mieszko i of poland

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Mieszko I of Poland

Mieszko I( Polish; ca. 940 25 May 992)[1] was theruler of thePolans[2] from about 960 until his death. Amember of thePiast dynasty, he was a son ofSiemomys,a grandchild ofLestek, the father ofBolesaw I the Brave(the first crownedking of Poland), the likely father ofSigrid the Haughty(a Nordic Queen) and the grandfatherofCnut the Great(Sigrids son).

The firstChristianruler ofPoland, Mieszko I is consid-ered the de facto creator of the Polish state. He continuedthe policy of both his father and grandfather, who were

rulers of the pagan tribes located in the area of present-dayGreater Poland. Through both alliances and the useof military force, Mieszko extended ongoing Polish con-quests and early in his reign subjugated Kuyavia and prob-ablyGdask Pomeraniaand Masovia. For most of hisreign, Mieszko I was involved in warfare for the controlofWestern Pomerania, eventually conquering it up to thevicinity of the lowerOderriver. During the last years ofhis life, he fought theBohemian state, winning Silesia andprobablyLesser Poland.

Mieszko Is marriage in 965 to the Czech Pemyslidprincess Dobrawaand hisbaptismin 966 put him and

his country in the cultural sphere of Western Christianity.Apart from the great conquests accomplished during hisreign (which proved to be fundamental for the futureof Poland) Mieszko I was renowned for his internal re-forms, aimed at expanding and improving the so-calledwar monarchy system.

According to existing sources, Mieszko I was a wisepolitician, a talented military leader, and a charismaticruler. He successfully used diplomacy, concluding al-liances, first withBohemia, thenSweden, and theHolyRoman Empire. In foreign policy, he placed the interestsof his country foremost, even entering into agreements

with his former enemies. On his death, he left to his sonsa country with greatly expanded territories, and a well-established position in Europe.

Mieszko I also enigmatically appeared as Dagome inapapaldocument dating to about 1085, called Dagomeiudex, which mentions a gift or dedication of Mieszkosland to thePope(the act took place almost a hundredyears earlier).

1 Date of birth

There is no certain information on Mieszko Is life beforehe took control over his lands. Only the Lesser Poland

Chroniclegives the date of his birth as somewhere be-tween the years 920931 (depending on the version ofthe manuscript), however, modern researchers don't rec-ognize the Chronicle as a reliable source. Several histori-ans on the basis of their investigations postulated the dateof Mieszko Is birth to have been between 922945;[3] theactivity of the Duke in his final years of life puts the dateof his birth closer to the latter year.[4]

2 Origin and meaning of his name

Mieszko I graphic ofWalery Eljasz-Radzikowskifrom the 19th

century

There are three major theories concerning the origin and

1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walery_Eljasz-Radzikowskihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagome_iudexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagome_iudexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism_of_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrawa_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99emyslidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Pomeraniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuyaviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_factohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnut_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigrid_the_Haughtyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lestekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemomys%C5%82https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piast_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polans_(western)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media:Pl-Mieszko-I.ogg


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2 3 HIS REIGN

meaning of Mieszko Is name. The most popular the-ory, proposed byJan Dugosz, explains that Mieszko is adiminutive of Mieczysaw, a combination of two elementsor lexemes: Mieczmeaning sword andSawmeaning fa-mous. Today, this theory is rejected by the majority ofPolish historians, who consider the name Mieczysaw to

have been invented by Dugosz to explain the origin ofthe name Mieszko. Today, we know that ancient Slavsnever formed their names using either animal names orweapon names. Ancient Slavic names were abstract innature. The same explanation rules out another theoryabout the origin of the name Mieszko, which links thename with thePolish word mi/miko meaning bear, as noanimal names were used to form honorable Polish namesamong Polish nobility.[5]

The second most popular theory about the origin andsense of Mieszkos name can be traced to the very oldlegend, firstly described byGallus Anonymus, according

to which Mesco (theLatinizedform used by the earliestsources) was blind during his first seven years of life. Thechronicler related this story (a typicalmedieval allegory)as follows:

At that time (after Mieszko recov-ered his eyesight) Prince Siemomysurgently asked the elderly peopleof his country whether his sonsblindness conveyed some miracu-lous meaning. They explained thatthis blindness meant that Poland

was blind back then, but fromnow was going to be illuminatedby Mieszko and elevated over theneighboring nations.

