer scool. lto(g - am not an eA!ert on te s(#ect, - kne' to 'omto t(rn for el! and advice. &en it came to te !ractical organi*ation, 4orandi leaned eavily on isrigtand man, Um#erto Colom#o, to 'om e introd(ced me, and Colom#o and - soon #ecame goodfriends. Colom#os scientific training 'as mainly in geocemistry, 'ic e ta(gt at te University

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of =enoa, #(t is interests eAtended very #roadly to economics, a!!lied science, f(t(rology, andscience !olicy. Event(ally e #ecame one of te foremost E(ro!ean science administrators. -ndirectly -el!ed im to #(y a large co(ntry estate near lorence #y introd(cing im to a friend of Emos 'o'as a real estate #roker. - admired te !rom!tness 'it 'ic Colom#o closed te dealD e needed

ardly more tan a co(!le of o(rs.fter 19JG - often ta(gt co(rses in n(clear !ysics, as 'ell as in 'at 'as ten kno'n of !article !ysics. or tis !(r!ose - (sed Betes famo(s articles, a #ook #y 6asetti #ased on ermis lect(res,and ermis o'n remarka#le notes. /one of tese 'as (! to date and 'olly s(ita#le for te st(dents,o'ever, and in 19N - decided to 'rite my o'n teAt#ook on n(clear and !article !ysics. 2e s!iritand te aim of tis !roect are given in te !reface to 3uclei and -articles& 'ic took five years ofintermittent 'ork for its com!letion.?NF 2e res(lt 'as a tick vol(me, 'ic as #een translated intoseveral lang(ages and re0(ired a second edition in 19%N.

2e istory of science as al'ays interested me. &en - 'as a #oy, my !arents gave to me #ooks onte s(#ect #y =aston 2issandier, 'ic 'ere long my favorite reading. 7ater - read 6enR Kallery

6adots 4ie de -asteur , 'ic 'as one of my moters favorite #ooks. s an active scientist, - alsos(#se0(ently read #ooks on te istory of !ysics, cemistry, and matematics. - kne' tat in o(rtimes !ysics 'as making colossal strides, and tat 'e 'ere !ro#a#ly living in an eAce!tional age. -ad saved some doc(ments on te s(#ect, es!ecially 'it regard to te 'ork done in 6ome.Unfort(nately, te #(lk of tese !a!ers 'ere lost in a !arcel - sent from -taly to Berkeley tat 'entdo'n 'it te ocean liner Andrea )oria . - never ke!t a diary, and - regret not aving done so, at leastd(ring certain !eriods of my life.

- ad !rofessional contact 'it istory of science for te first time in te early 19$s 'ile serving on acommittee carged 'it revitali*ing te !iloso!y de!artment at Berkeley. mong several



C(#an missile crisis, ten ragingD in te car te official gave me some of te ne's, and - 'asfla##ergasted. - clearly remem#er te strange sensation of giving a lect(re like an a(tomaton, !ractically 'ito(t kno'ing 'at - 'as saying, 'it my mind t(rned to 'at - ad eard in te car andconcern for te cildren in 7afayette.

&e 'ere also forced to c(t sort o(r !lanned stay in Ceylon #eca(se -ndia ad gone to 'ar 'it Cinaand 'as a#o(t to re0(isition all !lanes. &e 'ere told tat if 'e did not leave at once 'e 'o(ld #e st(ck

in Ceylon indefinitelyO -n -ndia - visited ;omi +eangir Ba#a and several oter !ysicist friends.- liked te little - sa' of /e!al immenselyHit reminded me of te #r(**i in -taly on a m(c enlargedscale.

n o(r 'ay to -taly 'e sto!!ed in -srael. -t 'as my first visit, and 'e 'ere coming from 2ird &orldco(ntries. 2e last 'e ad visited 'as -ran, 'ic, in s!ite of its im!ressive art and magnificent mon(

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ments 'as still a 2ird &orld co(ntry. 2e contrast 'as striking and fostered my a!!reciation of&estern civili*ation.

-n many co(ntries - ad seen te mis(se of f(nds given #y te United StatesD in -srael one ad teim!ression tat te money ad #een 'ell s!ent and tat eac dollar ad #een transformed intosometing (sef(l.

- o!ed to #e a#le to s!end some time 'it =i(lio 6aca, no' !resident of +er(salem University, #(te ad to leave s(ddenly and (neA!ectedly for te United States on (niversity #(siness. ;o'ever, - metanoter teoretical !ysicist, (val /eeman, 'o tried to !ers(ade me of te im!ortance of te SU3gro(! in !article !ysics. - 'as ske!tical, #(t on my ret(rn ome - st(died te s(#ect andackno'ledged my error. /eeman asked me to give a talk at 2el viv University, of 'ic -s(#se0(ently #ecame a )governor) and from 'ic - received an onorary degree in 19%?.

4y scientific activity 'as diminising, #ot #eca(se of my age and also #eca(se of te internalsit(ation of my gro(!, already descri#ed. -n addition to giving my reg(lar co(rses, - 'ent to tela#oratory every day and talked to st(dents and co'orkers, follo'ing teir !rogress, offering criticismand s(ggestions, calc(lating res(lts, or form(lating some sim!le teory, #(t 'ito(t !ersonallyeAec(ting te eA!eriments. Several of tem 'ere concerned 'it mesic atoms of vario(s kinds. 2erelevant !(#lications 'ere !ro!erly a(tored #y &iegand, 'o 'as te !rinci!al investigator.Cam#erlain at tat time 'as mainly concerned 'it !olari*ed ydrogen targets and 'it develo!ing atecni0(e #ased on a metod introd(ced #y Carson . +effries.

2e scientific !rofession #elongs to yo(tD any !er(sal of scientists #iogra!ies #ears testimony to tis.-t 'o(ld #e too long and o(t of !lace ere to give te reasons for tis fact, 'ic in any case is not toomysterio(s. EA!erimentalists last a little longer tan teoreticians, #(t even for tem scientific

!rod(ctivity declines at a time 'en oter a#ilities are still 'ell !reserved.ecem#er 1G, 19G, marked a fatef(l t(rning !oint for te 7a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory. n tat dayte U.S. government decided on te location of a !o'erf(l ne' accelerator tat 'o(ld serve te 'ole

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nation, to te !lanning of 'ic te 6ad 7a# ad devoted years of st(dy. Sea#org 'as #y tencairman of te tomic Energy Commission, 'ic so(ld ave el!ed te candidacy of Berkeley, #(t



in all !ro#a#ility te final coice 'as made #y President 7yndon +onson on te #asis of !oliticalconsiderations. 2e selection favored -llinois and originated te !resent ermila#, in te vicinity ofCicago.

2e coice 'as a severe #lo' to Berkeley, 'ic t(s lost a !rime reason for its !reeminence in !ysics. -t 'as also a (m! in te centrali*ation of igenergy eA!erimental !ysics, 'ic 'as no'concentrated at tree national la#oratories: ermila#, S7C at Stanford, and Brookaven, 7ong -sland.

2e (niversities formed (sers gro(!s tat 'o(ld !re!are and analy*e eA!eriments carried on in tetree maor la#s. 2is evol(tion 'as (navoida#le #eca(se of te cost and com!leAity of te giganticfacilities re0(ired, #(t noneteless it 'as tra(matic and !ainf(l, es!ecially to Berkeley.

rom 19G to 19GN - 'as one of te tr(stees of ermila# 8- do not kno' 'o s(ggested te name andone of te !ro!osers of 6. 6. &ilson as its first director. - attended its official ina(g(ration in 19%J 'it7a(ra ermi.

-n 19GG Elfriede and - !aid anoter visit to So(t merica, 'ic ad (neA!ected longrangeconse0(ences, #eca(se at 4ontevideo, in Ur(g(ay, 'e met 6osa 4ines, a friend of te 6iminis. Secame to teir ome to meet (s and to see 'eter se co(ld get an affidavit from (s to el! erimmigrate to te United States. - 'as some'at rel(ctant to give it, #(t Elfriede 'as favora#ly

im!ressed #y er, and #y te strong endorsement se got from 6iccardo, and gave er er o'n !ersonalaffidavit of s(!!ort. Pera!s Elfriede recalled te !eriod 'en se ad left =ermany and er o'n firstdiffic(lt ste!s in -taly. 2(s, a fe' monts later, 6osa arrived in California, and after a ard #eginning,se fo(nd a satisfactory !osition in a #ank. Se contin(ed to visit Elfriede, #(t not fre0(ently.

- t(s come to 19%$, my siAtyfift year, a year f(ll of events, some a!!y, some tragic.

- ave not 'ritten ere a#o(t te life of my cildren. -t #elongs to

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tem and tey are entitled to teir !rivacy. - 'ant o'ever to make a comment. Some of teir decisions

left me !er!leAed, and alto(g - am s(re - follo'ed my conscience and my #est (dgment, el!ed #ymy greater eA!erience, and in teir sole interest, - 'o(ld !refer not to ave infl(enced teir decisions. - #elieve !arents so(ld ed(cate teir cildren in a #road sense, #(t after'ards it is #etter to leave temteir inde!endence. -t is not al'ays easy to follo' tis !olicy, and sometimes, as for instance inistorical families, it is s(#ect to eAce!tions. -n o(r case, 'e follo'ed it, for #etter or for 'orse.

-n 19G%, o(r son Cla(dio married Eli*a#et Bregman, a st(dent of renc e ad met tro(g meliaDtey no' ave tree cildren, =ino, rancesca, and +oel, and live in (stin, 2eAas, 'ere Cla(dioteaces istory at te (niversity.

Early in 19%$, melia told (s tat se !lanned to marry +ose! 2erkel, an -sraeli fello' st(dent ofanimal #eavior at 6(tgers University. 2at +an(ary se and +ose! came to 7afayette, 'ere tey #(ilt

a cano!y of leaves 'it teir o'n ands for a +e'is 'edding, 'ic took !lace in te !resence of afe' close friends. +ose! very ra!idly endeared imself to Elfriede and me. 2e 2erkels ave t'ocildren, mir and Kivian. ;e is !rofessor of *oology at 2el viv University, and melia is te c(ratorof 2el viv Safari Loo.

- al'ays greatly loved nat(re and te o(tdoors, from te mo(ntains of my yo(t, to fising andm(sroom(nting in my old age. nes 'ay of enoying nat(re o#vio(sly canges 'it age and !ysical strengt. -n te 19G$s several raft tri!s on rivers s(c as te 6og(e in regon and te Salmonin 4ontana introd(ced (s to some as!ects of te merican 'ilderness of rare loveliness and romantica!!eal.



t te #eginning of +(ly 19%$, 'e 'ent 'it melia and er (s#and and a(sta and er friends on acanoeing tri! in te 2rinity l!s. &e first clim#ed tro(g a long valley and arrived at a !lace calledte )Stone ;o(se,) 'ere a colossal granite #lock created a deligtf(l cam!ing s!ot. (ring teeA!edition 'e ad te (s(al minor advent(res, crossing of a ford 'it ig 'ater, #ears scro(ngingamong te food, oter noct(rnal animals !ro'ling te cam!, and so on. &e enoyed te encam!ment,clim#ed lateral valleys, and visited ig glacial

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lakes 'it eAcellent fising. &e even (sed a small #oat tat +ose! ad carried (! tere. ll told 'ead an eAcellent time and o!ed to #e a#le to re!eat te tri!.

7ater tat year, Elfriede and - 'ent to -taly, 'ere - ad !romised to attend a onegani scool at 7akeComo. Everyting 'ent 'ell, and after te scool session 'e 'ent on to lorence, 'ere 'e 'ereconsidering settling on my retirement, d(e in a co(!le of years. (r !lan 'as to visit te 2eramo side ofte =ran Sasso, te igest mo(ntain in te !ennines, and ten go on to 6ome. n cto#er 1, 'evisited te !oet 7eo!ardis o(se at 6ecanati, and tat evening 'e 'ent to 2eramo. (ring te nigtElfriede died in er slee!.

- still siver in 'riting tese lines.

o(r or five intimate friends came from 6ome, and 'e #(ried Elfriede at 2eramo in a !eacef(lcemetery in vie' of te =ran Sasso. - ret(rned to 6ome in a sad state. 4y soninla' +ose! later toldme: )o( m(st remem#er yo( are like a man tat as s(ffered a maor am!(tationD a leg c(t off at tegroin, or some oter terri#le tra(ma.) - cannot re!ort te orrors of tat tragic !eriod.

&en - ret(rned to 7afayette all te cildren came ome, and tey 'ere an incom!ara#le solace. ll inteir grief t(rned in'ard to te family, and if Elfriede co(ld ave seen tem se 'o(ld ave #een !ro(dof te fr(its of er la#ors in raising tem. letter tey 'rote to friends ans'ering messages ofsym!aty so's teir feelings:

2ere are many 'ays in 'ic 'e tink of o(r moter, #(t most of all 'e seem toremem#er er 'orking in te garden, rooting or trans!lanting, 'atering or trimming, orsim!ly 'orrying over a faltering !lant. ll aro(nd te o(se 'e sa', season after season,te fr(its of er gardening: te roses, te frican violets, te !ilodendrons, te f(csias,te little fig tree, te lavender, te tomato !atc, and all te myriads of flo'ers and sr(#stat flo(rised in every corner. t times 'e 'ondered o' se co(ld kee! track of all ercarges. &e asked o(rselves if even se kne' o' far er garden eAtended.

/o' tat se is gone 'e 'onder even more. &e cildren are scattered, yet 'en 'e are atome, 'e ave to la(g a #it sometimes 'en 'e reali*e (st o' far er garden dideAtend. &e ave to la(g

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'en 'e reali*e o' firmly 4amma rooted (s in er 'ays: a 'ay to set te ta#le, a 'ay to #ake te !anettone, a 'ay to so' os!itality. nd 'en 'e scatter to o(r o'n omesagain, 'e 'onder at o' m(c of 4ammas gardening 'e carry 'it (s. &e ask o(rselvesif 'e 'ill ever see te f(ll eAtent of er garden.

Cla(dio, melia, a(sta.



t te time, melia lived in 7os ngeles, and a(sta at Santa Bar#ara, so tat - co(ld go to tem for'eekends. Cla(dio 'as in 2eAas, too far for sort visits. 4y !ysician la#ored to #ring me #ack tonormal, #ot !ysically and mentally. &en te cildren left, my old friend and colleag(e Carl;elmol* and is 'ife Betty, 'o lived near me in 7afayette, invited me to slee! at teir o(se. 2eyoffered not only tactf(l and com!assionate os!itality #(t also !recio(s com!any. - 'ant to remem#ertese good deeds, 'ic deserve my dee!est gratit(de.

- reali*ed myself, and from talking to oters 'o ad ad similar losses, tat 'ork 'as te #est 'ay toget o(t of te a#yss into 'ic - ad fallen. B(t o' and on 'at< - 'as not in a state to em#ark onoriginal scientific endeavor. Bot my +a!anese gardener and one of my colleag(es s(ggested tat - goto some senior citi*ens center to find com!any.

&ile - 'as trying to find someting to #ring me #ack to life, - received (neA!ected el!. Ugo ano !oned me from te University of Cicago inviting me on #ealf of te (niversity to give a series ofermi lect(res on a s(#ect of my coice. t first - said, tr(tf(lly, tat - did not feel (! to s(c anenter!rise, #(t #ot e and 7a(ra ermi insisted - acce!t. - decided to give a series of istorical lect(reson modern !ysics similar to tose - ad given at Berkeley in 19GN. 7a(ra ermi !(t me (! in Cicago,'ere - stayed for several 'eeks. - 'as given an office at te (niversity, and - slo'ly started 'ritingdo'n my lect(res, an activity tat ke!t me #(sy and gave me a 'ritten teAt - co(ld later (se for a #ook.

mong te letters of sym!aty - received on Elfriedes deat 'as one from 6osa 4ines. - ave alreadytold o' 'e first met. - sall not tell ere o', in a co(!le of years, 'e !assed from te letter tomarrying, 'ic occ(rred on e#r(ary 1?, 19%?.

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2e marriage of t'o !eo!le, one siAtyseven years old, one m(c yo(nger, 'it very different lifeeA!eriences, as as!ects - sall not go into. 2e analysis of s(c a relationsi! 'o(ld re0(ire more !sycological insigt tan - can m(sterD tis at least is 6osas a(toritative o!inion. S(ffice it to saytat it is a little like miAing s!ring and a(t(mn, 'it teir storms and !eriods of good 'eater, (ntil a

ne' e0(ili#ri(m is formed.o(r monts after o(r 'edding, in +(ne 19%?, - reaced te com!(lsory retirement age at Berkeley.2ere 'as te (s(al ceremony, 'it a dinner and s!eeces. )6osa as so'n me tat sometimes even atree it #y ligtning can res!ro(t ne' life, in late fall as in s!ring,) - said in concl(ding my tanks.

4y direct eA!erimental activity ad ceased, #(t not my teacing. /o', o'ever, - ta(gt istory of !ysics rater tan !ysics itself. 2e University of California recalled me to service re!eatedly, and -ad te im!ression tat my istorical co(rses 'ere !o!(lar and s(ccessf(l. 2e n(m#er and 0(ality ofst(dents attending tem, in s!ite of teir not #eing re0(ired co(rses, 'ere most enco(raging.

;o'ever, - also 'anted to go #ack to -taly 'it 6osa, and to leave 7afayette, 'ere tere 'ere toomany ties to te !ast. or years -talian friends and colleag(es ad #een s(ggesting - reenter -talianacademic life. - a!!reciated te offers, #(t declined tem #eca(se te 'orking facilities in -taly 'erenot com!ara#le to tose in merica. (rtermore, - co(ld forget neiter te treatment my family ads(ffered at te ands of te ascist government nor my de#t of gratit(de to te United States, a co(ntrytat ad allo'ed me to re#(ild my civil and scientific life. By no' my family ad #ecome merican,and mericans treated me as one of tem and did not discriminate against me in any a!!recia#le 'ay.

2is, of co(rse, did not detract from te dee! gratit(de - felt to'ard all tose 'o ad el!ed my !arents in te )time of ini0(ity) 8to (se an a!!ro!riate term coined #y Ugo maldi, Edoardos fater ormy a!!reciation of te #eavior of inn(mera#le -talians tat clearly set tem a!art from teir



des!ica#le government.

- 'o(ld ave liked to teac in -taly again, and, es!ecially in te first

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!ost'ar years, - tried to el! te reconstr(ction of te co(ntry #y fostering scientific relations, st(denteAcanges, and o(trigt colla#orations. ;o'ever, - 'o(ld not ass(me eiter eavier res!onsi#ilities orem!loyment as a !rofessor, 'ic migt, - to(gt, eo!ardi*e my U.S. citi*ensi!. - disc(ssed tese !ro#lems 'it Edoardo maldi, 'it rancesco =iordani, !resident of te ccademia dei 7incei, 'it=iordanis s(ccessor, Beniamino Segre, and even 'it =iovanni 7eone, ten !resident of te -talian6e!(#lic. 2ey !ro!osed several alternative sol(tions, centering on a!!ointments at te ccademia dei7incei.

-n /ovem#er 19%?, as a first ste!, - gave a co(rse on te istory of modern !ysics at te 7incei in6ome for siA monts. -t 'as a time of st(dent (nrest, and #eing far from te (niversity 'as anadvantage. &oever came to my lect(res did so o(t of interest and not to make tro(#le. Besides test(dents, many old friends and ac0(aintances came to listen. - ad an office and lect(red in an old

mansion near te Killa arnesina, a e'el of 6enaissance art famo(s for its 6a!ael frescoes. 2e #(ildings 'ere s(rro(nded #y a formal -talian garden. ccasionally - dreamt of donning a cardinals atand 'alking in te gardens 'it some artist of te time of te arnese. -n te 7incei li#rary - fo(ndseveral rarities - ad never seen, s(c as &ilelm 6Zntgens original !a!ers and te Transactions of the%onnecticut Academy containing +osia =i##ss !a!ers. 7ife in 2rastevere, on te nort #ank of te2i#er, 'as !leasant, #(t access to te rest of te city 'as not easy #eca(se of 6omes notorio(s trafficDnot even te common remedy of sim!ly 'alking el!ed very m(c.

4y stay also ad anoter !(r!ose. -t 'as te first time 6osa ad #een to E(ro!e, and - 'as eager tointrod(ce er to -taly and to my friends tere. &e traveled in te vicinity of 6ome, in 2(scany, and inte nortern !rovinces. Every'ere old friends received (s 'it great 'armt, and 6osa 'as a#le tomeet !eo!le - ad often s!oken of to er and to eA!erience -talian #eavior, so different from te /ort

merican and 7atin merican 'ays se kne'.-talian la' ad recently canged, and it ad #ecome !ossi#le to a!!oint foreign citi*ens to (niversitycairs. 2ere 'ere no vacant !ysics cairs in 6ome, and in te end Parliament !assed a la' creating

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a cair for me ad ominem, 'ic 'o(ld #e a#olised on my retirement. Unfort(nately, overcoming alltese o#stacles took time, and - 'as a!!ointed only one year #efore reacing te -talian retirement age.

&en - ret(rned tere in /ovem#er 19%J to teac n(clear !ysics, te University of 6ome 'as in #adsa!e, torn to !ieces #y (nr(ly st(dents and #y !olitici*ed !rofessors. -n s!ite of my #est efforts, - 'as(na#le to make any a!!recia#le im!rovement even in te restricted field of te !ysics de!artment.4ost of my colleag(es 'ere interested in 0(ite oter tings, 'ic ad little to do 'it 'at - to(gt'ere te !(r!oses of a (niversity, and - did not find any scientific !roect - co(ld #e of m(c el! to.2e #est scientific 'ork 'as #eing done at CE6/ in =eneva or at te rascati 7a#oratory, and teycertainly did not need my el!. mong te 6ome fac(lty tere 'ere several old friends, 'it 'om -enoyed consorting again, and my colleag(es and st(dents 'ere al'ays friendly and res!ectf(l to me, incontrast to teir #eavior to'ard eAcellent !ersons s(c as Edoardo maldi, =iorgio Salvini, and=iorgio Careri.



6osa learned to s!eak -talian !erfectly, and 'e #ot made several ne' close friends. ne of tem 'asCesare 2(medei, one of te #est civil la'yers of is timeHa )!rince of te for(m,) as 'e say in -talian.2(medei re!resented onegani, te fo(nder of 4ontecatini, and 'as on te #oards of n(mero(s largecom!anies. ;e 'as seventynine and in eAcellent !ysical and mental condition. Every S(nday, eorgani*ed eAc(rsions, #y car and on foot, leaving at N .4. from is villa on te Kia Cassia. smallcaravan of cars follo'ed is. ;is ca(ffe(r left (s at te starting !lace of te ike and later !icked (s (!

at te oter end. 2e 'alks (s(ally lasted several o(rs and !assed !laces of s!lendid nat(ral andartistic #ea(ty. 2e gro(! canged from 'eek to 'eek, #(t tere 'ere (s(ally a#o(t a do*en of (s.mong oters, all of tem note'orty !eo!le, and many of tem 0(ite old, - recall PrinceSc'ar*en#erg and is 'ifeD Signor Biamonti, a la'yer, te son of a friend of my fatersD r.Bignami, te son of a famo(s researcer on malariaD and 4onsignore Sticker, !refect of te Katican7i#rary, 'o #ecame a cardinal in 19N. 4ost of tem, nota#ly 2(medei, 'ere #rilliant s!eakers andal'ays ad interesting stories to tell. 2e conversation 'as

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al'ays as stim(lating as te !laces 'e visited. ne S(nday 'e 'ent to Cam!o Catino, 'ere - ad

skied forty years earlier, 'en one co(ld only reac it #y a orse trailD no' it 'as accessi#le #y car.rom tere 'e descended to te 2ris(lti ##ey, follo'ing a stee!, !ict(res0(e !at tro(g cool 'oodsem#ellised 'it orcids and oter magnificent 'ildflo'ers. 4eeting se!erds and enoying freslymade ricotta 'as anoter !leas(re along te 'ay on tese eAc(rsions. 2e ca(ffe(rs int(ition 'aseAtraordinary, and even 'en 'e emerged at a different !lace, e 'as tere 'aiting for (s.

Every no' and ten - 'ent to te s(lf(r #ats near 2ivoli. -t #ecame a kind of !ilgrimage #ack in time.- 'o(ld take te #(s near te train station in 6ome and ride along te lengt of te Kia 2i#(rtina,canged #y time #eyond recognition, a road - ad traveled #y tram #efore &orld &ar - and #y car #efore &orld &ar --. /o', ammed 'it traffic, it ad lost a great !art of its #ea(ty, #(t ere and tereone co(ld still recogni*e remnants of its ancient no#ility. rriving at te #ats, - enoyed (sing te cardtat identified me as a 2i#(rtino and 0(alified me for red(ced admittance. Sometimes te casier 'o(ldrecogni*e me and make some comment. 2e #ats ad not canged m(c since - (sed to visit tem'it my teacer, Signorina 4aggini, almost tree0(arters of a cent(ry #efore. fter my s'im, - 'o(ld #(y a sand'ic roll 'it te same filling and smell tey ad al'ays ad. rom te #ats - co(ld see2ivoli and disting(is o(r ome and te cy!resses of te Killa dEste, as 'ell as te roofs of te !a!ermill. - 'o(ld soon #e s(rro(nded #y friendly gosts from my cildood and yo(t, and tey oftenreoiced in meeting and talking to me again. 2e strong ydrogen s(lfide smell 'as disagreea#le tomany, #(t not to meD it 'as te scent of many memories.

&en - reaced te -talian retirement age, - ret(rned to 7afayette. 6ater tan telling te !lain 8and(ninteresting tr(t, te -talian ne's!a!ers tried to see in my leaving a !rotest against te conditions -ad fo(nd in 6ome. - did not like tis misre!resentation of my feelings, and - tried to correct it, #(t to

little avail. /everteless, 'ile - am s(re tat it is !ossi#le to ac0(ire a scientific ed(cation of te same 0(ality asin any &estern co(ntry in -taly, te

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average level is lo', and te degradation of -talian (niversity degrees seems !ermanent. fter t'os(icidal internecine 'ars, no !art of E(ro!e is 'at it (sed to #e, #(t -talys decay is es!ecially vivid to



me. s far as living conditions go, -taly is still a very !leasant co(ntry, #(t te United States seemslivelier tan E(ro!e, alto(g tis is not to say tat it so's m(c 'isdom or greater civili*ation. -often tink of myself 8'it all d(e res!ect as Einstein did, 'o ended #y feeling imself to #e a)'orld citi*en.)

or many years - ad 'anted to to(r 2(scany on foot, #eca(se - reali*ed tat, given te si*e of teto'ns, te many #ea(tif(l and interesting tings to #e seen tere co(ld not #e !ro!erly a!!reciated

from a car. -n 19N1, at te age of seventysiA, - finally f(lfilled tat 'is in te com!any of my oldfriend =i(se!!e ccialini. ;e ad a !ro!erty in 2(scany, as original as its o'ner, 'ere e !lanteddifferent trees in onor of deceased friends. ne of te nicest 'as in memory of 7oren*o Emo, so dearto #ot of (s.

&e ad decided to (se only te rail'ay or !(#lic trans!ortation on o(r tri!, and a#ove all o(r legs. nfoot 'e 'o(ld #e a#le to follo' narro' !ats and even trails across te fields, t(s avoiding te mainroads, 'ic act(ally destroy te local carm. &e visited 4onte!(lciano, Pien*a and its s(rro(ndings,Siena, and fascinating, o(tofte'ay !laces, al'ays on !leasant ikes, talking of interesting s(#ectsand staying at small, modest otels 'it a omelike atmos!ere and food. ne day, 'e sto!!ed andasked some old 'omen 'o 'ere sitting in te s(n in front of teir ome, se'ing, to so' (s te roadto a castle. 2ey gave (s te information, adding on teir o'n tat te !lace 'as 0(ite far and tat it'o(ld #e im!r(dent at o(r age to try to reac it. &e told tem not to 'orry and started 'alking,reacing te castle after a#o(t an o(r. &en 'e ret(rned, 'e 'ere o!ing to #e a#le to #rag to te old'omen, #(t tey 'ere gone.

2alking to ccialini 'as fascinating. ;is ideas 'ere (s(ally igly original and interesting. oreAam!le, e 'as against teacing so m(c

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of ante in te !(#lic scools #eca(se e ins!ired seditio(s and vindictive to(gts. -n !ysics, es!oke of events in 'ic e ad !artici!ated. Certainly is life and is 'ay of doing !ysics 'ere very

different from 'at - kne'. -n !ysics e stressed tecni0(e a#ove allD life 'as romantic, f(ll ofadvent(res and 'omen.

&en 'riting 'rom 'alling odies to adio ,a(es in 19%9, - devoted a ca!ter to araday, and #eingin 7ondon - 'ent to visit te 6oyal -nstit(tion, is ome and la#oratory. - 'as m(c im!ressed #y o''ell !reserved and tastef(lly dis!layed everyting !ertaining to araday 'as, as to(g in a still activeand living la#oratory. 2e !ersonality of araday !ervaded te !laceD one co(ld see is desk and omef(rnit(re in te a!artment 'ere e lived, is lect(re room and a!!arat(s. ne almost eA!ected to findte o'ner of te o(se !erforming is eA!eriments in some corner. -n no oter !lace is a scientific !resence so vividly felt as tere.

Early in my career, my (tc mentor Pieter Leeman ad descri#ed te 6oyal -nstit(tion to me and told

me in detail from is o'n eA!erience of te ceremonies accom!anying a lect(re tere. Until te timecomes for im to s!eak, te lect(rer is locked (! in a little room to !revent im from taking fligt in !anic, as a!!ened once in 1NJG 'it Carles &eatstone. 2e lect(re starts at N !.m., only a fe'seconds delay #eing tolerated, and lasts for an o(r, give or take a min(te. /o notes are allo'ed, andone m(st !erform at least one eA!eriment. t te end of te lect(re, te s!eaker is restored 'it a glassof 'iskey.

-n 4ay of 19N?, - myself came to lect(re at te 6oyal -nstit(tion, re!eating to te letter te rit(alfollo'ed #y Leeman in 19$G, 'en - 'as one year old.



2e discovery of tecneti(m 99 earned me a certain notoriety among s!ecialists in n(clear medicine,and not (nfairly, since tat isoto!e is

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teir #read and #(tter. s a conse0(ence, - ad #een invited on vario(s occasions to s!eak at meetings

on n(clear medicine, and - ave #ecome an onorary mem#er of associations like te Society of /(clear 4edicine and te merican College of /(clear Pysicians. 2e latter eld a meeting at te endof +an(ary 19N? in 2(cson, ri*ona, and - ad #een invited to give a talk. - gladly acce!ted, and 6osaand - am(sed o(rselves com!aring te l(A(rio(s lifestyle of tese doctors 'it o(r o'n.

nce te meeting ad finised, 'e 'ent to see 2(cson, es!ecially te Sonora esert 4(se(m, 'ere -greatly admired 'onderf(l scor!ions and live tarant(las and te eAcellent re!rod(ction of te desertsenvironment. fter eA!loring a #it more of ri*ona, - to(gt tat tis 'o(ld #e te o!!ort(nity torelease myself from my old vo' to see te Canyon de Celly, so igly !raised #y 6asetti #ack in19?9, 'ic - tried in vain to reac in 193G.

2e 'eater 'as treatening, and in te deserts of nortern ri*ona tere is al'ays a cance of getting

st(ck in a eavy sno'storm, #(t 'e set off in o(r small rented car for Sedona, 'ic reminded me ofCortina dm!e**o, alto(g less delicately #ea(tif(l. fter s!ending te nigt tere, 'e moved nort,in te direction of ;ig'ay GG, 'it 'ic - ad #ecome familiar in 193G. &e arrived in lagstaff 'itgreat (ncertainty, #ot in te 'eater and in my mind. inally, - decided to ead east, to'ard ;ol#rook.#o(t alf'ay tere, 'e fo(nd a long, straigt road going nort, to'ard ;o!i territory, and m(c to6osas s(r!rise, - t(rned onto it 'ito(t esitationD 'e 'ere on o(r 'ay to te -ndian reservations.

2e skies 'ere gloomy, 'it dark clo(ds, and te desert ad a strange glo', 'it magnificent and(n(s(al vie's. &e arrived at d(sk at Second 4esa, 'ere 'e fo(nd te !leasant s(r!rise of acomforta#le motel, r(n #y te ;o!is and 'it mainly ;o!i clientele. 2e food 'as eiter ;o!i ormerican, and 'e decided to try te ;o!i. 2e neAt morning te skies 'ere eavy 'it sno', and teroads started getting 'ite, #(t - 'as determined to see te Canyon de Celly. - took te 'eel, as 6osa

'as afraid of skidding on te sno'covered road. 8- remem#ered tat 'en - ad #een tere in 193Gtere 'ere no roads. long te 'ay 'e !icked (! an -ndian moter and da(gter 'o 'ere almost

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fro*enD 'e left tem at Cinle, 'ere tey 'anted to #(y a #irtday cake for te man in teir family.&e cecked in at te local motel and ten eaded for Canyon de Celly. &e received someinformation, (n'illingly given, and finally fo(nd te road on te so(t side of te canyon, te only oneallo'ed to 'ite !eo!le 'o are not accom!anied #y an -ndian g(ide. &e started descending te !ict(res0(e trail. 7ooking do'n, one co(ld see some agric(lt(ral land at te #ottom, several ogans,

and a fe' goats. &en 'e arrived tere, in order to get closer to te magnificent -ndian r(ins visi#lefrom a distance, one ad to cross a small #(t icy creek. - did not esitate in removing my soes andsocksD - rolled (! my !ants and got into te 'ater. 6osa, after some esitation, follo'ed my eAam!le.2e r(ins of most of te comm(nal d'ellings 'ere, as (s(al, leaning on and !rotected #y (ge stone'alls. t tat time of te year, tere 'ere no visitors, and one co(ld 'ander freely, admiring te !etrogra!s. 2e !lace 'as made still more !oetic #y te so(nd of te creek and its #lack !o!lars,'ose ligt 'ood is (sed for many -ndian sc(l!t(res.

-t 'as a 'onderf(l 'ay to cele#rate my seventysevent #irtday.



Notes

re&a(e

1. Sir 6(dolf Ernst Peierls, ird of -assage: ecollections of a -hysicist 8Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 19N.

C%a*ter One+ C%romosomes, Family and C%ild%ood -"#./0"#"12, Smell o& S)3n)

1. n te Killa dEste, see . 6. Coffin, The 4illa d6Este at Ti(oli 8Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 19G$, and C. 7am#, )ie 4illa d6Este in Ti(oli 84(nic: Prestel Kerlag, 19GN.

?. -n 19NG, in te Brera 7i#rary in 4ilan, - fo(nd a co!y of te iss(e of Scienza per tutti dated 4arc -,191J, 'ic contains te articles mentioned.

3. See "l collegio 0hislieri 84ilan: lfieri e 7acroiA, 19G%, es!. !. J1. n Cla(dio Segrè, see 7.4addalena, )Cla(dio Segrè,) oll. soc. geologica italiana J% 819?ND . Stella, )Commemora*ione delsocio Cla(dio Segrè,) end. acc. naz. Lincei >scienze fisiche? 1$ 819?%: Ai. n =ino Segrè, see =.

=rosso, )=ino Segrè,) Temi emiliana 19 84ilan, 19J?D . Candian et al., )Si res!ira nellaltit(dine,)Temi 84ilan, 19G?D Provincia di 2orino, %onsegna del medaglione in memoria di 0. Segr! 82(rin,19G3D K. rangio6(i*, )Commemora*ione del Socio =ino Segrè, end. acc. naz. Lincei >scienze

morali? ? 819J%: G$%D E. Betti, )=ino Segrè,) i(. italiana sc. giuridiche 1N 819J?: ?$$, 3$?.

J. - myself ave fre0(ently #een conf(sed 'it te matematician Beniamino Segre 8'ose name is'ritten 'ito(t te accent, and even 'it is famo(s co(sin Corrado. nce, kno'ing tat - 'ascoming to visit im, a#io errari, a teoretician 'o st(died 'it =eoffrey Ce', and 'os(#se0(ently #ecame rector of te University of 2rento, made is yo(ng son read an article a#o(t me inan -talian encyclo!ediaD in it, (nder my name, tere 'as a !ortrait of Beniamino Segre, and as soon ase sa' me,

te little #oy declared tat - 'as not te man for 'om e ad !re!ared imself.

n anoter occasion, - !laced a !ersonto!erson call to Elfriede, 'o 'as in different city. 2eo!erator ad some diffic(lty in (nderstanding te name, #(t s(ddenly e said: ), Segrè, like te !ysicist<) - felt flattered at #eing recogni*ed and said: )EAactly. ct(ally, - am te !ysicist.)!erator: )2at is not !ossi#le, #eca(se tat one is dead.) - insisted: - can ass(re yo( tat - am te !ysicist and tat - am alive.) !erator: )2at cannot #e tr(e #eca(se - ave read yo(r name on a streetin my neig#orood, near Pia**a or Kia ermi, and streets are named only after !eo!le 'o are dead.)&en - cecked later, s(re eno(g, near Pia**a ermi, tere 'as a Kia Corrado Segre.

. 4y late co(sin Silvia 2reves Kidale 'rote a !rivately circ(lated monogra! on te 2reves family.2e lorence synagog(e designed #y my grandfater 4arco 2reves, and #y 4. alcini and K. 4iceli,is de!icted on a 19N% -sraeli !ostage stam!.

G. n =(ido 2reves, see . Sa!ori, %ompagnie e mercanti di 'irenze antica 8lorence, 19GD =.evoto, %i(ilt$ di parole 8lorence: Kallecci, 19G9, vol. ?.

%. mong te !aintings of Ettore 6oesler ran* 81NJ19$% is a series of 'atercolors titled oma

sparita 8Kanised 6ome, no' at te 4(seo di 6oma in 6omeD many of tem ave #een re!rod(ced as !ostcards. ran* sold is 'atercolors to to(rists as so(venirs, in te tradition of te Kenetian Canaletto.- #o(gt t'o s(c !aintings at a(ctions in San rancisco.

N. =aston 2issandier, Le ricreazioni scientifiche 84ilan: 2reves, 1N9%.



9. dol!e =anot, Trattato elementare di fisica 84ilan: Pagnoni, 1NG3.

1$. =anot4ane(vrier, Traite +l+mentaire de physi@ue , ?t ed. 8Paris: ;acette, 1913.

C%a*ter Two+ 4is(o'ering t%e 5orld, Rome and 6ig% S(%ool -"#"10"#772, S(ent

o& Florentine 5isteria

1. 2e translation is from Ernesto =rillo, ed. and trans., - se!olcri in "talian and English 87ondon and=lasgo': Blackie and Son, 19?N.

?. or En*o Sereni, see 6. Bondy, The Emissary: A Life of Enzo Sereni 8Boston: 7ittle, Bro'n, 19%%,as 'ell as . K. Segre, Memories of a 'ortunate ew 8Betesda, 4d.: dler dler, 19N%D te lattera(tors im!ressions are not too different from mine. En*os #roter Emilio #ecame a !rominentmem#er of te -talian Comm(nist PartyD see Enciclopedia europea& s.v. )Sereni, Emilio) 84ilan:=ar*anti, 19N$.

3. Sir 6icard =la*e#rook, Light: An Elementary Te;tboo/ . . . for %olleges and Schools 8Cam#ridge:Cam#ridge University Press, 1N9JD Sir 6o#ert S. Ball, The Elements of Astronomy 8/e' ork:7ongmans, 1N91D +ames Clerk

4aA'ell, Theory of Heat 8/e' ork: !!leton, 1N%D rit* 6eice, The *uantum Theory 8/e' ork:(tton, 19??<F.

J. Albert Einstein& the Human Side: 3ew 0limpses from His Archi(es& ed. ;elen (kas and Banes;offmann 8Princeton: Princeton University Press, 19%9, !. 3?.

. See . . Moyer: A True Humanist 8!am!let in memoriam, E(gene: University of regon, 19%?.

C%a*ter T%ree+ T%e Ed3(ation o& a %ysi(ist -"#770"#782, S(ent o& Roman 6ay

and Al*ine Snow

1. &alter /ernst, Theoretische %hemie (om Standpun/te der A(ogadroschen egel und der

Thermodynami/ . - read a renc translation of tis 'ork, 'ic - fo(nd among te #ooks of my #roter ngelo.

?. 2e co(rse 'as later !(#lised as 2. 7eviCivita and U. maldi, %ompendio di meccanica razionale 8Bologna: Lanicelli, 19?N.

3. 4(c as #een 'ritten on 4aorana, often !(re fiction. or a serio(s life, see Edoardo maldi, )E.4aorana: 4an and Scientist,) in Strong and ,ea/ "nteractions , ed. . Licici 8/e' ork: cademicPress, 19GG. See also E. Segrè, Storia contemporanea& vol. 19 8Bologna, 19NN, !. 1$%.

J. Enrico ermi )S(i !rinci!i della teoria dei 0(anti) 8n te !rinci!les of 0(ant(m teory. P??. 2egeneral reference for all scientific !(#lications #y ermi is Enrico ermi, %ollected -apers , ed. E.Segrè et al. 8Cicago: University of Cicago Press, 19G1. Single !a!ers are cited #y te notation P,follo'ed #y te n(m#er in %ollected -apers . or #iogra!ical data, see E. Segrè, Enrico 'ermi&

-hysicist 8Cicago: University of Cicago Press, 19%$, and Enrico 'ermi& fisico 8Bologna: Lanicelli,19%1, 19N%, as 'ell as 7a(ra ermi, Atoms in the 'amily: My Life with Enrico 'ermi 819JD /e'ork: 2omas P(#lisers " merican -nstit(te of Pysics, 19N%.