This interpretation was a clear reference to the later bap-tism of the Duke:

Poland was indeed blind before,knowing nothing about the true Godor the principles of the Catholic

faith, but thanks to the enlighten-

ment of Mieszko the country alsohad become enlightened, becausewhen he adopted the faith, the Pol-ish nation was saved from deathand destruction.[6]

In addition, it is known that the Slavic word "mzec" canbe interpreted as having his eyes closed or be blind.Yet again, today it is almost certain that this legend wasused as a metaphor, in allusion to the old Slavic paganceremony known as the "postrzyyny": During that cere-mony hair cutting was performed to every boy at the age

of seven. In that symbolic rite a child became a man.That explains that Mieszko wasn't blind in fact. He wasblind only metaphorically. Besides his sons name was

also Mieszko and it is hard to believe that he was alsoblind. In addition, as we know today ancient Slavs usedonly abstract names among nobility.[5]

The third theory links the name of Mieszko with his othername, Dagome, as it appeared in the document called

Dagome iudex. We know this document only from acopy prepared by an anonymous monk who was not fa-miliar with Polish language or Polish names. It is possi-ble that while copying the document he made a mistakeand wrote down Dagome instead of Dagomer or evenDagomir. The name Dagomir is used to this day andits construction is similar to other Polish names like forexample: Wadimir/Wodzimierz or Casimir/Kazimierz.The evolution of the -mir element to -mierz is due totwo separate developments: first, the regular change ofthe vowel i to "(i)e before r, and second, the mod-ification of the nominative case by the vocative for cer-tain names (hence, Kazimierz replaced Kazimier based

on the vocative Kazimierze). It is debatable whether thename Mieszko is a nickname formed fromthesecond partof the name *Dago-mierz, since the merger in pronun-ciation of sz with the devoiced rz which would ap-pear in this position is quite recent. The word mir canbe translated as peace.[5] However, some historians be-lieve that the word Dagome is a melding of two names:the Roman Catholic Dago, for Dagobert (Mieszkoshypothetical baptismal name), and the Slavic Me, forMieszko. The Latin word iudex (judge) would beused in the meaning of prince. Another interpretationis that Dagome iudex is a corruption of Ego Mesco

dux (I, Prince Mieszko).[7]

3 His Reign

3.1 Early reign

Polandunder Mieszkos rule (ca. 960992)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagome_iudexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postrzy%C5%BCyny#Polishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallus_Anonymushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_D%C5%82ugosz


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3.2 Margrave Geros war; Mieszkos homage to the Emperor 3

Mieszko I took over the tribal rule after his fathers deathca. 950960, probably closer to the latter date.[8] Due tothe lack of sources it is not possible to determine exactlywhich lands he inherited. Certainly among them werethe areas inhabited by thePolansandGoplans,[9] as wellas theSieradz-czycalands andKuyavia.[10] It is possi-

ble that this state included alsoMasovia[11] andGdaskPomerania.[12] Soon the new ruler had faced the task ofintegrating the relatively large, ethnically and culturallyheterogeneous territory. Although the residents of areascontrolled by Mieszko spoke mostly one language, hadsimilar beliefs and reached a similar level of economicand general development, they were socially connectedprimarily bytribalstructures. It appears that the elderscooperating with the Duke first felt the need for super-tribal unity, as expansion allowed them to broaden theirinfluence.

Mieszko and his people were described around 966 by

Abraham ben Jacob, a Sephardi Jewishtraveller, who atthat time visited thePraguecourt of DukeBoleslav I theCruel.[13] Abraham presented Mieszko I as one of the fourSlavickings,[14] reigning over a vast northern area,with a highly regarded and substantial military force at hisdisposal. More precise contemporary records regardingMieszko were compiled by Widukind of Corvey, and halfa century later, by BishopThietmar of Merseburg.

By the time Mieszko I took over from his father, thePolans' tribal federation ofGreater Polandhad for sometime been actively expanding. Continuing this process,perhaps in the first years of Mieszkos reign, if it had

not been done already by his father, Mieszko I conqueredMasovia. Likely also during that period or earlier, at leastpartiallyGdask Pomeraniawas obtained.[10] Mieszkosinterests were then concentrated mainly on areas occu-pied by the eastern (near theOder River) branches of thePolabian Slavs; some of them became soon subordinatedby him. As Widukind of Corvey wrote, Mieszko ruledover the tribe called theLicicaviki, now commonly iden-tified with the PolabianLubusz Land.[15] Having the con-trol over those more western (in respect to the originalhomeland of the Polans) tribes, Mieszko had entered theGermansphere of influence.