. n ranco 6asetti, see 2. /ason, ) 4an for ll Sciences,) ohns Hop/ins Magazine 1% 819GG: 1?.

G. n te Kolta Conference at Como, see Atti del congresso int. dei fisici >BB=CD sett. BCF %omo=

-a(ia= oma? pubblicati a cura del comitato per le onoranze ad A. 4olta nel primo centenario della

morte 8Bologna: Lanicelli, 19?N.



%. Enrico ermi and ranco 6asetti, )Una mis(ra del ra!!orto "k !er me**o della dis!ersione anomaladel tallio) 8 meas(rement of te ratio "k (sing anomalo(s dis!ersion in talli(m. PJ$#.

N. P?: G%3.

9. 7a(ra ermi vividly descri#es te com!any in Atoms in the 'amily .

1$. n . 4. Cor#ino, see %onferenze e discorsi di . M. %orbino 86ome: Edi*ioni En*o Pinci, 193%,

and E!icarmo Cor#ino, acconto di una (ita8/a!les: Edi*ioni scientifice italiane, 19%?, as 'ell as 0li atti del con(egno ai Lincei nelcin@uantenario della morte , te !roceedings of a conference at 7incei on te fiftiet anniversary ofCor#inos deat.

11. Enrico ermi )Un metodo statistico !er la determina*ione di alc(ne !ro!rietT dellatomo) 8statistical metod for te determination of some atomic !ro!erties. PJ3.

1?. n Edoardo maldi, see E. Segrè, )-talian Pysics in maldis 2ime,) and Edoardo maldi, )2eears of 6econstr(ction,) in -erspecti(es of 'undamental -hysics: -roceedings of the %onference

Held at the Gni(ersity of ome& F= September BF& )edicated to Edoardo Amaldi , ed. Carlo Scaerf8/e' ork: ;ar'ood cademic P(#lisers, 19%9.

13. E. Segrè and Edoardo maldi, )S(lla dis!ersione anomala del merc(rio e del litio) 8n anomalo(sdis!ersion in merc(ry and in liti(m, end. Lincei , ser. G, % 819?N: J$%9.

1J. See, on tis, 7a(ra ermi, Atoms in the 'amily , !!. G9%3.

C%a*ter Fo3r+ S(ienti&i( S*ringtime -"#780"#$92, Smell o& Amsterdam:s Canals

1. See ca!ter 3, n. 13.

?. Edoardo maldi and E. Segrè, )S(lla teoria delleffetto 6aman) 8V(ant(m teory of te 6amaneffect, end. Lincei , ser. G, 9 819?9: J$%9.

3. E. Segrè, )S(lla dis!ersione anomala negli s!ettri di #ande) 8nomalo(s dis!ersion in #and s!ectra, end. Lincei , ser. G, 1$ 819?9: 9$9J. See also 3uo(o cimento J 8193$: 1JJJ%.

J. See P1: JJJ, JJ.

. . 6asetti, )6aman Effekt (nd Str(kt(r der 4olekeln (nd Mristalle,) in Peter +. &. e#ye, Leipziger

4ortrIge& 1931 87ei!*ig: S. ;ir*el, 1931.

G. E. Segrè, )Evidence for V(adr(!ole 6adiation,) 3ature 1?G 8193$: NN?.

%. E. Segrè, )j#er den Leemaneffekt von V(adr(!ollinien) 8n te Leeman effect of 0(adr(!ole lines, 1s. f. -hysi/ JJ 8193$: N?%?9.

N. n Leeman, see te o#it(ary #y 7ord 6ayleig in bituary 3otices of 'ellows of the oyal Society

of London J 819JJ: 91.9. n Corneli(s +. Bakker 819$JG$, see rmin ;ermann et al., History of %E3& vol. 1 8msterdamand /e' ork: /ort;olland Pysics P(#., 19N%, !!. 1?%, 1N.

1$. See E. Segrè, )6ige di 0(adr(!olo negli s!ettri di raggi Y) 8V(adr(!ole lines in Yray s!ectra, end. Lincei , ser. G, 1J 81931: $1.

11. rnold Sommerfeld, Atombau und Spe/trallinien: ,ellenmechanischer ErgInzungsband& vol. ?8Bra(nsc'eig: . Kie'eg, 1939.

1?. See E. Segrè, )tto Stern,) in /at. c. of Sciences, iographical



Memoirs& vol. J3 8&asington, .C.: /ational cademy of Sciences, 19%3, !. ?1.

13. tto risc as 'ritten an a(to#iogra!y entitled ,hat Little " emember 8Cam#ridge and /e'ork: Cam#ridge University Press, 19%9.

1J. riedric von Sciller, )S!r5ce des Monf(ci(s.) ne of /iels Bors favorite 0(otations, )/(r die5lle f5rt *(r Mlareit " Und im #gr(nd 'ont die &areit) 8/a(gt #(t f(lness makes (s 'ise,H "B(ried dee!, tr(t ever liesO comes from te same !oem. 2e translation is from -oems of Schiller 8/e' ork: +on . &illiams, n.d..

1. drienne 2omass anti'ar novel )ie 5atrin wird Soldat 8Berlin: Ullstein Kerlag, 193$D rankf(rtam 4ain: iscer 2ascen#(c, 19N%.

1G. Enrico ermi and E. Segrè, )S(lla teoria delle str(tt(re i!erfini) 8n te teory of y!erfinestr(ct(re, eale acc. d6"talia& memorie cl. scienze fisiche J 81933: 131N, s(mmari*ed in )L(r2eorie der ;y!erfeinstr(kt(r,) 1s. f. -hysi/ N? 81933: %?9J9, and in 3uo(o cimento % 8193J.P%#.

1%. E. Segrè and C. +. Bakker, )Leeman Effect of a or#idden 7ine,) 3ature 1?N 81931: 1$%G.

1N. E. Segrè, )Un metodo !er losserva*ione delleffetto Leeman 0(adratico) 8 metod for o#serving

te 0(adratic Leeman effect, icerca scientifica J, no. ? 81933: 31, and )Effetto Leeman 0(adraticonella serie !rinci!ale del sodio) 8V(adratic Leeman effect in te !rinci!al sodi(m series, 3uo(o

cimento 8193J: 3$JN.

19. Edoardo maldi and E. Segrè, )Einige s!ektrosko!isce Eigenscaften ocangeregter tome)8Some s!ectrosco!ic !ro!erties of igly eAcited atoms, in 1eeman 4erhandelingen 82e ;ag(e:4artin(s /ioff, 193, !!. N1%.

?$. 6. risc and E. Segrè, )j#er die Einstell(ng der 6ict(ngs0(antel(ng --) 8n te dynamics ofs!ace 0(anti*ation, 1s. f. -hysi/ N$ 81933: G1$1GD also 6. risc and E. Segrè, )6icerce s(lla0(anti**a*ione s!a*iale) 8-nvestigation of s!atial 0(anti*ation, 3uo(o cimento ? 81933: %N91D andsee -. -. 6a#i, )n te Process of S!ace V(anti*ation,) -hys. e(. J9 8193G: 3?J.

?1. Ernest 6(terford, +ames Cad'ick, and C. . Ellis, adiations from adioacti(e Substances 8Cam#ridge: Cam#ridge University Press, 193$.

??. E. maldi, . gostino, E. ermi, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )6adioattivitT #eta !rovocata da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, ---) 8Beta radioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, ---, La

ricerca scientifica 8encefort cited as S , no. 1 8193J: J?3 PNGaFD E. maldi, . gostino,E. ermi, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )6adioattivitT !rovocata da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, -K)86adioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, -K, S , no. 1 8193J: G?3 PN%aFD E. maldi,. gostino, E. ermi, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )6adioattivitT !rovocata

da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, K) 86adioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, K, S , no. ?8193J: ?1?? PNNaFD E. maldi, . gostino, and E. Segrè, )6adioattivitT !rovocata da

#om#ardamento di ne(troni, K-) 86adioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, K-, S , no. ?8193J: 3NN?D E. maldi, . gostino, E. ermi, B. Pontecorvo, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè,)6adioattivitT !rovocata da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, K--) 86adioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, K--, 6S , no. ? 8193J: JG%%$ PN9aFD E. maldi, . gostino, E. ermi, B.Pontecorvo, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )6adioattivitT !rovocata da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, K---)86adioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, K---, S G, no. 1 8193: 1?3? P9$aFD E.maldi, . gostino, E. ermi, B. Pontecorvo, and E. Segrè, )6adioattivitT indotta da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, -Y) 86adioactivity ind(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, -Y, S G, no. 18193: J33% P91aFD E. maldi, . gostino, E. ermi, B. Pontecorvo, and E. Segrè,



6adioattivitT indotta da #om#ardamento di ne(troni, Y) 86adioactivity ind(ced #y ne(tron #om#ardment, Y, S G, no. 1 8193: N1NJ P9?aF. nd see Segrè, Enrico 'ermi& -hysicist& !!. %3ff.

?3. See E. Segrè, ) cin0(antanni dalla radioattivitT artificiale !rovocata da ne(troni,) endicontidella Accademia nazionale delle scienze& detta dei <L& memorie fis.& t ser., N, !t. ? 819NJ: 1G.

?J. ristide von =rosse, )2e Cemical Pro!erties of Elements 93 and 9J,) . Am. %hem Soc. %8193: JJ$J1D E. Segrè, )n Uns(ccessf(l Searc for 2rans(ranic Elements,) -hys. e(. 81939:11$JD =. E. Killar, oletKn de la 'acultad de ingenierKa 84ontevideo 8193N: ?31. 2ese !a!ers !receded te discovery of ne!t(ni(m #y Ed'in 4c4illan and Pili! #elson. -f te 'ritings ofristide von =rosse and of -da /oddack 8see n. ? #elo' ad #een #etter a!!reciated, te 'oleistory of fission and of te trans(ranics 'o(ld ave #een different. 2e follo'ing !a!ers a!!earedafter te discovery of ne!t(ni(m: 4. 4ayer, )6are Earts and 2rans(ranic Elements,) -hys. e(. G$819J1: 1NJD =. 2. Sea#org and E. Segrè, )2e 2ransUrani(m Elements,) 3ature 19 819J%: NG3G.Starting in 19JJ, Sea#org develo!ed te conce!t of an actinide familyD see, e.g., The Transuranium

Elements& ed. =. 2. Sea#org, +. +. Mat*, and &. 4. 4anning 8/e' ork: 4c=ra';ill, 19J9: 11%?$.Sea#orgs !ersonal recollections may #e fo(nd in The Transuranium Elements 8/e' ;aven: aleUniversity Press, 19%.

?. -da /oddack, )j#er das Element 93,) Angew. %hemie J% 193J: G3.

?G. tto ;an and rit* Strassmann, )j#er den /ac'eis (nd das Keralten der #ei der Bestral(ngdes Urans mittels /e(tronen entsteenden Erdalkalimetalle,) 3aturwiss . ?% 81939: 39. 2e istory ofte discovery of fission is very com!licated: im!ortant original so(rces are PD

rRdRric +oliot and -rène C(rie, eu(res scientifi@ues compl!tes 8Paris: Presses (niversitaires derance, 19G1D tto ;an, 4om adiothor zur Granspaltung: Eine wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie 8Bra(nsc'eig: Kie'eg, 19G?D and rit* Mrafft, "m Schatten der Sensation: Leben und ,ir/en (on 'ritz Strassmann 8&eineim: Kerlag Cemie, 19N1.

?%. E. ermi, E. maldi, . gostino, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )rtificial 6adioactivity Prod(ced #y

/e(tron Bom#ardment,) -roc. oy. Soc. 87ondon 1JG 8193J: JN3$$. P9N.?%. E. ermi, E. maldi, . gostino, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )rtificial 6adioactivity Prod(ced #y /e(tron Bom#ardment,) -roc. oy. Soc. 87ondon 1JG 8193J: JN3$$. P9N.

?N. Enrico ermi, )/at(ral Beta ecay) 8-nt. Conf. on Pysics, 7ondon, 193J, in 3uclear -hysics 87ondon: Pysical Society, 193J, vol. 1. P1$?.



?9. E. ermi, E. maldi, B. Pontecorvo, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )*ione di sostan*e idrogenate s(llaradioattivitT !rovocata da ne(troni) 82e infl(ence of ydrogeno(s s(#stances on te radioactivity !rod(ced #y ne(trons, icerca scientifica 8193J: ?N?. P1$a.

3$. rit* ;a#er received te /o#el Pri*e for cemistry in 1919 for syntesi*ing ammonia from itselements.

31. ;ermann 7(edemann 81NN$199 'as an engineer of li#eralsocialist tendencies 'o t(rned to !olitics. rom 19?9 to 193?, e 'as berprIsident of SilesiaHte igest civil official in te !rovince Hand Elfriede served as is secretary in tat office. 2e /a*is !(t 7(edemann in a concentration



cam!, #(t e s(rvived.

3?. n Pegram, see 7. . Em#rey, )=. B. Pegram,) in /at. c. of Sciences, iographical Memoirs& vol.G1 8&asington, .C.: /ational cademy of Sciences, 19%$, !. 3%.

33. See +. 6. (nning, =. . ink, =. B. Pegram, and E. Segrè, )EA!eriments on Slo' /e(trons 'itKelocity Selector,) -hys. e(. J9 8193G: 19N99D =. . ink, +. 6. (nning, =. B. Pegram, and E.Segrè, )Prod(ction and #sor!tion of Slo' /e(trons in ;ydrogenic 4aterials,) -hys. e(. J9 8193G:199. lso see . 6asetti, E. Segrè, =. . ink, +. 6. (nning, and =. B. Pegram, )S(lla legge diassor#imento dei ne(troni lenti,) end. Lincei& Gt ser., ?3 8193G: 3J3J, and n te #sor!tion 7a'for Slo' /e(trons,) -hys. e(. J9 8193G: 1$J.

C%a*ter Fi'e+ On My Own, ro&essor at alermo -"#$90"#$82, S(ent o& Orange

;lossoms

1. See U. PaniciD )Commemora*ione del Corris!ondente Carlo Perrier,) end. Lincei G 819J9: 3NG.

?. 2ere is still a co!y of te lect(re notes for tis co(rse in te li#rary of te Palermo Pysics -nstit(te.

3. =. Bernardini, =. =entile, +r., and =. Polvani, *uestioni di fisica 8Pysics to!ics 8lorence: Sansoni,19J%. nly te first vol(me 'as !(#

lised. 2e !lanned contents of te oter t'o are given in it, #(t tey never a!!eared.

J. n 7a'rence, see ;er#ert Cilds, An American 0enius: The Life of Ernest rlando Lawrence& 'ather of the %yclotron 8/e' ork: (tton, 19GN, and +. 7. ;eil#ron and 6o#ert &. Seidel, Lawrence

and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence er/eley Laboratory , vol. 1 8Berkeley and 7osngeles: University of California Press, 19N9. - tank te a(tors for access to te man(scri!t of telatter #ook.

. See E. 4. 4c4illan, )2e 2rans(rani(m Elements: Early ;istory,) in Les -ri; 3obel in BB 8Stockolm: /o#elstift(ng, 19?, !!. 1G%3.

G. #elson later colla#orated 'it 4c4illan in te discovery of ne!t(ni(m. -n time e #ecame directorof te Carnegie -nstit(tion of &asington and editor in cief of Science . ;is scientific 'ork 'asmostly in geocemistry and isoto!e se!aration. See also 7. &. lvare*, Ad(entures of a -hysicist 8/e'ork: Basic Books, 19N%, c. J, and E. Segrè, ) cin0(antanni dalla radioattivitT artificiale !rovocatada ne(troni,) endiconti della Accademia nazionale delle scienze& detta dei <L& memorie fis.& t ser.,N, !t. ? 819NJ: 1G.

%. 2ere is a vast literat(re, often fictional in caracter, on !!eneimer. See es!. obert

ppenheimer: Letters and ecollections& ed. . M. Smit and C. &einer 8Cam#ridge, 4ass.: ;arvardUniversity Press, 19N$.

N. See C. rtom, =. Sar*ana, C. Perrier, 4. Santangelo, and E. Segrè, )6ate of rganification of

Pos!or(s in nimal 2iss(e,) 3ature 139 8193%: N3G3N, and )Pos!oli!id Syntesis d(ring at#sor!tion,) 3ature 139 8193%: 11$G.

9. rom my la#oratory note#ooks for 193%.

1$. C. Perrier and E. Segrè, )lc(ne !ro!rietT cimice dellelemento J3,) end. Lincei& Gt ser., ?8193%: %?33$, and ?% 8193%: %9N1. lso )Some Cemical Pro!erties of Element J3,) ourn. of%hem. -hys. 8193%: %1?1G, and % 81939: 1G.

11. &e kno' today tat te longest lived isoto!es of tecneti(m ave a !eriod of J.? million years, atime too sort to !ermit s(rvival from !rimordial material. 4in(te amo(nts of tecneti(m !rod(ced in



nat(re #y te s!ontaneo(s fission of (rani(m 'ere detected #y P. M. M(roda et al. in 19G1.

1?. Claimants to te discovery of Element J3 !remat(rely called it ilmeni(m, davy(m, l(ci(m,ni!!oni(m, and mas(ri(m, among oter names, #(t teir claims 'ere not s(#stantiated. See ;. &.Mir#y, )2ecneti(m,) 0melin Handboo/ of "norganic %hemistry& Nt ed. 8Berlin: S!ringer, 19N?.

13. See ;ilde 7evi, 0eorge de He(esy: Life and ,or/ 8Co!enagen: 6odos, 19N.

1J. C. Perrier and E. Segrè, )2ecneti(m: 2e Element of tomic /(m#er J3,) 3ature 19 819J%: ?J.1. See E. Segrè, )-talian Pysics in maldis 2ime,) and Edoardo maldi, )2e ears of6econstr(ction,) in -erspecti(es of 'undamental -hysics: -roceedings of the %onference Held at the

Gni(ersity of ome& F= September BF& )edicated to Edoardo Amaldi , ed. Carlo Scaerf 8/e' ork:;ar'ood cademic P(#lisers, 19%9.

1G. See also Edoardo maldi, )E. 4aorana: 4an and Scientist,) in Strong and ,ea/ "nteractions& ed.. Licici 8/e' ork: cademic Press, 19GG, and E. Segrè, in Storia contemporanea , vol. 198Bologna, 19NN, !. 1$%.

C%a*ter Si<+ In t%e New 5orld, Re&3gee at ;er)eley -"#$80"#=$2, Smell o&

Cy(lotron Oil

1. or te teAt and te signers of te Manifesto della razza , and on te s(#se0(ent !eriod, see 6. eelice, Storia degli Ebrei italiani sotto il fascismo 8;istory of te -talian +e's (nder ascism, 3d ed.82(rin: Eina(di, 19%?.

?. n +enkins, see "n Memoriam , University of California, Berkeley, 19G?, . . +enkins, 1N9919G$.n Brode, see i#id. 19NG, 6. B. Brode 819$$19NG, !. ?.

3. n te istory of te 6adiation 7a#oratory, see te 'orks cited in ca!ter , n. J.

J. See 'orks cited in ca!ter , nn. , G.

. See 4artin . Mamen, adiant Science& )ar/ -olitics: A Memoir of the 3uclear Age 8Berkeley and7os ngeles: University of California Press, 19N, 'ic vividly !ortrays te 6adiation 7a#oratoryand te scientific climate in te United States #efore te 'ar.

G. See . . /oyes and &. C. Bray, A System of *ualitati(e Analysis for the are Elements 8/e' ork:4acmillan, 19?%.

%. 2a#les of nat(ral radioactive isoto!es go #ack to C(rie, 6(terford, and teir colleag(es. &it tediscovery of artificial radioactivity, tey #ecame m(c larger. first one 'as dra'n (! in 6ome #y o(rgro(! and #y =. ea. - dre' a (sef(l diagram, follo'ing ;eisen#erg, 'ile still in 6ome. 7ater kee!ings(c ta#les c(rrent re0(ired several !eo!le, and tese days isoto!e ta#les are as tick as tele!onedirectories.

N. E. Segrè and =. 2. Sea#org, )/(clear -somerism in Element J3,) -hys. e(. J 8193N: %%?D i#id. 81939: N$N.

9. See also te 'ork cited in ca!ter , n. %, as 'ell as U.S. tomic Energy Commission, "n the Matterof . obert ppenheimer: Transcript of Hearing before -ersonnel Security ranch and Te;ts of

-rincipal )ocuments and Letters 819JD Cam#ridge, 4ass.: 4-2 Press, 19%1, 'ic gives a vivid !ict(re, not only of !!eneimer, #(t also of many oter !ersons 'o testified at tose earings,among tem Ed'ard 2eller, 7.&. lvare*, &. 4. 7atimer, ;. . Bete, =eneral 7eslie =roves, and -. -.6a#i.

1$. 7. -. Sciff, *uantum Mechanics 8/e' ork: 4c=ra';ill, 19.



11. n S. M. llison, see ull. Atomic Scientists ?? 819GG: ?.

1?. . . +enkins and E. Segrè, )2e V(adratic Leeman Effect,) -hys. e(. 81939: ?.

13. E. Segrè, 6. S. ;alford, and =. 2. Sea#org, )Cemical Se!aration of /(clear -somers,) -hys. e(. 81939: .

1J. E. Segrè, )n Uns(ccessf(l Searc for 2rans(ranic Elements,) -hys. e(. 81939: 11$J.

1. E. Segrè and C. S. &(, )Some ission Prod(cts of Urani(m,) -hys. e(. % 819J$: ?, and)6adioactive Yenons,) i#id. G% 819J: 1J?.

1G. n Plac*ek, see also Edoardo maldi, )=eorge Plac*ek 819$19,) icerca scientifica ?G819G: ?$3N.

1%. Cornog, in )isco(ering Al(arez: Selected ,or/s of Luis ,. Al(arez& with %ommentary by His

Students and %olleagues& ed. &. P. 2ro'er 8Cicago: University of Cicago Press, 19N%, !. ?G. ndsee . 6. Corson, M. 6. 4acMen*ie, and E. Segrè, )Possi#le Prod(ction of 6adioactive -soto!es ofElement N,) -hys. e(. % 819J$: J9, and )rtificially 6adioactive Element N,) i#id. N 819J$:G%?%N.

1N. E. ermi and E. Segrè, )ission of Urani(m #y l!a Particles,) -hys. e(.

9 819J1D 9. P13.

19. E. Segrè, )Possi#ility of ltering te ecay 6ate of a 6adioactive S(#stance,) -hys. e(. %1819J%: ?%JD 6. . 7eininger, E. Segrè, and C. E. &iegand, )EA!eriments on te Effect of tomicElectrons on te ecay Constant of Be%,) -hys. e(. %G 819J9: N9%, and i#id. N1 8191: ?NJ.

?$. See K. . +onson, 5arl Lar/=Horo(itz: -ioneer in Solid State -hysics 8/e' ork: Pergamon,19G9.

?1. Birge 'as 'ell kno'n for is st(dies on molec(lar s!ectra and on (niversal constants, and also anim!ortant administrator at te University of California, to 'ic e 'as dee!ly devoted. ne of te !ysics #(ildings at Berkeley #ears is name, 'elldeserved recognition of is 'ork. See E. 4c4illan,)6. 2. Birge, 1NN%19N$,) in m. Pil. Soc. 8Piladel!ia, 8ear=boo/& BB , !. J3$.

??. 6. 2. Birge, );istory of te Pysics e!artment) 8University of California, Berkeley, 19GG<D vols., mimeogra!ed.

?3. See te doc(mentation in =. 2. Sea#org, Early History of Hea(y "sotope esearch at er/eley ,7a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory P(#lication /o. 9% 8Berkeley, 19%G. 2e arcives of te Bancroft7i#rary at te University of California, Berkeley, contain m(c additional material, incl(ding a letterfrom Segrè to ermi dated +an(ary 11t, 19J1, signaling te #eginning of te 'ork.

?J. 4any of tese doc(ments are to #e fo(nd in te Bancroft 7i#rary.

?. =. 2. Sea#org and E. Segrè, )2e 2rans(rani(m Elements,) 3ature 19 819J%: 19D E. Segrè, E.4. 4c4illan, +. &. Mennedy, and . C. &al,

)n cco(nt of te iscovery and Early St(dy of Element 9J,) UC67 re!ort /o. ?%91, ec. ?3, 19J?.?G. 7etter of =. 2. Sea#org to ermi, +an(ary 11, 19J1, Bancroft 7i#rary.

?%. +. &. Mennedy, =. 2. Sea#org, E. Segrè, and . C. &al, )Pro!erties of 9J ?39 ,) -hys. e(. %$819JG: G.

?N. n . 7. 7oomis, see 7. &. lvare* in /at. c. of Sciences, iographical Memoirs& vol. 18&asington, .C.: /ational cademy of Sciences, 19N$, !. 3$9.

?9. See +. &. Mennedy and E. Segrè, )Com!onent nalysis of Small Urani(m Sam!les,) 4anattan



istrict 6e!ort 4C9%3, 4arc ?G, 19J3.

3$. E. Segrè, )rtificial 6adioactivity and te Com!letion of te Periodic System of te Elements,)Scientific Monthly % 819J3: %.

31. See, e.g., ;. . Smyt, Atomic Energy for Military -urposes 8Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 19J, te first and (stly famo(s re!ort on te atomic #om#. or details and doc(mentation,cons(lt 6. =. ;e'lett and . E. nderson, +r., A History of the Gnited States Atomic Energy

%ommission& vol. 1, The 3ew ,orld& BNBOJ 8University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State UniversityPress, 19G?.

3?. letter to ermi 'ritten in 19J?, no' in te Bancroft 7i#rary, gives my feelings a#o(t going to 7oslamos.

C%a*ter Se'en+ Los Alamos, T%e Fate&3l Mesa -"#=$0"#=92, Smell o& i>ones

1. 2e translation is from Schiller6s Historical )ramas 8/e' ork: +on . &illiams, n.d..

?. 7eslie 6. =roves, 3ow "t %an e Told 8/e' ork: ;ar!er 6o', 19G?. See also M. . /icols,The oad to Trinity: A -ersonal Account of How America6s 3uclear -olicies ,ere Made 8/e' ork:

4orro', 19N%.3. n 'artime 7os lamos, see eminiscences of Los Alamos& BO=BO , ed. 7a'rence Badas,+ose! . ;irscfelder, and ;er#ert P. Broida 8Boston: 6eidel, 19N$, and 7a(ra ermi, Atoms in the 'amily . or a #i#liogra!y, see 6icard 6odes The Ma/ing of the Atomic omb 8/e' ork: Simon Sc(ster, 19N%, a 'ell'ritten and acc(rately researced and doc(mented 'ork.

J. &inston S. C(rcill, The Second ,orld ,ar , vol. J, The Hinge of 'ate 87ondon: Cassel, 191, !.3.

. 6o#ert Ser#er, )2e 7os lamos Primer) 87os lamos, /. 4eA.: University of California, 7oslamos Scientific 7a#oratory, !otoco!ied ty!escri!t, 19%3. /otes #y E. U. Condon #ased on fiveintrod(ctory lect(res given #y 6o#ert Ser#er in !ril 19J3 in connection 'it te 4anattan Proect.eclassified )secret limited,) e#r(ary ?, 19G3. 2e titles

of te sections are: 1. #ectD ?. Energy of fission !rocessD 3. ast ne(tron cain reactionD J. issioncrosssectionsD . /e(tron s!ectr(mD G. /e(tron n(m#erD %. /e(tron ca!t(reD N. &y ordinary U issafeD 9. 4aterial J9 8P( ?39 D 1$. Sim!lest estimate of minim(m si*e of #om#D 11. Effect of tam!erD 1?.amageD 13. EfficiencyD 1J. Effect of tam!er on efficiencyD 1. etonationD 1G. Pro#a#ility of !redetonationD 1%. i**lesD 1N. etonating so(rceD 19. /e(tron #ackgro(ndD ?$. SootingD ?1.(tocatalytic metodsD ??. Concl(sion.

G. See . . /ier, )+. ;. &illiams,) in /at. c. of Sciences, iographical Memoirs& vol. J?8&asington, .C.: /ational cademy of Sciences, 19%1, !. 339.

%. +osef 6ot#lat s(#se0(ently devoted imself to te P(g'as 4ovement and to te searc forsol(tions to te immense !ro#lems created #y atomic arms.

N. 2e first modest ta#le of isoto!es 'as !(#lised #y a st(dent in o(r gro(! in 6ome in te 193$sD see=. ea, )2a#elle riass(ntive e #i#liografia delle trasm(ta*ioni artificiali) 8Com!reensive ta#les and #i#liogra!y of artificial transm(tations, 3uo(o cimento 1? 8193: 3GNJ$%. similar com!ilationedited #y C. 4. 7ederer and K. Sirley, Table of "sotopes 8/e' ork: &iley, 19%N, re0(ired 1,?3 !ages.

9. n =. -. 2aylor, see iog. Mem. 'ell. . Soc. vol. ?? 819%G, !. G.



1$. E. Segrè, )S!ontaneo(s ission,) -hys. e(. NG 819?: ?1.

11. See 6icard P. eynman, Surely 8ou Are o/ing& Mr. 'eynmanP Ad(entures of a %urious %haracter 8/e' ork: /orton, 19N, !!. 1?$?1. letter #y 2eller re!orted in Stanley . Bl(m#erg and ='inn'ens, Energy and %onflict: The Life and Times of Edward Teller 8/e' ork: P(tnam, 19%G, !. J%,refers to te same e!isode. - do not remem#er aving ad eAcanges 'it 2eller on tis s(#ect at tetime.

1?. n te 2rinity test, see &. 7. 7a(rence, )awn o(er 1ero: The Story of the Atomic omb 8/e' ork:Mno!f, 19JG.

C%a*ter Eig%t+ Ret3rns, S(ien(e and Str3ggle? ;er)eley and Italy -"#=90"#/.2,

Smell o& 6ydrogen S3l&ide? A(@3e Al3le

1. 6. 2. Birge, );istory of te Pysics e!artment) 8Berkeley: University of California,mimeogra!ed, 19GG<, vol. , c. 1N.

?. !!eneimers letter is in te Bancroft 7i#rary.

3. 2e ideas of te teoreticians, in tr(t not all too #rilliant, #(t #ased on ideas ten c(rrent, arereflected in teir !rogrammatic doc(ments for te 6ad 7a#.

J. 2e doc(mentation relative to tis ca!ter is contained in my !rivate arcive. mong te doc(mentstere are several teAts of agreementsD letters narrating !revio(s events in !re!aration for my first ret(rnto -taly in 19J%D (ndreds of letters #y my #roter ngeloD acco(nts of different kindsD and

a file relative to te events of 193, incl(ding my corres!ondence 'it 4arco concerning o(r faters'ill and its legal ramifications, as 'ell as legal o!inions. or my visit to -taly in 19J%, tere is a seriesof letters to Elfriede, almost constit(ting a diary. Corres!ondence 'it 6iccardo 6imini in Ur(g(ay, #efore and after te 'ar, often reveals o(r most confidential feelings and o!inions.

. See =. Bordignon avero, The 4illa Emo at 'anzolo 8University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State

University Press, 19%?.

C%a*ter Nine+ Ri*ening Cro*s -"#/.0"#/=2, Smell o& Ri*e 5%eat

1. or te general istory of te 6ad 7a# in te !ost'ar era, see +. 7. ;eil#ron, 6o#ert &. Seidel, andBr(ce &eaton, Lawrence and His Laboratory: 3uclear Science at er/eley& BB=BJB 8Berkeley:ffice for te ;istory of Science and 2ecnology, University of California, 19N1, and acomm(nication #y Seidel in te Proceedings of te 19N -nternational Sym!osi(m on Particle Pysics:Pions and V(arks eld at Cicago in 19N. - learned of many of te events of tose times from teseso(rces. nly a small circle, to 'ic - did not #elong, 'as !rivy to 7a'rences activities. See also ;.. ork, The Ad(isors: ppenheimer& Teller and the Superbomb 8San rancisco: &. ;. reeman, 19%Gand Ma/ing ,eapons& Tal/ing -eace 8/e' ork: Basic Books, 19N%.

?. See, e.g., 3ucleon=3ucleon Scattering& ed. M. /isim(ra 8Pysical Society of +a!an, Selected Pa!ersin Pysics, n.s., no. ?G.

3. 2is series of investigations starts 'it +. ;adley, E. 7. Melly, C. E. 7eit, E. Segrè, C. &iegand, and;. . ork, )ng(lar istri#(tion in n! Scattering 'it 9$4ev /e(trons,) -hys. e(. %3 819JN:111J1, and eAtends (! to 19%. !artial revie' is given in E. Segrè, );ig Energy Scattering andPolari*ation,) -hysica ?? 819G: 1$%99$.

J. ;. Sta!!, 2. !silantis, and /. 4etro!olis, )Pase Sift nalysis of 31$ 4ev !! Scattering



EA!eriments,) -hys. e(. 1$ 819%: 3$?.

. E;perimental 3uclear -hysics , ed. E. Segrè, 'it contri#(tions #y ;. Sta(#D ;. Bete and +.skinD /. . 6amseyD M. 2. Bain#ridgeD P. 4orrisonD B. 2. eldD E. SegrèD =. C. ;annaD 4. e(tscand . Mofoed;ansenD and E. 4. 4c4illan 8/e' ork: &iley, 1939.

G. See E. Segrè, )Preface,) Ann. e(. 3uclear Science ?G 819%G: viiA.

%. See E. Segrè, );ig Energy Scattering of /e(trons and Protons,) Hel(etica -hys. Acta ?3, s(!!. 3819$: 19%?$.

N. See =. 6. Ste'art, The 8ear of the ath 8=arden City, /..: o(#leday, 19$, and . P. =ardner,The %alifornia ath %ontro(ersy 8Berkeley and 7os ngeles: University of California Press, 19G%, as'ell as 6. 2.

Birge, );istory of te Pysics e!artment) 8University of California, Berkeley, 19GG<D vols.,mimeogra!ed, vol. , c. 19.

9. Pi(s Y-, -er la azione cattolica 8encyclical, +(ne ?9t 1931. See, e.g., . C. +emolo, %hiesa e stato

in "talia negli ultimi BDD anni 82(rin: Eina(di, 19J9, !. GGJ.

1$. See ork,The Ad(isors&

and 6odes, Ma/ing of the Atomic omb

.

11. S. . Bl(m#erg and ='inn 'ens, Energy and %onflict: The Life and Times of Edward Teller 8/e' ork: P(tnam, 19%G gives 2ellers version of tese events. E. Segrè, Enrico 'ermi& fisico& ?d ed.8Bologna: Lanicelli, 19N% s(!!lies some doc(ments ne'ly made availa#le.

1?. E. Segrè, " nuo(i elementi chimici: %himica nucleare alle alte energie 82e ne' cemical elements: /(clear cemistry at ig energies 86ome: cc. na*. 7incei, onda*ione onegani, 193.

13. E. Segrè, )j#er den Leemaneffekt von V(adr(!ollinien) 8n te Leeman effect of 0(adr(!olelines, 1s. f. -hysi/ GG 8193$: N?%?9D !artial revie' in E. Segrè, )7irradiamento dei 0(adr(!oli)8V(adr(!ole radiation, 3uo(o cimento ? 81931: ?N3%.

1J. E. maldi and E. Segrè, )Einige s!ektrosko!isce Eigenscaften ocangeregter tome) 8Some

s!ectrosco!ic !ro!erties of igly eAcited atoms, in 1eeman 4erhandelingen 82e ;ag(e: 4artin(s /ioff, 193, !!. N1%.

1. E. Segrè, )rtificial 6adioactivity and te Com!letion of te Periodic System of te Elements,)Scientific Monthly % 819J3: 1?1GD +. &. Mennedy, =. 2. Sea#org, E. Segrè, and . C. &al,)Pro!erties of 9J ?39 ,) -hys. e(. %$ 819JG: GD and =. 2. Sea#org and E. Segrè, )2e2ransUrani(m Elements,) 3ature 19 819J%: NG3G.

1G. E. Segrè, 6. S. ;alford, and =. 2. Sea#org, )Cemical Se!aration of /(clear -somers,) -hys. e(. 8193N: 3?1??.

1%. E. Segrè, )Possi#ility of ltering te ecay 6ate of a 6adioactive S(#stance,) -hys. e(. %1

819JG: ?%J 8a#stract.1N. Partial s(mmary of te former in E. Segrè, );ig Energy Scattering and Polari*ation) 8cited n. 3a#oveD !artial s(mmary of te latter in E. Segrè, )ntin(cleons: 6ictmyer 7ect(re 19%,) Am. our.

of -hysics ? 819%: 3G3G9.

19. E. ermi, E. maldi, . gostino, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )rtificial 6adioactivity Prod(ced #y /e(tron Bom#ardment,) -roc. oy. Soc. 87ondon 1JG 8193J: JN3$$D E. ermi, E. maldi, .gostino, B. Pontecorvo, . 6asetti, and E. Segrè, )rtificial 6adioactivity Prod(ced #y /e(tronBom#ardment, --,) i#id. 1J9 8193: ?N.



?$. 7e'is Stra(ss, a 'ellkno'n merican investment #anker and a !rotRgR of President ;oovers,s(ffered a similar fail(re. ;e attri#(tes tis to te fact tat te leaders of U.S. ind(stry ten to(gt tatn(clear energy 'as science fictionD see Stra(ss, Men and )ecisions 8=arden City, /..:

o(#leday, 19G?. nd see also 7a'rence Badas, Eli*a#et ;odes, and dol! 2iddens, )/(clearission: 6eaction to te iscovery in 1939,) -roc. Am. -hil. Soc . 13$ 819NG: 19G?31.

?1. +. &. 4ielic, . Scardt, and E. Segrè, )Energy 7evels in Po

?1$

,) -hys. e(. 9 819J: 1$N1G.

??. C. 7. Aley, &. . Cart'rigt, +. 6o(vina, E. Baskir, . Mlein, +. 6ing, and &. Skillman, )o(#leScattering of ;ig Energy Protons,) -hys. e(. 91 8193: J19.

?3. Enrico ermi, )Polari*ation of ;ig Energy Protons Scattered #y /(clei,) 3uo(o cimento 11819J: J1%. P?G%.

C%a*ter Ten+ Tri3m*%s and Tragedies -"#/=0"#872, Odor o& La3rel and Cy*ress

1. 2e translation is from -oems of Schiller 8/e' ork: +on . &illiams, n.d..

?. See Stanley . Bl(m#erg and ='inn 'ens, Energy and %onflict: The Life and Times of EdwardTeller 8/e' ork: P(tnam, 19%G, !. 3%J, for 2ellers acco(nt of is visit to ermi follo'ing mymessage.

3. Enrico ermi, 3uclear -hysics& notes com!iled #y +. rear, . ;. 6osenfeld, and 6. . Scl(ter8Cicago: University of Cicago Press, 19J9. See also C. /. ang, P?39, for te im!ression receivedon a visit to ermi at te os!ital.

J. Enrico ermi, %ollected -apers 8ccademia dei 7incei and University of Cicago Press, 19G1,19G.

. - dream myself #ack to cildoodnd sake my oary eadD

&y am - a(nted #y !ict(res2at - to(gt long ago to #e dead<

;ig o(t of sady enclos(res glistening castle looms large,- kno' te em#attled to'ers,2e stone #ridge and also te gate.

rom te esc(tceon te lions are lookingConfidingly do'n at me- greet tese ac0(aintances gladlynd (rry across te co(rt.

. . . . . . . . . .2(s rises my ancestors castleiAed loyally in my mind,rom te eart yo( ave s(rely vanised,2e !lo' is traversing ty gro(nd. trans. Egon Sc'ar*

G. . Cam#erlain, E. Segrè, C. &iegand, and 2. !silantis, )#servation of nti!rotons,) -hys. e(. 1$$ 819: 9J%$, and )nti!rotons,) 3ature 1%% 819G: 111?.



%. . Cam#erlain and C. E. &iegand, CE6/ Sym!osi(m on ;ig Energy ccelerators and PionPys., =eneva, -roceedings , vol. ? 819G, !. ?D C. E. &iegand, -nst. 6adio Eng., Gt ScintillationCo(nters Sym!osi(m, -roceedings 8&asington, .C., 19N.

N. E. maldi, =. Baroni, C. Castagnoli, . Cam#erlain, &. &. C(!!, C. ran*inetti, =. =olda#er, .4anfredini, E. Segrè, and C. &iegand, )nti!roton Star #served in Em(lsions,) -hys. e(. 1$1819G: 9$991$, and E. maldi, =. Baroni, C. Castagnoli, . Cam#erlain, &. &. C(!!, . =.

Eks!ong, C. ran*inetti, =. =olda#er, E. +. 7ofgren, . 4anfredini, E. Segrè, and C. &iegand,)EAam!le of an nti!roton/(cleon nniilation,) -hys. e(. 1$? 819G: 9?1?3.

9. n /ovem#er 1 and 1G, 19N, tere 'as a small conference at Berkeley to commemorate tetirtiet aniversary of te anti!rotons discovery. 2e first morning 'as devoted to istoryD 7. &.lvare* !resided. ;e started 'it an introd(ction eA!laining 'y e ad not discovered te anti!rotonand 'y te discovery 'as not trivial and o#vio(s. /eAt 7ofgren s!oke, giving an eAcellent !resentation on te #evatron. Clyde &iegand follo'ed for a#o(t tirty min(tes. ;e gave a detailedacco(nt of te 'ork !erformed #y imself and Cam#erlain. mong oter tings, e said tat e andCam#erlain ad started !lanning te eA!eriment secretly, o(tside of reg(lar 'orking o(rs. ;ementioned !silantis only !eri!erally, in connection 'it te addition of a co(nter to te a!!arat(s.;e never mentioned me, as to(g - ad not eAisted. - 'as saddened #y te !erformance. -t m(stre!resent &iegands !resent state of mindD tis m(st #e is recollection of te discovery of teanti!roton.

ters s!oke follo'ing &iegand. inally, Piccioni s!oke for a fe' min(tes on te antine(trondiscovery in 'ic e ad !artici!atedD ten, for a#o(t an o(r, e rene'ed is acc(sations againstCam#erlain and me, saying tat 'e ad stolen te !lans of te a!!arat(s (sed from im, and tat - ad #y trickery eAcl(ded im from te eAec(tion of te eA!eriment. Part of te !(#lic smiledD oters did notseem to enoy te !erformance. istorian commented to me: )See 'y istorians !(t more tr(st indoc(ments tan in !ossi#ly distorted memories<) 2o avoid f(rter (nseemliness, - did not re!ly toPiccioni.