In 963 the GermanMargrave Geroconquered territoriesoccupied by the Polabian Lusatian and Supian tribes, andas a result came into direct contact with the Polish state.At the same time (about 960) Mieszko I began his ex-pansion against theVelunzaniandLuticitribes. The warwas recorded by the chroniclerAbraham ben Jacob. Ac-cording to him, Mieszko I had fought against the Weltabatribe, commonly identified with the Veleti. Wichmannthe Younger, a Saxon nobleman who was then a leader ofa band of Polabian Slavs, defeated Mieszko twice, andaround 963 a brother of Mieszko, whose name is un-known, was killed in the fighting. The frontiers at the

mouth of theOder Riverwere also desired by the Ger-man margraves. In addition, the Veleti Bohemia, whichat that time possessedSilesiaandLesser Polandregions,

constituted a danger for the young state of the Polans.

3.2 Margrave Geros war; Mieszkos

homage to the Emperor

The chronicle of Thietmar poses some problems of inter-pretation of the information regarding the attack of Mar-grave Gero on the Slavic tribes, as a result of which hepurportedlysubordinated to the authority of the EmperorLusatia and the Selpuli(meaning the Supian tribes)andalso Mieszko with his subjects. According to the majorityof modern historians,[16] Thietmar made an error summa-rizing the chronicle of Widukind, placing the Gero raidthere instead of the fighting that Mieszko conducted atthat time against Wichmann the Younger. Other sourcesmake no mention of such conquest and of putting thePolans state on the same footing with the Polabian Slavs.

On the other hand, the supporters of the Geros invasiontheory[17] believe that the Margrave did actually carry outa successful invasion, as a result of which Mieszko I wasforced to pay tribute tothe Emperorand also was com-pelled to adopt Catholicism through the German Church.The thesis that proposes the introduction of Catholicismas a result of this war finds no confirmation in Germansources.

The homage is then a separate issue, since, according tothe chronicle of Thietmar, Mieszko actually paid tributeto the Emperor from the lands usque in Vurta fluvium(up to theWartaRiver).[18] In all probability Mieszko de-

cided to pay tribute in order to avoid an invasion similarto the one that Lusatia had suffered. This homage wouldtake place in 965, or in 966 at the latest. Very likely thetribute applied only to theLubuszland, which was in theGerman sphere of influence.[19] This understanding of thetribute issue explains why already in 967 Mieszko I wasdescribed in the Saxon chronicles as the Emperors friend(or ally, supporter,Latin: amicus imperatoris).

3.3 Marriage and conversion to Catholi-

cism

See also:Baptism of Poland

Probably in 964 Mieszko began negotiations with the Bo-hemian rulerBoleslav I the Cruel. As a result, in 965Mieszko I married his daughter Dobrawa (also namedDobrava, Doubravka or Dbrwka).[20] This politicalPolish-Bohemian allianceis likely to have been initiatedby the Polish ruler. It is probable that the marriage wasofficially arranged in February 965.[21]

The next step was the baptism of Mieszko. There aredifferent hypotheses concerning this event. Most often

it is assumed that it was a political decision, intended tobring Mieszkos state closer to the Czechs and to facilitatehis activities in the Polabian Slavs area. At the same time,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polabian_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_(people)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish-Bohemian_alliancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrawa_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_I,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism_of_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubuszhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wartahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichmann_the_Youngerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichmann_the_Youngerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ben_Jacobhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luticihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velunzanihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusatiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margravehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubusz_Landhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polabian_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Pomeraniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polans_(western)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thietmar_of_Merseburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widukind_of_Corveyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peopleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_I,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_I,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardi_Jewshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ben_Jacobhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Pomeraniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Pomeraniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuyaviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C4%99czycahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieradzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goplanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polans_(western)


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4 3 HIS REIGN

Monumental tomb of Mieszko I. andBolesaw I. by ChristianDaniel Rauchin the Golden Chapel ofPozna Cathedral

19th century illustration:Mieszko, a former pagan, aided by hisRoman Catholic Czech wifeDobrawa, daughter ofBoleslaus I,becomes anevangelistof Roman Catholicism

Contemporary mural inGnieznocommemorates the baptism ofMieszko I

the baptism decreased the likelihood of future attacks by

German margraves and deprived them of the opportunityto attempt Roman Catholicization of Mieszkos lands byforce. An additional reason could be Mieszkos desire toremove from power the influential pagan priest class, whomay have been blocking his efforts to establish a morecentralized rule.[22]

A different hypothesis is linked with the above-mentioned acceptance of the veracity of Geros invasionof Poland. According to it, it was the attack of the Mar-grave that forced the Catholicization, which was to be anact of subordination to the Emperor, done without themediation of the Pope.[23]

Still other motives were responsible according toGallusAnonymus, who claimed that it was the BohemianPrincess Dobrawa who convinced her husband to changehis religion. Likewise chronicler Thietmar attributesMieszkos conversion to Dobrawas influence. There areno reasons to negate Dobrawas role in Mieszkos accep-tance of Roman Catholicism; however crediting rulerswives with positive influence over their husbands actionswas a common convention at that time.