1$. See B. Cork, =. 7am#ertson, . Piccioni, and &. &en*el, )ntine(trons Prod(ced from

nti!rotons in CargeEAcange Collisions,) -hys e(. 1$J 819G: 11939GD tey (sed a co(ntermetod.

11. +. B(tton, 2. Elioff, E. Segrè, ;. 4. Steiner, 6. &eingart, C. &iegand, and 2. !silantis,)ntine(tron Prod(ction #y Carge EAcange,) -hys. e(. 1$N 819%: 1%G1, and 7. gne', 2.Elioff, &. B. o'ler, 7.

=illy, 6. 7ander, 7. s'ald, &. Po'ell, E. Segrè, ;. Steiner, ;. &ite, C. &iegand, and 2. !silantis,nti!rotonProton Elastic and Carge EAcange Scattering at a#o(t 1?$ 4ev,) -hys. e(. 11$ 819N:99J9.

1?. See, e.g., 7. &. lvare*, in Les -ri; 3obel en BJ 8Stockolm: /o#elstift(ng, 19G9.

13. 7. B. (er#ac, 2. Elioff, &. B. +onson, +. 7ac, C. &iegand, and 2. !silantis, )St(dy of PionPion -nteractions from Pion Prod(ction #y Pions,) -hys. e(. Letters 819G?: 1%3%G. =. Mallen, Elementary -article -hysics 86eading, 4ass.: ddison&esley, 19GJ, !. 1N, re!orts teseeA!eriments to ave esta#lised te resonance, #(t in te end tey co(ld not com!ete 'it te #(##lecam#er.

1J. %hemical and Engineering 3ews JN 819J%: 3%?. 2e !oll asked res!ondents to name te tena#lest cemists 'orking in several s!eciali*ed fields. -n n(cleonics, te list 'as P. ;. #elson, C. .Coryell, . aniels, =erart riedl^nder, +. &. Mennedy, &. . 7i##y, =. 2. Sea#org, E. Segrè, /.S(garman, and . C. &al, in al!a#etical order.



1. E. . 7a'rence, letter to ;arold C. Urey, of 4ay 31, 19JG 8Bancroft 7i#rary. See !!. 1G%GNa#ove for te relevant eAcer!t. 2e letter in 'ic 7a'rence oined 'it Sea#org in !ro!osing me forte /o#el Pri*e in 199, #ased on te discovery of anti!rotons, is also among te 7a'rence Pa!ers atte Bancroft 7i#rary.

1G. 4any st(dents, some of te greatest a#ility, !artici!ated in o(r 'ork. rom te !ost'ar !eriod atBerkeley - remem#er ;er#ert ork, +on +(ngerman, S. C. &rigt, S. /. =osal, E. 7. Melly, =.

2emmer, 4. . Stern, . Bloom, =. Pettengill, 6. 7. 4ater, . /. S!iess, 2. +. 2om!son, &. +on, +.E. Simmons, . K. Meller, +oe 7ac, +. oote, ;. 6(ggs, 6ein Sil#er#erg, ;. St(##s, 6. C. &eingart, 7.E. gne', 2. Elioff, 6. 6. 7arsen, +. B(tton, 4. +ako#son, P. Mie'sky, &. 7ee, E. ;. 6ogers, 6. E.;ill, . . +enkins, S. 6. M(nselman, and =ary 7(m. 4any of tem ave ad disting(ised careers tatcan #e traced in American Men of Science . ;er#ert Steiner, &. Cino'sky, =erson =olda#er, 2om!silantis, and 6. 2ri!! oined te Berkeley fac(lty. 6ae Stiening, 'o came at a later date, from 4-2,'ere e ad st(died 'it 4artin e(tsc, inf(sed ne' vitality into o(r 'ork. 2o tis list one so(ldadd several !ostdoctoral fello's: +onas Sc(lt*, Pa(l Condon, and from o(tside te United States, vonardel, =illy, /. 7i!man, Borgini, =. Eks!ong, 6. 4ermod, /. Boot, B. 4asoon, and m(c later4in Cen.

1%. 6. B. Bacasto', 2. Elioff, 6. 6. 7arsen, C. &iegand, and 2. !silantis, )4eas(rement of teBrancing 6atio for Pion Beta ecay,) -hys. e(. Letters 9 819G?: J$$.

1N. See, e.g., 6. Seki and C. &iegand, )Maonic and ter EAotic toms,) Ann. e(. 3ucl. and -art.Science ? 819%: ?J1.

19. See, e.g., eminiscences about ". E. Tamm , ed. E. 7. ein#erg 84osco': /a(ka P(#lisers, 19N%.

?$. See 6. 4arsak, )2e 6ocester Conferences,) ull. Atomic Scientists , +(ne 19%$, !. %?.

?1. See, e.g., Les -ri; 3obel en 19% 8Stockolm: /o#elstift(ng, 19N. 2ere is an eAtended literat(reon te discovery of te nonconservation of !arity, incl(ding !ersonal recollections #y 7ee, &(, andang.

??. See E. Segrè, )/e(e tomarten (nd ntimaterie) 8/e' atomic s!ecies and antimatter, Angew.

%hemie 8199: 1%3%G.

?3. E. Segrè, Enrico 'ermi& fisico 8Bologna: Lanicelli, 19%$, 19N%.

?J. Marl 4anne =eorg Sieg#an 81NNG19%N, 'inner of te 19?J /o#el Pri*e for !ysics, and is sonMai 4anne Sieg#an 8191N, 'o 'on te !ysics !ri*e in 19N1.

?. See Les -ri; 3obel en B 8Stockolm: /o#elstift(ng, 19G$.

?G. E. Segrè, )rom toms to nti!rotons) 8ac(lty 6esearc 7ect(re, University of California, 19G$,(n!(#lised.

?%. See, e.g., The Science of Materials Gsed in Ad(anced Technology , ed. E. Parker and U. Colom#o

8/e' ork: &iley, 19%3.?N. E. Segrè, 3uclei and -articles 8/e' ork: &. Benamin, 19GJ, 19%%D also translated into -talian8Bologna: Lanicelli, 19GG, 19N? and Cinese.

?9. E. Segrè, )2e Conse0(ences of te iscovery of te /e(tron,) 1$t -nt. Conf. of te ;istory ofScience, -roceedings 8Paris: ;ermann, 19G, vol. 1, !. 1J9N.

A Few 5ords &rom Rosa



@ ?9% @

4any of Emilios colleag(es told me tat tey 'ere very eager to read is memoirs. 2is 'as also tereason e 'anted tis #ook !(#lised !ost(mo(sly. )- meet many of te !rotagonists on cam!(s or atmeetings, and tey dont remem#er te facts te 'ay tey a!!ened, #(t te 'ay tey 'o(ld like temto ave a!!ened,) e said. Emilio ke!t an enormo(s n(m#er of notes, note#ooks, doc(ments, andletters, and 'e s!ent monts verifying details and dates.

ro(nd tat time, - fo(nd myself sitting neAt to 7(is lvare* at a dinner !arty, and e told me tat e'as 'riting is memoirs. )o yo( s!end so m(c time going tro(g yo(r filing ca#inets reading oldletters<) - asked im. ), no,) e saidD )- (st 'rite do'n 'at - remem#er.) &ell, memory is likely to !lay tricks after so many years, and a lot of 'isf(l tinking re!laces te tr(e facts. or all is !revio(s #ooks, Emilio researced tirelessly in is o#session 'it acc(racy and tr(tD is memoirs 'ere treatedno differently. ;e ad tis dee! sense of d(ty to'ard istoryD 'en e read it, e 'anted te real facts,and 'en e 'rote it, e tried to !rovide te reader 'it tem according to is o'n eA!ectations.

&riting is memoirs came rater easily to Emilio: tere 'as so m(c to tell. s time 'ent #y, etrimmed a #it of te first man(scri!t, eliminating a fe' names and eA!licit details regarding te'eakness, and - can add, 'ickedness, of relatives and colleag(es. ;aving reaced

@ ?9N @

eigty made im more tolerant and forgiving, #(t not to'ard allD some 'o(nds still (rt.

&at 'as a maor !ro#lem for im 'as 'en to end tis #ook. t 'at stage of is lifeHafterreceiving te /o#el Pri*e, after retirement, 'en< ;e talked tis over 'it several tr(sted friends, #otin te United States and in -taly. ne advised im to concl(de it at te !oint 'ere e ret(rned to teacin -taly. noter told im to end te #ook !iloso!i*ing a#o(t te !rogress of science and te goodtings n(clear researc offered te 'orld in energy, medicine, comm(nication, and so on. tirds(ggested a final ca!ter on Emilios ideas regarding te f(t(re of science and o' e vis(ali*ed te

'orld of is grandcildren. B(t noting 'as decided.or te reader 'o 'onders 'at Emilio did after retirement, -ll try to give an idea of is life d(ringis last years. t Berkeley, e 'as recalled to teac, (s(ally d(ring 'inter 0(arters, and e coseistory of science rater tan !ysics. 2e series of lect(res e gave over te years on tis s(#ectevent(ally #ecame a very s(ccessf(l #ook, 'rom <=ays to *uar/s& and a fe' years later a secondvol(me, 'rom 'alling odies to adio ,a(es& a!!eared. Bot 'ere translated into several lang(ages,and 'e did te !roofreading of most of tese editions. 2ere 'as a yearly siAtoeigt'eek tri! toE(ro!e, organi*ed so tat it 'o(ld coincide 'it te meetings or conferences e 'ised to attend, andtis incl(ded te ann(al Board of =overnors 4eeting at 2el viv University, 'ic gave im teo!!ort(nity to visit is da(gter melia and er family. ;e 'as a so(gtafter s!eaker, 'it a strongvoice, 'o kne' o' to ada!t is s(#ect to te a(dience and kee! tem interested and a'ake. n o(r

last tri! to E(ro!e, in +(ne 19NN, e gave te o!ening address at te congress of te Union of Prod(cersand istri#(tors of Electric Energy 8U/-PEE in Sorrento.

;e al'ays 'as (! to date as regards te develo!ments in is field and in science in generalD e readne' #ooks and reread old ones, e s(#scri#ed to !(#lications, and attended 'eekly seminars anddisc(ssionsD and 'en tere 'as a s(#ect e did not (nderstand clearly, e did not esitate to attend aclass, sometimes given #y one of is eAst(dents, or to ask )te yo(nger generation) to eA!lain temysteries



@ ?99 @

of te latest discovery to im. ;e also made a !oint of reading at least t'o #ooks a year in =erman andin renc, )(st not to forget te lang(age,) and e 'as eAtremely !ro(d of te fact tat 'en =ermantelevision intervie'ed im in 19N for an o(rlong doc(mentary, e co(ld do it in =erman 'ito(tdiffic(lty. t seventynine e learned o' to (se a !ersonal com!(ter, and tis #ook 'as is first !roect on it. ;e s(#scri#ed to te ,all Street ournal and oter financial !(#lications and follo'ed is

investments almost dailyD is kno'ledge of taA la' 'as 'ell a#ove average.o( ave (st read te story of a very interesting and #(sy life. o( kno' o' it started and yo( may'onder o' it ended. Emilio 'as 'ell, !ysically and mentally, (ntil is very last min(te. t te timeof is deat tere 'as a f(ror going on a#o(t )cold f(sion.) ;e !oned te scientists 'o anno(ncedte discovery in Salt 7ake City, talked tings over 'it tem, and 'as mailed teir !a!ers, ten decidedtat )it 'as not tr(e.) )&en 'e made o(r discovery in 6ome,) e said, )'itin a 'eek oterla#oratories over te 'orld co(ld re!licate it 'it te same res(lts. 2is ting 'ont fly.)

-n +an(ary 19N9 Emilio delivered a #rilliant address on te discovery of fission at te nn(al +oint4eeting of te merican Pysical Society in San rancisco. ;e looked for'ard to attending teconference commemorating )$ years 'it /(clear ission) in &asington, .C., on !ril ?Q?N. ;e

and =lenn Sea#org 'ere general cocairmen of te event, and #ot ad 'orked for monts in teorgani*ation of it. )-t is a good 'ay to close a scientific career,) e told me. 2'o 'eeks #efore, to(g,d(ring a f(ndraising dinner at UC Berkeley, e s(ddenly did not feel 'ell, and - decided to drive imto te os!ital. lto(g e did not s(ffer a eart attack, is electrocardiogram so'ed irreg(laritiesand is doctor decided to kee! im in intensive care for a co(!le of days. nce ome, e ret(rned to isnormal ro(tine, reading, 'riting, making tele!one calls, #(t te doctor did not !ermit im to travel to&asington, and e 'as eAtremely disa!!ointed #(t acce!ted it. t tat time, is old com!(ter #rokedo'n and a friend sent im a (sed -B4 com!(ter e didnt need anymore. /o' 'e ad to convert allo(r diskettes to te ne' system, and 'e looked for'ard to te

@ 3$$ @'eekend, 'en Emilios ?$yearold grandson =ino, 'o 'as st(dying at Berkeley and 'as familiar'it te -B4 PC, 'as to come for a visit and el! (s in tis !rocess. n riday 'e drove to te doctorfor a follo'(! a!!ointment and after tat to te (niversity, 'ere Emilio !icked (! some #ooks at teli#rary, talked to colleag(es, and so onD ten 'e ret(rned ome 'it =ino. Sat(rday, !ril ??, 19N9,seemed like one of Emilios a!!iest days. ;e 'as so eAcited 'it te s!eed and all te !otential of isne' com!(ter, e looked like a cild in a toy store. fter l(nc, te men took a na!, and ten contin(edteir 'ork. =ino ad to #e #ack on cam!(s #y P.4. , and 'e drove im to te train stationD on te'ay #ack, Emilio s(ggested tat 'e go for a 'alk. &e selected an easy trail, e canged from issli!!ers to is tennis soes, and 'e started 'alking slo'ly and talking a#o(t te events of te day. -t'as cool, #(t s(nny, and 'e 'ere te only !eo!le on te trail. fter a#o(t five min(tes Emilio calmly

said, )&ait a min(te) and sto!!edD e t(rned to'ard me and !(t is ands on my so(lders. - to(gte 'as going to give me a kiss, as e (sed to do 'en e felt a!!y 8and no#ody 'as looking. -nstead,is 'eigt started !(lling me do'n. 2e life tat started in 2ivoli eigtyfo(r years #efore ad ended.

@ 3$1 @



Inde<

A

#elson, Pili!, 3$N n.G, 31% nn.1J, 1 D

at Berkeley, 113 , 13 , 1? , 13 , 1GJ , 1G D

and ne!t(ni(m, 13 , 3$G n.?J, 3$N n.G

ccademia dei 7incei, N , G1 , 119 , ?39 , ?3 , ?%9 , ?N9

ccelerators, ?N3 NJD

and anti!articles, ? 9D

Berkeley #evatron, ?G , 31G n.9D

Berkeley cyclotron, 11? 1J, 133 3G, 1$ , 1 GJ !assim, 1%1 , ??9 D

Berkeley syncrocyclotron, ??9 , ?J9 D

at ermila#, ?NJ D7os lamos cyclotron, 1NJ D

and time assignments, ?J3 JJD

&asington University cyclotron, ?$9

c0(e l#(le, s(lf(r #ats, 1N , ?1 , ??3 , ?91

e#ersold, Pa(l, 13

e#y, +ack, 1N9

frica, ?% %%

likanian #roters, ?G3llegri, /atale, 1G 1%

llison, Sam M., 1J? J3, 1J , 1N% , ?$1 , ?1

lvare*, 7. &., 1%? , ?J1 D

at Berkeley, 13 , 1JJ , 1 G, 1G3 , ?$% , ?3 , ?3% , ?N 9, ?G% , ?% , 31G n.9D

at 7os lamos, 1N D

memoirs, ?9% D

/o#el Pri*e, 1N D

at !!eneimer earings, 3$9 n.9D

Soviet invitation to, ?G?

lvaro, ltairante, ?$

maldi, Edoardo, ?N , 1?$ , 1J9 , ?N9 D

and anti!rotons, ? , ?N D

in Cam#ridge, 9? , 93 D



and CE6/ directorsi!, ?% D

and ermis !a!ers, ?GN D

=erman troo!s and, 19 D

and military service, , G$ D

and ne(tron 'ork, N9 , 9? , 93 , 9J , 9 , ?J D

in /e' ork, 11? D

in slo, GN D

in 6ome, J$ , J1 , J% ? !assim, G1 , G3 , N3 9 !assim, 1$ G, 111 , 119 , ?9$ D

and University of Palermo com!etition, 1$3 D

in U.S., 1JJ

maldi, =inestra 8Edoardos 'ife, 9$ , 9? , 93 , 9 , 1?$ , ?N

maldi, Ugo 8Edoardos fater, J1 , ?NN

maldi, Ugo 8Edoardos son, 93merican Cemical Society, ?9

merican College of /(clear Pysicians, ?9J

merican Pysical Society, ?3J , ?99

msterdam, 1$$ .

See also Leeman la#

ncona, =iacomo, ?? , 133 , ??? , ??% , ?3% , ?%$

ncona, -taly, 3 , J

nderson, C. ., 19% , ? , ?GN Andrea )oria , ?N$

ngeli6imini reaction of aldeydes, J

Annual e(iew of 3uclear Science , ?31 , ?3?

ntine(tron, ?N , 31G n.9

nti!articles, ? 9

nti!rotons, ?J3 , ? 9, ?G$ G1, ?G9 %$, ?%3 , ?%J , 31G n.9

ntiSemitism: finances for victims of, 1$$ D

-talian, J , , NG , 111 , 119 , 13? , 1J$ , ?1% , ?? D

of 7o S(rdo, D

Manifesto della razza , 13? , 1J$ D

/a*i, %9 , 9% , 1$$ D

2reyes family and, 1$ D

U.S., 1$?



rgentina, ?$

ri*ona, ?9J 9

@ 3?$ @

rmenia, ?G3

rtom, Camillo, 11

rtom, E(genio, ??

rtom, =i(liana 8co(sin, ??

statine 8element N, 1 , ?11 , ?J3 , ?JN

ston, rancis, 11%

Atombau und Spe/trallinien 8Sommerfeld, GN

tomic #om#: ngelo on, ?13 D

ermis comments on, ?? Dand ;irosima, ?$9 D

7os lamos and, 1%G %%, 1%9 ?$GD

6ot#lat and, 1N9 , 31? n.%D

Soviet, ?1J , ?3% , ?3N .

See also ;ydrogen #om#

tomic Energy ct, U.S., ?J

tomic Energy Commission 8EC, U.S., 1G9 , ?JG , ?J% , ?NJ

;

Bacer, 6. ., 1N? , 1NN

Back, E., G , G%

Bain#ridge, Mennet, ?$1

Baker, /icolas. See Bor, /iels

Bakker, Corneli(s +., GG , 9$ , 1?$ , ?% D

at Pili!s, 99 D

at Leemans la#, GG , G% , N3 , 13G

Bal#o, -talo, 1J9

Bale'a, #(#akar 2afa'a, ?%G %%

Bar#ella, Costantino, 1%

Barresi, =inetta, 11$ , 1J1 , 1J9

Beck, =(ido, ?$



Benin, #a of, ?%G

Berkeley, ?$G D

move from 819, ?3 D

Piedmont ve. o(se, 1JJ D

settling in, 11J D

S!r(ce Street o(se, 1%$ , ?3 D

visits, 11? 1J, 1?N , 131 %N.

See also 6adiation 7a#oratory, BerkeleyD University of California, Berkeley

Bernardini, =il#erto, 1?$ , ?39 D

#ook on elementary !ysics, 111 D

and CE6/ directorsi!, ?% D

at Col(m#ia, ?G$ D

at Cosmic 6ay 7a#, ?33 Dat University of -llinois, ?39 D

and University of Palermo com!etition, 1$3

Beta decay, 1? , 1G , ?G1 , ?GJ D

ermi and, NG , NN , 1% , 1G3 , 1G

Bete, ;ans ., ?N$ D

and accelerators, 13 D

in Berkeley, 1%G D

at Cornell, ?$% Dat =eneral Electric, ?13 D

and ydrogen #om#, ?3N D

at 7os lamos, 1N , 1N% D

/o#el Pri*e, 1N D


in 6ome, G3

Ba#a, ;omi +eangir, ?N?

Birge, 6aymond 2., 1G1 G?, ?11 , ?3% , 31$ n.?1D

and )!eace) !ysics, 1%? D

and !ysics de!artment staff, ?$N , ?$9 , ?1$ , ?3J

Berge, ane 2., 93 , 9J

Blackett, Patrick, ?J%

Bloc, eliA: in Berkeley, 1JJ , 1JG D



at 7os lamos, 1N , 1N% , 193 D

and ne!t(ni(m, 1? D

/o#el Pri*e, 1N D

in 6ome, G3

Bogoli(#ov, /ikolai, ?G3

Bor, age, 193 9J

Bor, /iels, JG , 3$ n.1JD

and enmark, 1?? ?3, 19J , ?GN D

;eisen#erg and, 1?? ?3D

;evesy and, 11G D

at 7os lamos, 193 9D

and /o#el Pri*e, 11 , ?%?

Bonfante, =i(liano, 1NBoni, =iacomo, J$

Boole, =eorge, 19?

Bordoni, U., J1

Bo**olo, -taly, 3

Bray, &. C., 13G

Bra*il, ?J9 $, ?9

Bregman, Eli*a#et, ?N

Breit, =regory, 1G9 , 1%GBretscer, Egon, 1G3 , ?33

Briggs, 7yman +., 1GG , 1%$

Britis 4ission, 19? 93

Bro#eck, &illiam, 1N

Brode, Bernice, 133 , 1J? , 193

Brode, 6o#ert B., 133 , 1J? J3, 1%? , 1N% , 193 , ?33 3J, ?3 , ?3%

Brookaven /ational 7a#oratory, 7ong -sland, ??$ , ?J$ J1, ?J% , ?NJ

C

Caccia!(oti, B. /., 11$ , 11G

California, G3 GJ, 1J? JJD

7afayette, ?3 J, ?N , ?NG N%, ?NN .

See also Berkeley



California -nstit(te of 2ecnology, Pasadena, G3 GJ

Cal(trons, 19% 9N

Cam!etti, ., 1$3

Canni**aro, Stanislao, 1$G

Card(cci, =ios(R, 1% , ?

Careri, =iorgio, ?9$

Carlandi, norato, 1%

@ 3?1 @

Carrelli, ntonio, 1$3 , 1$% N, 1?G

Casteln(ovo, =(ido, 3N , 39 ,

Cavendis 7a#oratory, Cam#ridge, 9? 93, 11%

CE6/, ?9$ Ddirectorsi!, ?GN , ?% D

international scientific conference, ?G

Ceylon 8Sri 7anka, ?N?

Cad'ick, +ames, N% , 93 , 19$ 91, 19? , ?J%

Calmers, 2. ., 1$

Cam#erlain, 'en, ?J? , ?G$ , ?G1 D

and anti!rotons, ?G , ?% , ?N , ?G$ , 31G n.9D

at Berkeley, 1%? %3, 1%G , ??% , ??9 3$, ?31 , ?G , ?N , ?N3 D

at Brookaven, ?J% D

at Cicago, ?$G , ?3$ D

at ;arvard, ?G$ , ?%$ D

at 7os lamos, 1%N , 1N , 1N9 D

/o#el Pri*e, 1N , ?G9 %$D

Soviet Union tri!, ?G?

Camisso, dal#ert von, )Scloss Bonco(rt,) ?J , 31 n.

Cemistry: ngeli6imini reaction of aldeydes, J D

at Berkeley, ?11 , ?1? D

canges, ?JJ D

at onegani s(mmer scool, ?%9 N$D

;ofmann medal, ?GG G%D

/o#el Pri*e, ?9 G$.



See also Elements

Cerenkov, Pavel, ?G3

Ce', =eoffrey, ?3 , 3$1 n.J

Cicago: ermi in, J% , 1$ , 1% , ?$ 13 !assim, ?39 , ?JN , ?1 ?D

ermila#, ?NJ D

4etall(rgical 7a#oratory, ?11 .

See also University of Cicago

Cromodynamics, ?1?

C(rcill, &., 1N1

Ci!olla, 4icele, 1$G

Cockcroft, +on, 93 , ?J%

Coefficient of a0(aticity, 9G

Conen, ;., G GG)Cold f(sion,) ?99

Collegio =islieri fello'si!s, J

Colom#o, Um#erto, ?%9 N$

Col(m#ia University, 1$1 , 111 1?, 13? , 1JG , 1G% , ?J$ , ?GJ

Comm(nist Party, U.S., 13N , 139 J$, ?3J

Com!etitions: errara, N1 D

Palermo !ysics cairs, 1$1 , 1$3 , 1? ?G

Com!ton, . ;., 1% , ?$N , ?%N %9Condon, E. U., 1N?

Congress, U.S., ?J

Congress of ;istory of Science, 2ent -nternational, ?N1

Consiglio na*ionale delle ricerce 8C/6, N9 , 1?

Conversi, 4arcello, 1%

Cooksey, Carleton, 13

Cooksey, on, 113 , 133 , 13 3G, 1J3 JJ, 1G% , 1%J , ?J1

Co!enagen: Bor -nstit(te, ?GN D

conference, 1??

Cor#ino, . 4., 3N , J3 !assim, G1 , 9$ , 1$G , ?31 , ?J D

deat, 11N 19, 1?J D

and 7a 6osa, 1$$ D

6ockefeller o(ndation advisor, G3 D



and slo' ne(tron !atent, 9G , ?JJ

Cornog, 6o#ert, 13 , 1

Corson, ale, 1

Coryell, C. ., 31% n.1J

Cosmic 6ay 7a#, 2esta =rigia, ?33

Coster, irk, 11%

Cr(deli, U., 1$3

C(#an missile crisis, ?N?

C(rie, 4arie, NN , 1$? , 11 , 3$9 n.%

Cyclotrons. See ccelerators

4

gostino, scar, N9 , ?J

ali, =ala, ?%J

ali, Salvador, ?%3 %

aniels, ., 31% n.1J

dnn(n*io, =a#riele, 1% , 1N , ? , % , %G

ante ligieri, 1 , 3% , 1$J , 131 , ?93

arro', M. M., J

C am!lifier, 133 3J

e Bono, Emilio, 9Ne#ye, Peter, G

efoe, ., 1J3

de rancis, 4icele, 1$G

enmark, 1?? ?3, 19J , ?GN

e(tsc, 4artin, 1N9

iffraction grating, G , GG

irac, P. . 4., N? , ? , ?%3

isarmament conference, U.S.USS6, ?Godson, 6icard, 19N

olomites, 1$N 9, 1?$ ?1

onegani, ?%9 , ?9$

onegani 7ect(res, ?39 , ?%9

onegani scool, ?%9 , ?NG



on /ello del 6aso, 3G

(Bridge, 7ee, 133 3J, 19

(mas, +. B., ?$

@ 3?? @

(nning, +. 6., 1$?

(r(y, Kictor, ?$

E

Ed(cation: in cildood, 1J , 1 , 1N , ?? , 31 3?D

in engineering, 3% 3N, J1 , J3 , JG , JN J9D

ig scool, ?J ?G, 3? , 33 3J, 3% D

in +(daism, 3 D

in lang(ages, 1 , ? ?G, 3? , 33 , 3J D

in matematics, ?? , ?G , 3N , 39 J$, J1 , JG , ? 3D

in !ysics, 19 ?$, ?G , 33 3J, 3% G, G1 G3D

(niversity, 3% G

Erenfest, Pa(l, G3

Einstein, l#ert, 3 3G, JG , ?%? , ?%3 , ?%N , ?9?

Elements, 11G 1%D

americi(m, 19% Dastatine, 1 , ?11 , ?J3 , ?JN D

#erylli(m, 1% D

afni(m, 11% D

mas(ri(m, 9$ , 11 , 11% D

ne!t(ni(m, 1? 3, 1G , 3$G n.?JD

reni(m, 11% , 1? D

rodi(m, 13N D

tori(m, 91 D

(rani(m, 91 9?, 9G , 113 , 1? , 1G3 G%, 1%1 , 19% 9ND

Aenon, 13.

See also Pl(toni(mD 2ecneti(m

Ellis, C. ., N%

Emo, Bar#ara, ??G



Emo, 7oren*o, 113 , 13? 33, ?%1 , ?N$ , ?9? D

in Berkeley, 11N , 13? 33, 13 , 1J$ , 1J? , 1JG D

in -taly, ??J , ?? ?G

Engineering: Bro#eck and, 1N D

ed(cation in, 3% 3N, J1 , J3 , JG , JN J9

England: Cavendis 7a#oratory, 9? 93, 11% D

-roceedings of the oyal Society , G? , 93 D

6oyal -nstit(tion, ?93 D

visits, G% GN, %N , 9? 93, ?93 .

See also 7ondon

Englis, S. =., 1G9

Englis lang(age, 33 , N? N3

Enri0(es, ederigo, 111Enri0(es, =iovanni, J1 , J? , J3 , JJ , G

E(ler, ;ans von, 1??

Everest, =eorge, 193

E;perimental 3uclear -hysics 8Segrè, ?3? , ?G?

F

ano, Ugo, %1 , ?N%

an*olo villa, ?? ?Garaday, 4., ?$ , NN , ?J3 , ?93

ar'ell, =eorge, 1%N , 1N9 , ?$G

ascism, 1$3 , 1?% , 139 , 1J9 , ?1J , ?1% D

vang(ardisti yo(t organi*ation, ?N ?9D

=i(se!!e Segrè and, ?9 , NJ , N D

-talian cons(l in =ermany and, G9 D

of 7o S(rdo, GD

Manifesto della razza , 13? , 1J$ DPalermo !eo!le against, 1$ , 1$G , 1$N , 1?% D

6ockefeller o(ndation and, G3 D

Segrè (ncles and, N , ?9 .

See also 4(ssolini, Benito

ascist Party, ?9 , 139 , 1J9



B-, 1%$

een#erg, E(gene, G3

ermi, Enrico, ?N , %9 , 1JG , 19J , ?31 , ?G1 , ?%3 D

in Berkeley, 11? , 1G %, 1G1 , ?3? D

and #eta decay, NG , NN , 1% , 1G3 , 1G D

#iogra!y, ?GN D

at Brookaven, ?J% D

in Cicago, J% , 1$ , 1% , ?$ 13 !assim, ?39 , ?JN , ?1 ?D

at Col(m#ia, 1G% D

Com!ton and, ?%9 D

)cr(m#s,) G1 G?, G D

deat 819J, ?? 3D

onegani 7ect(res, ?39 Don =ar'in, ?J$ D

and ydrogen #om#, ?3N , ?1 D

international !ysics conferences, J , JG , NN , 9J D

"ntroduzione alla fisica atomica , ? D

in -taly, J1 G9 !assim, N1 9 !assim, 11N , 119 , ?1 D

(dging at com!etitions, N$ , 1$3 D

letters of recommendation #y, ?%N D

at 7os lamos, 1?G ?%, 1N? , 1N3 , 1N , 1N% , 191 , 19% , 19N , ?$? , ?$3 J, ?3? Din 4icigan, N? , 1$1 , 1$? D

ne(tron 'ork and !atent, NN 9 !assim, 111 , ?J3 , ?JJ , ?J JG, ?J% D

in /e' +ersey, 1G? G3D

and /o#el Pri*e, 11 , ?9 G$D

!!eneimer contrasted 'it, 13N , 139 D

and Palermo cair of teoretical !ysics, 1? D

!a!ers !(#lised after deat, ?GN , ?N$ D

and !arity nonconservation, ?G D

Sea#org contrasted 'it, 1GN G9D

and Segrès Berkeley !osition, 1$ , 1J D

So(t merican lect(re to(r, 9? D

stomac cancer, ??% , ?1 ?D

and 2eller, G3 , ?1 ?D



and (rani(m, 1?

ermi, 7a(ra, 9 , ?? , ?G$ , ?NJ , ?N% D

Atoms in the 'amily , ??

ermila#, ?NJ

ermiSegrè form(la, N1

errari, a#io, 3$1 n.J

erro7(**i, =iovanni, 39 , J$ , JJ , N

eynman, 6icard P., 1N

inances: in Berkeley, 1J% JN, 13 J, 1G1 , 1%$ , 1%? , ?1$ D

for cyclotron, 13 D

for dis!laced +e's, 1$$ D

in -srael,

@ 3?3 @

?N3 D

-talian !rofessors, ??3 D

7os lamos earnings, 1J% D

after marriage, 1$N D

/o#el Pri*e, ?%? %3D

!atent, ?J% D

Pysics -nstit(te, 9$ D

Segrè family, 11 , 1J , NJ NG, 1$1 ?, 1$% , 1$N , 1J$ J9 !assim, 1%$ , ?1G ??D

after (niversity, % , G , G9 , N

ink, =. ., 1$?

in*i family, 19

ission: discovery of, 11 ?, ?J , ?G , ?99 D

s!ontaneo(s, 1N , 19 9%

lorence, 3$ .

See also 2reves villa

or#idden lines. See V(adr(!ole radiation

oscolo, Ugo, 3$

raenkel, Stanley, 1%G

rance: family ed(cation in, J D

Paris, ?39 .



See also renc lang(age

rancetti, Piero, JJ

rancis erdinand, rcd(ke of (stria and Este, ? , 1$

ranck, +ames, 1J , ?G$

rascati 7a#oratory, ?9$

renc lang(age, 1N , ? ?G, ?99

riedl^nder, =erart, 1G9 , 1%G , 31% n.1J

risc, tto, G9 %$, N% , 19? , 193 , 3$ n.13

'rom 'alling odies to adio ,a(es 8Segrè, ?93 , ?9N

'rom <=ays to *uar/s 8Segrè, ?N1 , ?9N

r(goni, Prof., ??

(cs, Mla(s, 193

(l#rigt fello'si!, ?39

B

=anot, do!e, ?$ , 3N

=ar'in, 6icard 7., ?J$ , ?G , ?%N

=eneral Electric, ?13 , ?J

=entile, =iovanni, +r., $ , 111 , 1? ?G

=entile, =iovanni, Sr., $ , 9N , 1?G

=erman Cemical Society, ?GG G%=erman lang(age, 1 , ? ?G, 3? , 33 , ?99

=ermany, G9 , 1?3 D

=ino Segrè and, N D

S!iros, 9G 9%, 1?% , 1J9 D

s(rrender, 199 .

See also ;am#(rgD ;itler, .D /a*is

=iannini, =. 4., N? , ?3G 3%, ?J

=iordani, rancesco, ?39 , ?N9=laso', Seldon, ?3J

=ofman, +ack, 1G9

=old#erger, 4arvin, ?3

=olda#er, =erson, ?G , ?G$

=olda#er, 4a(rice, 93



=ordon, &illiam E., %$

=ordon Conference, ?J% JN

=o(dsmit, S. ., ?%?

=rating, diffraction, G , GG

=riggs, ;elen, 1G9 %$

=rimod, 4., ? ?G

=rosse, ristide von, 3$G n.?J

=roves, 7eslie 6., 1%% , 1%9 N$, 1N? , 1N3 , ?$1 ?, 3$9 n.9

=(ggeneim ello'si!, ?G% GN

6

;a#er, rit*, 9%

;an, Er'in, ?J$

;an, tto, 91 , 11 , 1? , ?G%

;aissinsky, 4oise, 1$?

;alford, 6al!, 1$

;am#(rg, 1?3 D

eA!eriments, GN %?, N% D

romance in, %1 %N, %9 N$, 1?3 , ?G9 D

visits, 1?? ?J, ?GN G9

;eisen#erg, &erner, JG , 1?? ?3, ??9 , ?%3 , 3$9 n.%;elmol*, Betty, ?N%

;elmol*, Carl, ?N%

;erskovits, 4. +., ?%G

;evesy, =eorg von, 11G 1%, ?$ , ?9 , ?N1

;il#erry, /orman, 1%

;istory of science, ?N$ N1, ?9N

;itccock 7ect(rers, 1G , 193

;itler, ., 9? , 13? , 1%% , ?$$ Dmericans and, 139 J$D

coming to !o'er 8+an(ary 1933, %N D

and immigration restrictions, 1J D

4(ssolini and, 9? , 1?% ?N, 13? D

scolar victims, G3 , 1$$ D



s(icide, 199 .

See also /a*is

;ofmann medal, ?GG G%

;olland: +ose!y in, 1$$ D

ne(tron conferences, 99 1$$D

Pili!s Com!any, 99 1$$, ?J D

Leeman la#, G , GG G%, %N %9, 99 , 1?N , 13G

;(ges, . 7., ?$9

;ydrogen #om#, ?3% 3N, ?1 .

See also tomic #om#

;y!efine str(ct(re, N1 N?, N%

I

-#adan University, /igeria, ?%

-B4, ?J$

-llinois. See University of CicagoD University of -llinois, Ur#ana

-ndia, ?N?

@ 3?J @

-nglis, . 6., G3 , N?

-ran, ?N? N3-somerism, n(clear, 13% 3N, 1$ 1, ?J3

-srael, ?N? N3, 3$? n.

-taly, J , G3 , 131 , ?$N , ?NN N9, ?9? D

ccademia dei 7incei, N , G1 , 119 , ?39 , ?3 , ?%9 , ?N9 D

c0(e l#(le s(lf(r #ats, 1N , ?1 , ??3 , ?91 D

antiSemitism"racial la's, J , , NG , 111 , 119 , 13? , 1J$ , ?1% , ?? D

Civil Code, % D

Consiglio na*ionale delle ricerce, 9$ , 1? D

cons(ls in =ermany from, G9 D

militarys diversity in, G$ D

!ysics in, 3N , JG , J9 , 119 D

!ost'ar visits, 19 , ?13 , ??1 , ??? ?%, ?3? 33D

stay in 19%$s, ?NN 9?D



to(ring, J1 J, 1$9 , 1?J , ?9$ 91, ?9? 93D

and U.S. visas, 1?N ?9D

visit in 19G$s, ?N? N3D

and &orld &ar --, %9 , 9? , 1$3 , 1%1 , 1%3 , 19 .

See also ascismD 4(ssolini, BenitoD indi(idual cities and uni(ersities

-vanenko, . ., ?G3

+a!an, &orld &ar --, 1%1 , ?$3 , ?$9

+a!anese mericans, &orld &ar --, 1%3

+as!ers, Marl, ?G%

+effries, Carson ., ?N3

+enkins, rancis ., 1%? , ?% D

in Berkeley, 133 , 1J? J3, 1$ , ?1$ , ?33 3J, ?3 , ?J9

+enkins, ;enriette, 133 , 1J? , 1J3 , 1JJ , ?J9 , ?%

+ensen, ;ans ., %$ , ?G$

+entscke, &., ?GN G9

+e's: #roter 4arco on, ?N D

ed(cation in +(daism, 3 D

finances for dis!laced, 1$$ D

military leave for om Mi!!(r, 9 D !racticing"non!racticing, 1$ 11, 3 .

See also ntiSemitism

+onson, 7yndon, ?NJ

+oliotC(ries, rRdRric and -rène, NN N9, 91 , 1? , ?39

+ose!y, B., G9 , 1$$

+(ngerman, +on, 1N9

D Man, 4ilton, 1%G , 1%N , 1N9

Mal#fell, avid, 13

Mamen, 4artin ., 13 , 1JJ

Mammerling nnes, ;eike, ?

Ma!it*a, Peter, 93 , ?G3

Meats, +on, ??N



Mennedy, +on ., ?N1

Mennedy, +ose! &., 31% nn. 1J , 1 D

at Berkeley, 11 , 1GJ %G !assimD

at 7os lamos, 1%N , 1N% , 19 , 19% D

and !l(toni(m !atent, ?JG D

stomac cancer, ?J% D

at &asington University, ?$N , ?$9

Merst, onald, 1N% , ?39 , ?9

Ming, Percival, 1N%

Mistiako'sky, =eorge B., 19% , ?N1

Mlein, eliA, 111

Mlein, scar, ?GN , ?%1 %?

Mna(er, ., G9Mono!inski, E. +., 1%G

Mristeller, P. ., 9N

M(n, 2omas S., ?N$ N1

M(rie, ran*, 113

M(roda, P. M., 3$N n.11

L

7anda(, E., J17anda(, 7. ., ?G3

7angsdorf, leA, +r., 13% , 13

7ang(ages: ed(cation in, 1 , 1N , ? ?G, 3? , 33 , 3J D

Englis, 33 , N? N3D

renc, 1N , ? ?G, ?99 D

=erman, 1 , ? ?G, 3? , 33 , ?99 D

7atin and =reek, ? , 3J

7ansdale, +on, +r., 1%J %7ark;orovit*, Marl, 1G$ G1

7a 6osa, 4icele, 1$$ 1$1, 1$

7atimer, &. 4., 1GN , 3$9 n.9

7attes, ante, 3

7attes, =. C., ?J9 , ?$



7a'rence, Ernest ., %$ , 113 , 13J 3, 1J3 %3 !assim, ?$9 1? !assim, ?J1 J?, ?GG , ?%% , 313 n.1D

and anti!rotons, ?% , ?N D

and atomic 'ea!ons, 1%1 , ?3% 3ND

and #evatron, ?G D

and cal(trons, 19% D

colitis, ?GG D

and Cooksey, 13 3G, ?J1 D

and C am!lifier, 133 D

deat, ?GG , ?G% D

at disarmament conference, ?G GGD

and letters of recommendation, ?%N D

and loyalty oat, ?3 D

and /o#el Pri*e, 1J9 , 11 , ?9 , ?GG , 31% n.1Dand !atents, ?JG D

and -hysical e(iew articles, 13% 3N, 1%$ D

and Piccioni acc(sations, ?% D

Sea#org contrasted 'it, 1GN D

sending radioactive s(#stances, 11? ,

@ 3? @

11 , 11N D

and Soviet Union tri!, ?G1 G?