It is generally recognized that the baptism of Mieszko Itook place in 966.[24] The place is unknown; it could havehad happened in any of the cities of the Empire(pos-siblyRegensburg), but also in one of the Polish townslikeGnieznoorOstrw Lednicki.[25] The belief that thebaptism was accomplished through the Czechs in orderto avoid the dependence on Germany and the GermanChurch is incorrect,[26] because Bohemia would not haveits own church organization until 973. At the time of thebaptism of Mieszko the existing Bohemian church estab-lishment was a part of the Regensburg diocese. Thus, ifthe Polish ruler accepted the baptism through Praguesmediation, it had to be sanctioned in Regensburg. How-ever, the religious vocabulary (words like baptism, ser-mon, prayer, church, apostle, bishop or confirmation)

were adopted from theCzech languageand had to comefrom Dobrawas entourage and the church elements thatarrived with her. Perhaps with her also came the first
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnieznohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regensburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallus_Anonymushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallus_Anonymushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnieznohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslav_I_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrawa_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Cathedralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Daniel_Rauchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Daniel_Rauchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobry


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3.5 Conquest of Pomerania 5

Polish bishop, Jordan. It could be that the reason forthe Czech preference of Mieszko was the existence inBohemia of a mission which followed the precepts oftheByzantine Greekbrothers and latersaints Cyril andMethodius, who developed and performed the liturgy inthe Slavic rite, more readily understood by Mieszko and

his subjects. The Slavic rite church branch had survivedin Bohemia for another hundred years after Mieszkosbaptism.

3.4 Consequences of Catholicization

Through the adoption of Catholicism Mieszko I includedhis Polish state in the community European western Latinrite Roman Catholic states. The Holy Roman Empire orany other Catholic country, in theory, had no right to at-tack Poland under thepretext of spreading Catholicism or

for other unjust reasons, because the Duke of the Polanshad become a member of the Roman Catholic circle.

The baptism also started the spread of the Latin cul-ture into Poland, with the first literate and educatedchurchmen-advisers joining Mieszkos court. The mis-sionary bishopric started by Jordan in 968 used theLatin liturgy and was directly subordinate to the Papacy.Churches were being built at Gniezno,Pozna,OstrwLednickiand elsewhere. The existence of the missionarydiocese emphasized the individuality and independenceof the Polish state.

At the time of the reign of Mieszko there was no sin-

gle place serving as the capital, instead he built severalpalatiumsaround his country. The most important loca-tions were Pozna (Ostrw Tumski), Gniezno and OstrwLednicki. The latter was a ring-fort some 500 meters incircumference, containing the dukes residence, a stonepalace, the countrys first monumental architecture.

The Catholicization had also led to political changes. Theemergent power structures were independent of the tra-ditional tribal elders and limited their authority. Clergywho arrived in the country contributed to the develop-ment of education and culture, and of the state admin-istration and diplomacy. At the end of Mieszkos reign

(ca. 990) Poland began to pay tribute to the pope (PetersPence).

However, the conversion of the Polish population intoCatholicism was a long-term process and was not be com-pleted during the reign of Mieszko I. The duke proba-bly had to deal with rebellions led by the old pagan priestcaste. In some villages, the old Slavic beliefs and customswere continued until the 16th century.

3.5 Conquest of Pomerania

After the normalization of relations with the Holy Ro-man Empire and Bohemia, Mieszko I returned to hisplans of conquest of themore western part of Pomerania.

Mieszko I, early 17th century illustration

On 21 September 967 the Polish-Bohemian troops pre-vailed in the decisive battle against theWoliniansled byWichmann the Younger, which gave Mieszko the controlover the mouth of the Odra River.[27] The German mar-graves had not opposed Mieszkos activities in Pomera-nia, perhaps even supported them; the death of the rebel-lious Wichmann, who succumbed to his wounds soon af-ter the battle, may have been in line with their interests. Atelling incident took place after the battle, a testimony toMieszkos high standing among the Empires dignitaries,just one year after his baptism: Widukind of Corvey re-ported that the dying Wichmann asked Mieszko to handover Wichmanns weapons to Emperor Otto I, to whomWichmann was related. For Mieszko the victory had to

be a satisfying experience, especially in light of his pastdefeats inflicted by Wichmann.

The exact result of Mieszkos fighting in Western Pomera-nia is not known. Subsequent loss of the region byMieszkos sonBolesaw Chrobrysuggests that the con-quest was difficult and the hold over that territory rathertenuous. In one version of the legend ofSt. Wojciech[28]

it is written that Mieszko I had his daughter [29] marriedto a Pomeranian prince, who previously voluntarily waswashed with the holy water of the baptismin Poland. Theabove information, as well as the fact that Bolesaw lostWestern Pomerania, suggest that the region was not truly

incorporated into the Polish state, but only became afief.This conjecture seems to be confirmed in the introductionof the first volume of the chronicles ofGallus Anonymus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallus_Anonymushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiefdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalbert_of_Praguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichmann_the_Youngerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%2527s_Pencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%2527s_Pencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnieznohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Tumski,_Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnieznohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Greekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_(Bishop_of_Poland)


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concerning the Pomeranians: Although often the leadersof the forces defeated by the Polish duke sought salvationin baptism, as soon as they regained their strength, theyrepudiated the 'Christian' (that is, Roman Catholic) faithand started the war against Christian anew.

3.6 War against Margrave Odo I of Ost-

mark

In 972 Poland suffered the attack ofOdo I, Margrave ofthe Saxon Ostmark. According to thechronicles of Thiet-mar, this attack was an arbitrary action, without the con-sent of the Emperor:

Meanwhile,[30] the noble MargraveHodo, having collected his armyattacked Mieszko, who has been

faithfully paying tribute to the Em-peror (for the lands) up the Wartariver.[31]

See also:Battle of Cedynia

There are different hypotheses concerning the reasonsfor this invasion. Possibly Margrave Odo wanted to stopthe growing power of the Polish state. Very likely Odowanted to protect the Wolinian state, which he consid-ered his zone of influence, from the Polish take-over.[32]

Possibly the Wolinians themselves called the Margraveand asked his help.[33] In any event, Odos forces movedin and on 24 June 972 twice engaged Mieszkos army atthe village ofCidini, commonly identified withCedynia.At first, the Margrave defeated Mieszkos forces; subse-quently the Dukes brother Czcibor defeated the Germansin the decisive stage, inflicting great losses among theirtroops. It may be that Mieszko intentionally staged theretreat, which was followed by a surprise attack on theflank of the German pursuing troops.[34] After this bat-tle, Mieszko and Odo were called to the Imperial Diet inQuedlinburgin 973 to explain and justify their conduct.The exact judgment of the Emperor is unknown, but itscertain that the sentence wasn't carried out because hedied a few weeks after the Diet. It is commonly assumedthat the sentence was unfavorable to the Polish ruler. TheAnnals of Altaichindicates that Mieszko was not presentin Quedlinburg during the gathering; instead, he had tosent his son Bolesaw as a hostage.

Mieszkos conflict with Odo I was a surprising eventbecause, according to Thietmar, Mieszko respected theMargrave highly. Thietmar wrote the following:

Mieszko would never wear his out-

door garment in a house where Odowas present, or remain seated afterOdo had gotten up.

It is believed that in practical terms the victory at Cedyniasealed Western Pomerania's fate as Mieszko' dependency.

3.7 Acquisitions in the east

According to archaeological research, during the 970s theSandomierz region andthePrzemyl area inhabited bytheLendians became incorporated into the Polish state.[35]

None of it is certain for the lack of written sources.It is possible that especially the Przemyl area, inhab-ited by the Lendians and the White Croats, belonged atthat time to Bohemia, which supposedly extended up totheBug RiverandStyr River.[36] ThePrimary Chroniclestates that in 981Vladimirof theRurik Dynastywent to-wards the Lachy and took their towns: Przemyl,Czerwieand other strongholds (...). The exact interpretation ofthis passage is uncertain, because the Ruthenianword

Lachy meant both the Poles in general and the south-eastern Lendians tribe.[37] Mieszkos conquest of San-domierz could also have taken place later, together withthe take-over of the Vistulans(western and central LesserPoland).[38]

Some historians suggest that the regions of Sandomierz,Lublinand Czerwie (western Red Ruthenia) were in-deed annexed by Mieszkos state in the 970s, as landsvaluable for trade reasons and as a starting point for afuture attack against what was to become Lesser Poland,then in the hands of Bohemia. Sandomierz under thisscenario was the central hub of the area, with Czerwie,

Przemyl andChemassuming the function of defensiveborderland strongholds.[39]