7a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory 87B7, ?G% , ?N3 NJ

7eag(e of /ations, 1$9 , 1N? , ?$J

7ederman, 7eon, ?G

7ee, 2s(ngao, ?GJ , ?G

7eininger, 6., ?11

7eit*, red, 1G9

7en*, &., %$

7eone, =iovanni, ?N9

7eo!ardi, =iacomo, ?J

7eviCivita, 2(llio, 3N 39, J , G3

7e'is, =. /., 13G , 1GN

7eyden, +on, 1N



7i##y, &illard ., 1$ 1, 31% n.1J

7ignola, 4ar0(is, N

7inen#erger, =. ., 1%N , 1N9

7ivermore 7a'rence 7a#oratory 8777, ?G%

7ofgren, Ed'ard, ?G , 31G n.9

7om#roso, Cesare, 19J

7ondon, rit*, G3

7ondon: international !ysics conference, 9J D

!arents in, 1J D

6oyal -nstit(tion, ?93 D

visits, G% GN, %N , 9? , ?93

7oomis, lfred, 1G%

7oomis, &. ., ?397os lamos, 1%3 , 1%% %N, 1%9 ?$%, ?3$ , ?% D

a!artment, 1NG N%D

Big ;o(se, 1N$ , 1N? D

earnings at, 1J% D

(ller 7odge, 1N$ N1, 1N? , 1N D

7ansdale monitoring, 1%J %D

and loyalty oat, ?3G D

!!eneimer at, 139 , 1N$ Do(tings, 19$ 9?D

Paarito, 1NG D

!ysical s(rro(ndings, 1N$ N1

)7os lamos Primer,) 1N?

7o S(rdo, ntonino, ? , 3 G, GJ , 119 , 1%3

7oyalty oat, ?3J 3G, ?3N , ?JG

7(edemann, ;ermann, 9% , 3$% n.31

M

4acal(so, amiano, 1$G

4cCarty, +ose!, ?%N %9

4c4aon ct 819JG, U.S., ?JG

4c4illan, Ed'in, 1%? , ?J1 D



at Berkeley, 113 , 13 , 1JJ , 1? , 13 , 1G , ?$% D

at 7os lamos, 1N , 1N% , ?$ D

and ne!t(ni(m, 13 , 3$G n.?J, 3$N n.GD

and /o#el Pri*e, 1N , ?9 , ?%$ , 31% n.1D

!ase sta#ility discovery, ?1? D

6ad 7a# director, ?G% D

Soviet invitation to, ?G?

4aggini, Signorina 8teacer, 1 , 1N , ?91

4aglic, Bogdan, ?N 9

4aorana, Ettore, ??9 , 3$3 n.3D

disa!!earance, 1?G ?%D

and een#erg, G3 D

and Palermo cair, 1? ?GDin 6ome, 39 J$, JG , J9 $, 1 , %1

4aorana, 7(ciano, 1?G

4aorana, V(irino, JG , N$

4andI, 4anlio, 11$

4anattan istrict, 1%% , 1%9 ?$G, ?$N , ?JG

4anley, +on, 1%G , 1%N , 1N%

4arconi, =., 11? , 1?G

4arsall, =eorge, ?$34artine*, 4aria, 1N%

4atematics, ed(cation in, ?? , ?G , 3N , 39 J$, J1 , JG , ? 3

4atteotti, =iacomo, ?9

4aA'ell, +ames Clerk, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism , %$

4ayer, 4aria, ?G$

4edicine, n(clear, ?93 9J

4eitner, 7ise, N% , 91 , 1? , ?%1 %?

4endeleyev, . -., 11 , ?GJ

4esons, ?N3 D

M, ?GJ D

ro, ?9 , ?G1

4etall(rgical 7a#oratory, Cicago, ?11

4etyl #romide, 19



4etro!olis, /icolas, ?3$

4eAicali, 4eAico, 1J JG

4icigan. See University of 4icigan

4ilitary: and ydrogen #om#, ?3N D

-talian service, ?G , ?N , J , % G1, 1?1 D

U.S., 1%% , 1%9 N$, 1N? NJ, 1N9 , ?$$ , ?$? 3, ?3? , ?3N

4illikan, 6o#ert ., JG , G3

4illman, S., 1$?

4ines Segrè, 6osa, ?NJ , ?NN , ?9J 9, ?9% 3$$

4inko'ski, ;ermann, %$

4iskel, +on, 1%N , 1N9

4itcell, . P., 1$? , 1N% , 1NN

4oderation !rocess, 94olec(lar #eam 'ork, GN %1, N3 , 1$? , ?J3

Moll 'landers 8efoe, 1J3

4ontanelli, -., ?J$

4ontecatini cemical com!any, ?39 , ?%9 , ?9$

@ 3?G @

4ontemartini, 1$G , 11J

4oon, P. B., 9 , 19?

4orandi, 7(igi, ?39 , ?%9 N$

4oyer, B(rton +., 3G

4(lford, ean 4rs., 1%$

4(ons, 1?? , ?GJ G

4(ssolini, Benito, JG , 9? , 1?1 , 1?% ?N, 13? , 1%1 , 19

N

/a!les, 'edding tri!, 1$% N

/ational B(rea( of Standards, ?GJ

3ature , G1 , G? , GJ , ?%

/a*is, ?$$ , ?1J 1D

melia Segrè ca!t(red #y, ?3 , 19 , ?1J D

=erman romances and, %N , %9 , 9G 9%, ?G9 D



and 7(edemann, 3$% n.31D

scientists and, 1$$ , 1J , 1N9 , 19J , ?G9 .

See also ;itler, .

/eddermeyer, Set, 19%

/eeman, (val, ?N3

/elson, Eldred, 1%G

/e!al, ?N?

/ernst, &alter, 3N

/e(trons: antine(tron, ?N , 31G n.9D

discovery of, NN , 19$ 91, ?N1 D

!atent, 9G , ?JJ JG, ?J% D

Pysics -nstit(te 'ork on, NN 9G, ?J3 D

slo', 9J 9G, ?JJ JG, ?J% .See also /(clear !ysics

/e' England, ?J% JN

/e' 4eAico, 1N% , 19? , ?$$ ?$?, ?%.

See also 7os lamos

/e' ork: ngelo in, 1JG J%, 19 , ?13 , ??1 D

Col(m#ia University, 1$? , 111 1?, 13? , 1JG , 1G% , ?J$ , ?GJ D

6iccardo 6imini in, ?JN .

See also Brookaven /ational 7a#oratory /eylan, +. ., ?3J , ?3

/igeria, ?% %%

/ikotin, -. P., ?G3

/o#el, lfred, ?G

/o#el Pri*es, 1J , 1G , ?G , ?G9 , ?%? , ?N1 , 31% n.1D

lvafe*, 1N D

Bete, 1N D

Bloc, 1N D

Cam#erlain, 1N , ?G9 %$D

ermi, 11 D

eynman, 1N D

+ensen, ?G$ D

7a'rence and, 1J9 , 11 , ?9 , ?GG , 31% n.1D



7ee, ?G D

4c4illan and, 1N , ?9 , ?%$ , 31% n.1D

4ayer, ?G$ D

nnes, ? D

6a#i, 1N D

6aman, G$ D

Sea#org, ?9 D

Segrè, 1N , ??1 ??, ?J1 , ?9 , ?G1 , ?G , ?G9 %3, 31% n.1D

Sieg#ans, 31N n.?JD

2amm, ?G3 D

ang, ?G D

Leeman, GG

/o#les, Bill, 1N9 /oddack, &alter M., 11 , 11G , 11% 1N, 1?J

/or'ay, GN , ?GN

/oyes, . ., 13G

/(clear eA!losion, 199 D

in +a!an, ?$3 , ?$J D

!redetonation, 1N D

tests, ?$$ ?$?, ?$3

/(clear isomerism, 13% 3N, 1$ 1, ?J3 /(clear medicine, ?93 9J

/(clear !ysics, 1G? G3, ?31 3?, ?J D

at Berkeley, 13J , 13% 3N, 19 9G, ?11 1?, ??N 31, ?J3 , ?N$ D

at Cicago, 1% %GD

at Col(m#ia, 1$? 3, 11? D

E;perimental 3uclear -hysics , ?3? , ?G? D

ermis 'ritten lect(res on, ?? D

in ;olland, 99 1$$D

in -taly, NG 9G, 111 D

at 7os lamos, 1%9 ?$GD

!atents, 9G , ?JJ JGD

in 6ome, ?9$ D

teAt#ook on, ?N$ .



See also cceleratorsD ElementsD issionD /e(tronsD 6adiation 7a#oratory, Berkeley

/(clear 'ea!ons, 1%1 , ?3% .

See also tomic #om#D ;ydrogen #om#

3uclei and -articles 8Segrè, ?N$

/(cleonn(cleon interaction, ??N 3$, ?33 , ?J3 , ?JN

O

ak 6idge, 2ennessee, 19% 9N

ccialini, =i(se!!e, ?9? 93

li!ant, 4arc(s, 93

!!eneimer, +. 6o#ert, 13N 39, ?$9 , ?G3 , 3$9 n.9D

at Berkeley, 113 , 13% 39, 1G %, 1%J %% !assim, ??9 D

earings, ?1 , 3$9 n.9D

and ydrogen #om#, ?3N D

at 7os lamos, 139 , 1%% ?$3 !assim

rvieto, ngiolo, 11

vid, ?

Palermo, 1$J , 1$9 1$D

a!artment on Pia**a ranceso Cris!i, 119 ?$, ?3 D

Elfriede leaving, 1J1 D

;otel EAcelsior, 1$N D

Pensione 7incoln, 1$ , 1$N D

Pysics -nstit(te, 1$ G, 11$ , ?GN D

!ost'ar, ?GN D

6otary Cl(#, 1?% D

University of, 1$1 , 1$3 , 1$J 3$, ?$N

Panet, rit*, 9? , 11G 1%Panofsky, &olfgang, ?3 , ?J1 , ?G$ , ?G? , ?G

Pa!er mill 8family #(siness, 9 1$, 1J ,

@ 3?% @

NJ N, ?91 D

a'ard ceremony for old em!loyees, ?G9 D



faters estate and, NJ N, ?1 ??, ?? D

4arco and, J3 , NJ N, ?1G ?1, ?? D

6ome office, ?? ?3, 9N

Parini, =i(se!!e, ?$%

Paris, ?39

Parity nonconservation, ?GJ G

Parravano, /icola, 3N , 119

Pascen, ., G

Pas0(ali, =iorgio, 3J

Patent: !l(toni(m, ?JJ , ?JG J%D

on slo' ne(trons, 9G , ?JJ JG, ?J%

Pa(li, &olfgang, JG , %$ , NN , ?33

Peano, =i(se!!e, ?Pegram, =. B., 1$1 , 11? , 1J , 1G3 GJ

Peierls, 6(dolf, G3 , 19? , ?J%

Penney, &illiam, 19? , ?J%

Perlman, -sidor, 1G9

Perlman, 4orris, 1G9 , 1%G

Perosi, on 7oren*o, 1?%

Perrier, Carlo, 1$ , 1$G , 11G , 11N , 1?% , ??J

Persico, Enrico, 9J , 1? , ??J , ?GNPer(, ?$ 1

Pili!s Com!any, Eindoven, 99 1$$, ?J

Pi!!s, 2. E., G9

-hysical e(iew , N% , 13% 3N, 1$ 1, 1GG , 1%$ , ?%

Pysics, % , ?31 , ?J? JJD

merican Pysical Society, ?3J , ?99 D

)'ito(t a!!arat(s,) ?J? J3D

)#attlesi! eA!eriments,) ?J? J3, ?N D

at Berkeley, 1J , 1G1 G?, 1%? %3, ?3$ 31, ?33 3G, ?J3 , ?N$ , ?N3 , ?NN , 31$ n.?1D

#ook on n(clear and !article, ?N$ D

ed(cation, 19 ?$, ?G , 33 3J, 3% GD

international conferences, J JG, NN , 9J , ?33 D

lect(res on, ?N1 , ?N? D



molec(lar #eam 'ork, GN %1, N3 , ?J3 D

4oyer in, 3G D

/o#el Pri*e !restige, ?%? D

ccialini on, ?93 D

!article, ?G1 , ?GJ , ?N$ D

at P(rd(e, 1G$ G1D

0(adr(!ole radiation, GJ G, G% , GN , N3 NJ, ?J3 D

)s'ollen atoms)" 6yd#erg states, N3 NJ, 1$ , ?J3 D

teacing, 11$ 11, 1%? , ?N$ , ?NN D

'eak interactions, NN , ?GJ G.

See also nti!articlesD Beta decayD CyclotronD /(clear !ysicsD V(ant(m mecanicsD 6adiation7a#oratory, Berkeley

Pysics -nstit(te: Palermo, 1$ G, 11$ , ?GN D

6ome 8Kia Panis!erna, JG , JN , , 9 G !assim, N3 9G !assim, 1$ G, 119 , ??3 , 3$9 n.%

Pia**i, =i(se!!e, 1$G

Piccioni, reste, ?JN , ?N , 31G n.9

Pittarelli, Professor, 3N , J$

Pi(s K, Po!e, J

Pi(s Y-, Po!e, ?3G

Plac*ek, =eorge, G3 , 1J , ?13 , ?%3

Planck, 4aA, JG , ?%?Pl(toni(m, 1G3 %$, 1% %G, 1N , 19G 9%, ?J3 D

!atent, ?JJ , ?JG J%

Pocettino, lfredo, N$

PoincarR, +(les;enri,

Poles: and /a*is, 1N9 D

and U.S. visas, 1?N ?9

Polo, 4arco, 1N

Pontecorvo, Br(no: at =eneral Electric, ?13 Dand ne(tron 'ork, 9J , 9 , ?J , ?JG D

in Paris, 1G$ D

and rodi(m, 13N D

in Soviet Union, ?3G 3%, ?JG , ?G? D

2(lsa o#, 1G$ , ?3%



Po!ovi, 1N%

Positron, ?

Po'ell, &ilson, ?N

Prest'ood, 6enR +., 1G9 , 1N9

-roceedings of the oyal Society , G? , 93

Pse(do!otential, NJ

P(ccianti, 7(igi, N$

P(rd(e University, 1G$ G1

P(sterla, Emilia, ? , 1G

P(sterla, 7(igi, 1G , 1%

P 'aves, ?1?

V(adr(!ole radiation, GJ G, G% , GN , %N , N3 NJ, ?J3

V(akers, 1J3

V(ant(m mecanics, ? , GG , 13N

R

6a#i, -. -.: at Col(m#ia, 1$? D

at 7os lamos, 1N$ , 1N D

molec(lar #eam 'ork, 1$? , ?J3 D

/o#el Pri*e, 1N D


-hysical e(iew , N%

6aca, =i(lio, NG , 1? , 1?G , ?N3

6acism. See ntiSemitism

6adiation 7a#oratory, Berkeley, ?1$ 11, ??N 3$, ?J1 J3, 31? n.3D

administrative

@ 3?N @

'ork, ?%% %ND

and anti!articles"anti!rotons, ?J3 , ? 9, ?G$ G1D

and 7os lamos !roect, 1%3 , 1%% %N, 1N , 19 9GD

and loyalty oat, ?3 D

(nder 4c4illan, ?G% D



and !atents, ?JG D

radioactive s(#stances sent from, 113 1N !assimD

visit 8193G, 11? , 113 1JD

visit 8193N19J3, 133 3N, 1J% %N.

See also cceleratorsD 7a'rence, Ernest .D 7a'rence Berkeley 7a#oratory

adiations from adioacti(e Substances 86(terford, Cad'ick, Ellis, N%

6adiciotti, 1%

6adioactivity, 3$9 n.%D

accident, 1%% D

artificial, NN N9, 3$9 n.%D

meas(rement, 133 3JD

n(clear isomerism and, 13% D

6ad 7a# sending s(#stances, 113 1N !assimDSea#org and materials 'it, ?11

6ailroads, J , 1J

6aman, Candrasekara Kenkata, G$

6aman effect, G$ , G1 , G3 , GJ

6amsey, /orman ., 1$?

6asetti, ranco, ?N , %3 , 119 , 1?$ , 1J9 D

and ermis !a!ers, ?GN , ?N$ D

=ermany tri!, %9 Dand =(ggeneim ello'si!, ?G% GND

in 4orocco, NN D

ne(tron 'ork, N9 , 9J , 9 , ?J D

in slo, GN D

in 6ome, J3 3 !assim, N% , N9 , 9J , 9 , 1$? D

and U.S., G3 GJ, N1 , 1$? 3, 11J , 1?9 , 133 , 1J , 19 , ?9J

6avenna, 6en*o 8co(sin, 1J9 , ??J

6eice, rit*, 33 , 3N

6eligion, J , 1$ 11, 3J 3G, 1N% , ?3G

endiconti , G1

La ricerca scientifica , 9$ 91, 9

6igi, (g(sto, 1$G

6imini, da, 33 , 99 , 1J9 , ?1J , ??? , ??3



6imini, Bindo 8second co(sin, J , 3? 33, N , 9N 99, 1$N D

and =i(se!!es illness, 1?1 D

and !a!er mill, ??1 ??D

!ost'ar visit 'it, ??3 D

in Ur(g(ay, 1JG , 1J9

6imini, Enrico 8co(sin, J , 3? 33

6imini, 6iccardo 8second co(sin, J , 3? 33, 1?? ?3D

and =i(se!!es illness, 1?1 D

in /e' ork, ?J% JND

and romantic diffic(lties, %9 , 9G , 1?3 D

and 6osa 4ines, ?NJ D

in Ur(g(ay, 1JG , 1J9 , 1%J %, ?NJ

6imini, 6iccardo 8(ncle #y marriage, J6ockefeller o(ndation, G3 , G% , GN , G9 , 1? , ?% %G

6oman or(m, N , J$

6oesler ran*, Ettore, 1% , 3$? n.%

6ome: !!ian &ay, ?9 D

cildood visits, ?1 D

onegani 7ect(res, ?39 D

=(ggeneim ello'si!, ?G% GND

move to Corso Kittorio 8and ig scool, G, ?? ?3, ?J 3G, ?3 DPysics -nstit(te 8Kia Panis!erna, JG , JN , , 9 G !assim, N3 9G !assim, 1$ G, 119 , ??3 , 3$9n.%D

!ost'ar visits, ?1J 1, ??? ?%, ?G% GND

stay in 19%$s, ?NN 9?D

2ivoli trans!ort links, 1J D

Uncle Cla(dio in, G, ?1 , ?3 , ?N D

'edding in, 1$% .

See also University of 6ome6oosevelt, . ., 1J$ , 1%$ , 19N 99

6ose, 4orris, 13

6ossi, Br(no, N$ , 9J D

and anti!rotons, ? D

at Cornell, ?$% D



at 7os lamos, 1N? , 1N% , 193 , 19J , 19% , 19N

6ossi, /ora, 19J

6ostagni, ntonio, 1$3

6otary Cl(#, Palermo, 1?%

6ot#lat, +ose!, 1N9 , 31? n.%

6oyal Society, 9? D

-roceedings of , G? , 9?

6(ssia: c*arist, .

See also Soviet Union

6(terford, Ernest, N% , 9? , 1?J D

and Co(lom# forces, ?1? D

at international !ysics conference, JG D

and nat(ral radioactive isoto!es, 3$9 n.%Dand ne(tron 'ork, 9? D

and /o#el Pri*e, ?%? D

adiations from adioacti(e Substances , N% D

2aylor and, 19? D

and &orld &ar --, 1$$

6yd#erg states")S'ollen atoms,) N3 NJ, 1$ , ?J3

SSalvini, =iorgio, ?9$

Santangelo, 4ariano, 11$

Sarton 7ect(rer, ?N1

Scad(to, =., 1?

Scer#atskoy, Serge, 19 , 1G$ , ?3%

Sciff, 7eonard, 13N

Sciller, riedric von, %N , 1%9 , ?J9 , 3$ n.1J

Scir#el, Peter, 9%Scn(rmann, 6., G9

@ 3?9 @

ScrZdinger, Er'in, ?

Science: istory of, ?N$ N1, ?9N.



See also CemistryD 4atematicsD Pysics

Scienza per tutti , 1 ?, 3$1 n.?