3.8 Involvement in German internal dis-

putes; Second marriage

After the death of Emperor Otto I in 973 Mieszko, likehis brother-in-law, DukeBoleslav II of Bohemia, joinedthe German opposition in support of the attempted im-perial succession ofHenry II, Duke of Bavaria. Mieszkomay have been motivated by revenge because of the (pre-

sumably) negative verdict of the Quedlinburg summit,but may be more importantly he wanted more favorableterms for his cooperation with Germany.[40] The partic-ipation of Mieszko in the conspiracy againstOtto IIwasdocumented in only one source, the chronicles of themonastery in Altaich in its entry for the year 974. TheDuke of Bavaria was defeated, and Emperor Otto II re-gained full power. Shortly afterwards the young emperorwaged a retaliatory expedition against Bohemia, forcingin 978 Duke Boleslav into submission.

In 977 Mieszkos wife, Dobrawa, died. At first there wereno apparent repercussions, as the Polish ruler had main-tained his alliance with Bohemia.

In 979 Otto II supposedly attacked Poland. Mention ofthis event can be found in theChronicle of the Bishops of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II,_Duke_of_Bavariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_II,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Che%C5%82mhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Rutheniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lublinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistulanshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus%2527_(people)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czermno,_Lublin_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_I_of_Kievhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_Chroniclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styr_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bug_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Croatshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lendianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Blhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandomierzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Altahenseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quedlinburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czciborhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedyniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cedyniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odo_I,_Margrave_of_the_Saxon_Ostmarkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odo_I,_Margrave_of_the_Saxon_Ostmark


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3.9 Cooperation with Sweden and the war against Denmark 7

Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, fromRegistrum Gregorii, c. 983

Cambraifrom the 11th century. The effects of this expe-dition are unknown, but it is suspected that the Emperordid not succeed. Due to bad weather, the Emperor was

back at the border ofThuringiaandSaxonyin Decemberof that year. It is uncertain whether the invasion actuallytook place. The chronicle only stated that it was an expe-dition against the Slavs. Archaeological discoveries ap-pear to support the thesis of Otto IIs invasion. In the lastquarter of the 10th century there had been a radical ex-pansion of the fortifications atGnieznoandOstrw Led-nicki, which may be associated with the Polish-Germanwar, or the expectation of such.[41] The duration of theexpedition suggests that it may have reached as far east asthe vicinity ofPozna.[42]

The Polish-German agreement was concluded in the

spring or possibly summer of 980,[43] because in Novem-ber of that year Otto II left his country and went toItaly.It appears that during this time Mieszko I marriedOda,daughter ofDietrich of Haldensleben, Margrave of theNorthern March, after abducting her from the monasteryofKalbe.[44] Chronicler Thietmar described the event asfollows:

When Bolesaw's mother died hisfather married, without permissionfrom the Church, a nun from themonastery in Kalbe, daughter of

Margrave Dietrich. Oda was hername and her guilt was great. Forshe scorned her vows to God, and

Personifications of Sclavinia/Wends, Germania, Gallia, andRoma, bringing offerings toOtto III; from a gospel book dated990

gave preference to the man of warbefore him (...). But because of theconcern for the well-being of thehomeland and the necessity to se-cure its peace, the event caused nobreak of relations, instead a properway was found to restore concord.For thanks to Oda the legion of

followers of Christ became aug-mented, many prisoners returned totheir country, the shackled had theirchains taken off, and the gates of

prisons were opened for the tres-passers.[45]

Although Thietmar made no mention of warfare that pos-sibly took place on this occasion, the information on thereturn of the accord, acting for the good of the countryand release of prisoners indicate that a conflict actuallydid occur.[46]

The marriage with Oda considerably affected the positionand prestige of Mieszko, who entered the world ofSaxonaristocracy. As a son-in-law of Margrave Dietrich, hegained an ally in one of the most influential politicians ofthe Holy Roman Empire. As the Margrave was a distantrelative of the Emperor, Mieszko became a member ofthe circle connected to theimperial ruling house.

3.9 Cooperation with Sweden and the war

against Denmark

Probably in the early 980s Mieszko allied hiscountry with

SwedenagainstDenmark. The alliance was sealed withthe marriage of Mieszkos daughterwitosawawith theSwedish kingErik. The content of the treaty is known
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_the_Victorioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigrid_the_Haughtyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galliahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Marchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_of_Haldenslebenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda_of_Haldenslebenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Lednickihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnieznohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuringiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambraihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor


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8 3 HIS REIGN

from the not entirely reliable, but originating directlyfrom the Danish court tradition account given byAdamof Bremen. In this text, probably as a result of confusion,he gives instead of Mieszkos name the name of his sonBolesaw:

The King of the Swedes, Erik,entered into an alliance with thevery powerful King of the Polans,Bolesaw. Bolesaw gave Erik hisdaughter or sister. Because of thiscooperation the Danes were routedby the Slavs and the Swedes.

Mieszko decided on the alliance with Sweden probably inorder to help protect his possessions inPomeraniafromthe Danish KingHarald Bluetoothand his sonSweyn.They may have acted in cooperation with the Wolinian

autonomous entity. The Danish were defeated ca. 991and their ruler was expelled. The dynastic alliance withSweden had probably affected the equipment and com-position of Mieszkos troops. Perhaps at that time theVarangianwarriors were recruited; their presence is in-dicated by archaeological excavations in the vicinity ofPozna.[47]

3.10 Participation in German civil war

Mieszko I, 19th century image ofAleksander Lesser

In 982 Emperor Otto II suffered a disastrous defeat

against theSaracensinItaly. The resulting weakness ofthe imperial power was exploited by theLutici, who ini-tiated a great uprising of thePolabian Slavsin 983. The

German authority in the area ceased to exist and the Po-labian tribes began to threaten the Empire. The death ofOtto II at the end of that year contributed further to theunrest. Ultimately theLuticiand theObotriteswere ableto liberate themselves from the German rule for the nexttwo centuries.

The Emperor left a minor successor,Otto III. The rightto care for him and the regency powers were claimed byHenry II of Bavaria. Like in 973, Mieszko and the CzechdukeBoleslav IItook the side of the Bavarian duke. Thisfact is confirmed in the chronicle of Thietmar:

There arrived (at the Diet ofQuedlinburg) also, among manyother princes: Mieszko, Mciwojand Boleslav and promised to sup-

port him under oath as the king andruler.[48]

In 984 the Czechs took over Meissen, but inthesame yearHenry II gave up his pretension to the German throne.

The role played by Mieszko I in the subsequent strugglesis unclear because the contemporary sources are scarceand not in agreement. Probably in 985 the Polish rulerended his support for the Bavarian duke and moved tothe side of the Emperor. It is believed that Mieszkosmotivation was the threat posed to his interests by thePolabian Slavs uprising. The upheaval was a problem forboth Poland and Germany, but not for Bohemia. In theChronicle ofHildesheim, in the entry for the year 985 it is

noted that Mieszko came to help the Saxons in their fightagainst some Slavic forces, presumably the Polabians.[49]

One year later, the Polish ruler had a personal meetingwith the Emperor, an event mentioned in the Annals ofHersfeld:

Otto the boy-king ravaged Bohemia,but received Mieszko who arrivedwith gifts.

According to Thietmar and other contemporary chron-icles the gift given by Mieszko to the Emperor was a

camel. The meeting consolidated the Polish-German al-liance, with Mieszko joining Ottos expedition against aSlavic land, which together they wholly devastated (...)with fire and tremendous depopulation. It is not clearwhich Slavic territory was invaded. Perhaps another raidagainst the Polabians took place. But there are indicationsthat it was an expedition against the Czechs, Mieszkosfirst against his southern neighbors.[50] Possibly on thisoccasion the Duke of the Polans accomplished the mostsignificant expansion of his state, the take-over ofLesserPoland.[51]

The Thietmars relation however raises doubts as to

whether the joined military operation actually happened.The chronicler claims that a settlement was then con-cluded between the Emperor and the Bohemian ruler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hersfeld_Abbeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildesheimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quedlinburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_II,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II,_Duke_of_Bavariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obotriteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luticihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polabian_Slavshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luticihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saracenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stilohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Lesserhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Bluetoothhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomeraniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_of_Bremenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_of_Bremen


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3.13 Late reign, death and succession 9

Boleslav II the Pious, which is not mentioned in any othersource and is contrary to the realities of the political sit-uation at that time.