SC2. See Pa!er mill

S com#inations, GJ G

Sea#org, =lenn 2., 1G3 G, 1GN G9, ?99 , 31% n.1JD

EC cairman, 1G9 , ?NJ D

and americi(m, 19% D

at Berkeley, 13G , 13% , 1$ 1, 1G3 %$, 19 , ?11 1?D

at Cicago, 1% %G, ?11 D

and /o#el Pri*e, ?9 , ?GG , 31% n.1D

and !atents, ?JG J%

Secrecy, ?3? , ?G? D

7os lamos, 1N3 NJ, 19$ , 193 , ?$N Dand !atents, ?J , ?JG D

6ad 7a#, 1G% , 1%$ , 1%3 %

Segrè, melia =ertr(de llegra 8da(gter, 1%N , 1NG , ?$G , ?%$ , ?N , ?NG N%, ?9N

Segrè, melia S(sanna 2reves 8moter, 3 , ?$ , ?? , 31 , 1J1 J?, 1%1 D

and a(tomo#ile, J1 J?D

ca!t(re #y /a*is, ?3 , 19 , ?1J , ?1 D

and Elfriede, 99 , 1?J , 1JN D

and Emilios =erman romances, %9 N$, 99 Dfamily #ackgro(nd, 11 1?D

and ermi, G? D

and finances a#road, NG D

and grandda(gters #irt, 1%N D

(s#ands illness, 1?1 ??D

last visit, 1?9 3$D

letters to and from U.S., 1JN J9D

and 6ome move, ?3

Segrè, ngelo 4arco 8#roter, 3 , ?G ?%, ?N , 31 , ?1? , ?1N 19D

and finances, NJ , 1JG J%, ?13 ?1 !assimD

in /e' ork, 1JG J%, 19 , ?13 , ??1 D

!arents !ro#lems 'it, , ?G , ?% , %9 N$, 99 D

science #ooks left #y, 33 D



and Simili, ?1G , ?1N 19, ??1

Segrè, ngelo 4iracolo 8grandfater, 3 , J

Segre, Beniamino, J , ?N9 , 3$1 ?n.J

Segrè, Bice 8a(nt, J

Segrè, Bice 8co(sin, 11

Segrè, Cla(dio 8son, 1?3 , 1?J , 1?N , 1?9 D

in Berkeley, 1JJ , 1J D

#irt, 1?$ D

cildren, ?N D

in -ndiana, 1G$ G1D

and 7os lamos, 1NG , 1N% , ?$G D

marriage, ?N D

and moters deat, ?NG N%DStockolm tri!, ?%$ D

on tri! to U.S., 1J? D

and U.S. visa, 1J JG

Segrè, Cla(dio 8(ncle, 3 , J , 1J , 19 , J D

and ngelo, , ?G , ?% D

on engineering degree, JN D

and ascism, ?9 D

in -talian intelligentsia, N Dlegacy, 11 D

and /o#el Pri*e, ?%1 D

and !ysics, ?$ D

in 6ome, G, ?1 , ?3 , ?N D

and seA(ality, 3$ 31

Segre, Corrado, , 3$1 ?n.J

Segrè, Egle Cases 8grandmoter, 3 J

Segrè, Egle 8co(sin, 11

Segrè, Elfriede S!iro 8'ife, 1$N , 111 1?, 1?$ 3$ !assim, 1%3 D

and ngelos letters, ?19 D

in Berkeley, 11? 1J, 1J$ J9 !assim, 1G$ , 1%3 , 1%% , 1NG , ??% D

#irtday, 1J? D

co(rtsi! and marriage, 9G 99, 1$1 ?, 1$3 , 1$ , 1$% D



deat, ?NG NND

in 7atin merica, ?J9 1, ?NJ D

and letters from Emilio, ?13 , ??? D

and 7os lamos, 1NG , 19$ , 191 , 19? , 193 , ?$$ , ?$3 , ?$G , ?% D

as 7(edemanns secretary, 9% , 3$% n.31D

nickname, 1JJ JD

in Palermo, 1$N , 1$9 , 1J1 D

and !a!er mill sale, ??? D

and 6osa 4ines, ?NJ D

Segrè Cart, 19$ D

tri! aro(nd glo#e, ?N? D

U.S. citi*ensi!, ?$ D

and U.S. visa, 1?N ?9, 1J1 , 1JSegrè, Emilio =ino, ?9% 3$$, 31% n.1JD

#irt, ? , 1? 1J, ?? D

cildood, 1 3, 1J ?3D

cigars, G% D

deat, ?99 3$$D

dress, J1 D

E;perimental 3uclear -hysics , ?3? , ?G? D

family #ackgro(nd, 1 1?Dermis !a!ers and #iogra!y, ?GN D

fire'orks in cildood, 1N D

'rom 'alling odies to adio ,a(es , ?93 , ?9N D

'rom <=ays to *uar/s , ?N1 , ?9N D

(l#rigt fello'si!, ?39 D

illnesses, ?1 ??, ? , ??% , ?NG , ?N% , ?99 D

marriage to Elfriede, 1$J , 1$ , 1$% , 1?J D

marriage to 6osa, ?NN D

military service, J , % G1D

nicknames, ? 3, 1 , N$ D

/o#el Pri*e, 1N , ??1 ??, ?J1 , ?9 , ?G1 , ?G , ?G9 %3, 31% n.1D

3uclei and -articles , ?N$ D

and religion, 1$ 11, 3J 3GD



retirements, ?N3 , ?NN , ?9$ , ?91 9?, ?9N D

seventysevent #irtday, ?9 D

seA and love #efore marriage, 3$ 31, 3% , J? , 1 , %1 N$, 9G 1$3 !assimD

s!orts"recreation, 31 , 3% , J$ J, 1$N 9, 1J3 , 1JJ , 19$ 91, ??% , ?N NG, ?9$ 91D

U.S. citi*ensi!, ?$ .

See also

@ 33$ @

Ed(cationD inancesD PysicsD indi(idual locales

Segrè, a(sta 8co(sin, 11 , 19 , J? J3, ??J

Segrè, a(sta -rene 8da(gter, ?$G , ?%$ , ?N , ?NG N%

Segrè, rancesca 8grandda(gter, ?N

Segrè, =ino 8grandson, ?N , 3$$Segrè, =ino 8(ncle, ? , J , G N, 11 , ?% , ?9 , %9

Segrè, =i(se!!e #ramo 8fater, 3 , J , N 1$, ?$ , ?? , 1J1 J?, 1%1 , ?1 1%D

ca(aliere del la(oro , ?? D

deat 819JJ, 19 , ?1% D

eigtiet #irtday, 1JG D

and Elfriede, 99 , 1$N , 1?J D

and Emilios =erman romances, %9 , 99 D

esca!e from /a*is, ?1J 1D

and ascism, ?9 , NJ , N D

fastidi grassi , ?J$ D

on ermis )cr(m#s,) G? D

and financial gifts for Emilio, 11 , NJ NG, 1$N , 119 ?$, 1?% D

and financial !ro#lems 'it ngelo, 1J% D

illness, 1?1 ??D

last visit, 1?9 3$D

letters to and from U.S., 1JN J9D

marriage, 1? D

and Palermo lodgings, 1$N D

and !a!er mill, 9 1$, 1J , ?? , J3 , NJ , 9N , ?1 1GD

and 6imini or!ans, 33 D

and 6ome move, ?? ?3D



tom#, ?1 D

training #y, 31 , 3? D

'ills, ?1% , ?1N , ??$ ?1

Segrè, +oel 8grandson, ?N

Segrè, Mata Scall 8sisterinla', ?%

Segrè, 4arco Cla(dio 8#roter, 3 , ?$ , ?G , ?% ?N, 3$ , ?13 , ??? , ?3 D

ca(aliere del la(oro , ?? D

esca!e from /a*is, ?1J 1D

faters illness, 1?1 D

faters 'ill and, ?1% , ?1N , ??$ ?1D

and !a!er mill, J3 , NJ N, ?1G ?1, ??

Segrè, 6osa 4ines 8'ife, ?NJ , ?N% NN, ?9$ , ?9J 9, ?9% 3$$

Segrè Cart, 19$Segrè family, 3 1$, ?G ?N

Ser#er, 6o#ert, 1%G , 1N? , 1N% , ?3 , ?%3

Sereni, Emilio, 3? , 3$? n.?

Sereni, En*o, 3? , 3$? n.?

Severi, rancesco, 3N , 39 J$, J

Sieg#an, Mai 4anne, ?GN , ?%? , 31N n.?J

Sieg#an, Marl 4anne =eorge, ?GN , 31N n.?J

Simili, Silvestro, ?1G , ?1% 19, ??1Smitsonian -nstit(tion, 13J

Smorodinsky, +. ., ?G3

SocietT cartiere ti#(rtine 8SC2. See Pa!er mill

Solvay conference 81933, NN

Somigliana, Carlo, N$

Sommerfeld, rnold, G3 , GN , 99 1$$

Soviet Union: atomic #om#, ?1J , ?3% , ?3N D

disarmament conference, ?G D

;itler and, 139 J$D

+ose!y in, 1$$ D

19G visit, , ?G1 G3D

Pontecorvo in, ?3G 3%, ?JG , ?G? D

scientists visiting Berkeley, ?GJ



S!eccia, ., N1

S!ecial Engineering etacment 8SE, 7os lamos, 1N9 , ?$? 3

S!ectrogra!y, G , GJ G, NJ , N% NN, 1%1 , 19% 9N, ?G

S!iess, red /oel, ?%N

S!iro, Elfriede. See Segrè, Elfriede S!iro

S!iro family, 9% , 99 , 1?% , 1J9

S!ro(l, 6. =., ?J%

Stalin, +., 139 J$

Stanford University, S7C, ?NJ

Sta!!, ;enry, ?3$

Stark effect,

Sta(#, Erika, 193

Sta(#, ;ans -t., 1N% , 193 , 19% , ?$%Stearns, +oyce C., ?$N

Steiner, ;er#ert, ?GJ

Stern, tto, GN %?, N% , ?J3 , ? , ?G9 D

M(n intervie'ing, ?N1 D

and 7a'rences cyclotron, 11? D

and /o#el Pri*e, 11

Stern -nstit(te, GN %?, ?J3 , ?GN G9

Sto(gton, 6ay, 1G9Strassmann, rit*, 91 , 11

Stra(ss, 7e'is, 31J n.?$

S(garman, /., 31% n.1J

S(!ercond(ctivity, ? , ?G

S'eden: king of, ?%$ D

Stockolm, ?GN , ?%$ %1

S'it*erland, JJ J, N D

#ank acco(nt, NG , 1J$ , 1J? D

Basel conference, ?33 D

Bre(il #asin, J , ?33 D

Cosmic 6ay 7a#, ?33

)S'ollen atoms)"6yd#erg states, N3 NJ, 1$ , ?J3

S*ilard, 7eo, 9? , 13? , 1$ , 1N$ , ?$3



T

2acke/oddack, -da &., 91 , 11 , 11G , 11% 1N, 1?J , 3$G n.?J

@ 331 @

2amm, -gor, ??9 , ?G? G3, ?G GG2arciani, l#erto, ?$N

2asso, 2or0(ato, 1?1

2ata 8(strian nanny, 1J 1, 33

2aylor, =eoffrey, 19? , 19%

2ecneti(m 8element J3, 11G 19, 1?J , 1?% , ?J3 , 3$N n.1?D

on faters tom#, ?1 D

isoto!es, 11G 19, 1?N , ?93 9J, 3$N n.11

2el viv University, ?N3 , ?9N2elegdi, Kalentin, ?G

2eller, Ed'ard: in Berkeley, 1%G D

and ermi, G3 , ?1 ?D

and ydrogen #om#, ?3% 3N, ?1 D

at 7os lamos, 1N% , 191 , 193 D

at !!eneimer earings, ?1 , 3$9 n.9

2eller, 4ici, 191 , 193

2erkel, mir 8grandson, ?N

2erkel, +ose! 8soninla', ?N , ?NG

2erkel, Kivian 8grandda(gter, ?N

2omas, 7. --., 13

2omasermi statistical metod, $

2om!son, 7le'ellyn, ?1J

2om!son, Stanley =., 1G9

2omson, =. P., ?$

2omson, +. +., GN

2ornton, 6. 7., 13 , 1JJ , ?$9 , ?3% , ?J1

2ieri, 7a(reto, 1$3

2illman, +. 6., 9

2inkam, 4icael, ?3J

2issandier, =aston, ?$ , ?N$



2isserand, E(gene, ?1J

2ivoli, 1 ?, 9 , 1? ?3D

melia Segrè street, ?3 D

contem!orary, 1J , ?3 , ?91 D

Elfriede and, ?3? 33D

!ost'ar visit, ??3 ?JD

s(lf(r #ats near, 1N , ?1 , ??3 , ?91 D

vacations, ?3 , ? , J$ , 1?N D

Killa dEste, 1 ?, 1$ , 1% 1N, 31 3?, ??3 , ?91 D

Killini rnaldi, Killino B 4aria, 3 , 1? 1J, ?3 , ?3 .

See also Pa!er mill

2odesco, =., 1$3

2ra#acci, =. C., N% , ?J2racer tecni0(e, 11

2rans(ranic elements, 91 9?

2reves, melia. See Segrè, melia S(sanna 2reyes 8moter

2reves, Elisa rvieto 8grandmoter, 1$

2reves, Emilia in*i 8a(nt, ? , 11

2reyes, =i(liana 8co(sin, 11

2reves, =(ido 8(ncle, 11 1?, ?9 , ??J , ??

2reves, +aco!o 8(ncle, 11 , 1J2reves, 4arcella 8co(sin, 11 , 19 , ??

2reves, 4arco 8co(sin, 11 , 33

2reves, 4arco 8grandfater, 1$ , 3$? n.

2reves, Silvia 8co(sin, 11 , 19 , ?? , 3$? n.

2reves family, 1$ 1?, 3$? n.

2reves villa 84arignolle, 1$ , 19 , ?9 3$, ?? , ?3

2ril(ssa 8Carlo l#erto Sal(stri, 1?% ?N

2roccoli, Signor, N9

2r(man, ;arry S, ?$3

2(lsa, oil ind(stry, 19 G$, ?3%

2(medei, Cesare, ?9$

2(rner, 7. ., 1G3

2(scany, ?9? 93



U

Ulen#eck, =. E., N? , ?%?

Union of Prod(cers and istri#(tors of Electric Energy 8U/-PEE, ?9N

United /ations, ?$J

United States, ?13 , ?J% , ?NN , ?9? D

EC, 1G9 , ?JG , ?J% , ?NJ D

tomic Energy ct, ?J D

#(siness and n(clear energy, ?J , 31J n.?$D

citi*ensi!, ?$J , ?3% D

disarmament conference, ?G D

foreign aid, ?N3 D

immigration la', 1?9 , 1J D

-nformation Service, ?N? D4c4aon ct 819JG, ?JG D

and !atents in n(clear !o'er, ?J J%D

State e!artment, ?N1 D

S(!reme Co(rt, ?% D

visas, 1?N ?9, 1J1 , 1J JGD

visit 81933, N? N3D

visit 8193, 1$1 3D

visit 8193G, 111 1JD

visit 8193N19J3, 1?N ?9, 13$ , 131 %ND

&ite ;o(se, ?N1 D

in &orld &ar -- 1J9 , 1%1 , 1%? , 1%3 , 1%% %N.

See also 4ilitaryD indi(idual states& cities& and uni(ersities

Universities: Col(m#ia, 1$? , 111 1?, 13? , 1JG , 1G% , ?J$ , ?GJ D

-#adan 8/igeria, ?%G D

P(rd(e, 1G$ G1D

2el viv, ?N3 , ?9N D

&asington 8St. 7o(is, 4isso(ri, 1G , ?$N , ?$9 .

See also University of . . .

University of California, Berkeley, 133 %N, ?$% NJ !assimD

cademic Senate, ?% , ?%% D

administrative 'ork, ?%% %ND



Birge tri#(te, 31$ n.?1D

committees, ?% , ?%% , ?N$ N1D

ac(lty 6esearc

@ 33? @

7ect(re, ?% D

istory of science, ?N$ N1, ?9N D

loyalty oat, ?3J 3G, ?3N 39, ?JG D

/o#el Pri*e 'inners !rivileges, ?%$ , ?%? D

and !atents, ?JG J%D

!ysics, 1J , 1G1 G?, 1%? %3, ?3$ 31, ?33 3G, ?J3 , ?N$ , ?N3 , ?NN , 31$ n.?1D

6egents, ?3J 3, ?3G , ?J$ , ?JG , ?%9 D

retirement age, ?NN D6(ssians visiting, ?G3 GJ.

See also /(clear PysicsD 6adiation 7a#oratory, Berkeley

University of Cicago, ?$N , ?$9 D

and antiSemitism, 1$3 D

ermi at, J% , 1$ , 1% , ?$ 13 !assim, ?39 , ?JN D

ermi lect(res, ?N% D

ermi memorial service, ?? D

ermi !a!ers, ?G$ D

!l(toni(m 'ork, 1% %GD

Sea#org at, 1% %G, ?11 D

2elegdi at, ?G

University of Cicago Press, ?3

University of errara, N1

University of -llinois, Ur#ana, ?39 , ?J?

University of 4icigan, N? N3, 1$1 , 11?

University of Palermo, 1$$ 1$1, 1$? , 1$J 3$D

cair of teoretical !ysics, 1? ?GD

onorary degree, ?GN D

!olitics, 1$ , 1$G D

ret(rn offer, ?$N D

'ritten eAaminations, 11$ 11



University of Pavia, J

University of 6ome, 3% G, 11N 19, ?N9 9$.

See also Pysics -nstit(te

Urey, ;arold C., 1G1 , 1G%

Ur(g(ay, ?$ D

6imini co(sins in, 1JG , 1JN , 1%J , ??1 , ?$ , ?NJ D

6osa 4ines in, ?NJ

V

Kaccari, 7ino, 1%

Kalle, C., N1

Kallery6adot, 6enè, ?N$

Keksler, Kladimir, ?1? , ?G3

Kerdi, =., ??N

Killa dEste, 2ivoli, 1 ?, 1$ , 1% 1N, 31 3?, ??3 , ?91

Kolterra, Kito, 11 , ? 3, J , G3 , 11

von /e(mann, +on, 1N% , 193 , 19%

5

&al, rt(r C., 1GJ G%, 1% , 19 , 19% , ?$N , ?JG , 31% nn.1J, 1

&arren, Earl, ?3J

&asington University, St. 7o(is, 4isso(ri, 1GJ , ?$N , ?$9

&atson, 2omas, +r., ?J$

&eak interactions, NN , ?GJ G

&ein#erg, Steven, ?3J

&einric, =a#riel, ?G

&eissko!f, Kictor, G1 , 1N% , 193

&ei*s^cker, C. . von, 13%

&estcott, ;. C., 93&eatstone, Carles, ?93

&ick, =ian Carlo, %1 , N3 , 111 , 1? , 1?G , ?33 , ?3

&iegand, Clyde E., ?J? , ?G$ , ?G1 , ?%$ , 31G n.9D

and anti!rotons, 1G9 , ?G , ?% , ?N , ?G$ , 31G n.9D

at Berkeley, 1% , 1%? , 1%G , ?$G , ?11 , ??% , ?3$ , ?JN , ?G , ?N , ?9 , ?N3 D

at 7os lamos, 1%N , 1N9



&igner, E(gene, G1 , ??9

&illiams, +. ;., 1NN , ?$1

&illiams, &ynn, 93

&ilson, 6o#ert 6., 13 , 1NN , ?NJ

&olf Pri*e, ?G

&orld &ar -, ? , 13 , 1G , ?N

&orld &ar --, 1N$ N1, ?$% , ??? ?3D

atomic #om#, 1%G %%, 1%9 ?$G, ?$9 D

Bor and, 193 9JD

)enemy aliens,) 1%? , 1% , 1%9 D

events leading to, %9 , 9? , 1$3 , 13? , 139 J?D

=ermanys s(rrender, 199 ?$$D

+a!ans s(rrender, ?$3 DPearl ;ar#or, 1%$ D

start, 1JJ , 1G$ D

U.S. in, 1J9 , 1%1 , 1%? , 1%3 , 1%% %N.

See also ;itler, .

&(, CienSi(ng, 13G 3%, 13 , 1G , 1% , ?GJ , ?G

Y

ang, Cen /ing, ?GJ , ?Gork, ;er#ert ., ?3$

!silantis, 2om, ?3$ , ?JN , ?G G1 !assim, ?%$ , 31G n.9

(ka'a, ;ideki, ?3$

Lacarias, +., 1$?

Leeman, Pieter, G %$ !assim, NJ , 99 , ?93

Leeman effect, GJ GN !assim, N3 NJ, 1$Leeman la#, G , GG G%, %N %9, 99 , 1?N , 13G

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Com!ositor: -m!ressions, a division of Ed'ards Bros.2eAt: 1$."1J +anson



is!lay: +ansonPrinter and Binder: Ed'ards Bros.


mind always in motion

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