Another debatable point is Thietmars claim that Mieszkosubordinated himself to the King.[52] Most historians be-

lieve that it was only a matter of recognition of Ottosroyal authority.[53] Some suggest that afealtyrelationshipcould in fact be involved.[54]

3.11 War against Bohemia; incorporation

of Silesia and Lesser Poland

Whether or not the German-Polish invasion of Bohemiaactually happened, the friendly relations between theCzechs and the Poles came to an end. Bohemia re-sumed its earlier alliance with the Lutici, which causedin 990 a war with Mieszko, who was supported by Em-pressTheophanu. Duke Boleslav II was probably the firstone to attack.[55] As a result of the conflictSilesiawastaken over by Poland. However, the annexation of Sile-sia possibly took place around 985, because during thisyear the majorPiaststrongholds inWrocaw,OpoleandGogwwere already being built.[56]

The issue of the incorporation of Lesser Polandis alsonot completely resolved. Possibly Mieszko took the re-gion before 990, which is indicated by the vague remarkof Thietmar, who wrote of a country taken by Mieszkofrom Boleslav.[57] In light of this theory, the conquest ofLesser Poland could be a reason for the war, or its firststage. Many historians[58] suggested that the Czech ruleover Lesser Poland was only nominal and likely limited tothe indirect control ofKrakwand perhaps a few otherimportant centers. This theory is based on the lack ofarchaeological discoveries, which would indicate majorbuilding investments undertaken by the Bohemian state.

Lesser Poland supposedly after its incorporation had be-come the partition of the country assigned to Mieszkosoldest son,Bolesaw, which is indirectly indicated in thechronicle of Thietmar.[59]

Some historians, on the basis of the chronicle ofCosmas

of Prague, believe that the conquest of the lands aroundthe lower Vistula River took place after Mieszkos death,specifically in 999.[60] There is also a theory accord-ing to which during this transition period Lesser Polandwas governed byBolesaw Chrobry, whose authority wasgranted to him by the Bohemian duke.[61]

3.12 Dagome iudex

Main article:Dagome iudex

At the end of his life (ca. 991-92), Mieszko I, togetherwith hiswife Oda andtheir sons, issueda document calledDagome iudex, where the Polish ruler placed his lands un-

der the protection of the Pope and described their bor-ders. Only a later imprecise summary of the documenthas been preserved.

There are two main theories concerning reasons behindthe issuing ofDagome iudex:

According to the first theory the document was aneffort to transform the existing missionary bishopricinto a regular organization of the Catholic Church,that would cover all of Mieszkos state. This un-derstanding implies that the arrangement led to pay-ment by Poland ofPeters Pence.[62]

The second theory assumes that the document wascreated in order to protect the interests of Mieszkossecond wife Oda and their sons (who were namedin the document) after Mieszkos death. Bolesaw,Mieszkos eldest son, whose mother wasDobrawa,was not named in the document.[63] However, oneof Mieszkos and Odas sons, witopek, also wasnot mentioned.

Dagome iudexis of capital importance forPolish historybecause it gives a general description of the Polish statesgeographical location at the end of Mieszkos reign.

3.13 Late reign, death and succession

TheNeo-Gothic cenotaphof Mieszko I at thePozna Cathedral

During his last years of life Mieszko remained loyal to thealliance with the Holy Roman Empire. In 991 he arrived
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archcathedral_Basilica_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenotaphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrawahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%2527s_Pencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagome_iudexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda_of_Haldenslebenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagome_iudexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmas_of_Praguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmas_of_Praguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3whttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%82og%C3%B3whttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opolehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wroc%C5%82awhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piast_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophanuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fealtyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_II,_Duke_of_Bohemia


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10 6 MARRIAGES AND ISSUE

at a gathering inQuedlinburg, where he participated inthe customary exchange of gifts with Otto III and Em-press Theophanu. In the same year he took part in a jointexpedition with the young king toBrandenburg.

Mieszko died on 25 May 992.[64] Sources give no reasons

to believe that his death occurred from causes other thannatural. According to Thietmar the Polish ruler diedinan old age, overcame with fever. Probably he was buriedin thePozna Cathedral. The remains of the first histor-ical ruler of Poland have never been found and the placeof his burial is not known with certainty.[65] In 18361837 a cenotaph was built for Mieszko I and his successorBolesaw I the Brave in the Golden Chapel (Polish:ZotaKaplica) at the Pozna Cathedral, where the damaged re-mains found in the 14th century tomb of Bolesaw wereplaced.

According to Thietmar Mieszko I divided his state before

his death among a number of princes. They were proba-bly his sons: Bolesaw I the Brave, Mieszko and Lambert.

In 1999 the archeologist Hanna Kka-Krenz locatedwhats left of Mieszkos palace-chapel complex inPozna.[66]

4 Organization of the Polish state

Thebasic structure of theearly Polish state was Mieszkosmilitary force. The ruler managed to create an armycomposed of about 3,000 mounted warriors. This in-creasingly powerful force allowed the Polans to attackweaker neighboring tribes and conquer their lands. Akey factor promoting cohesion of the growing state wasfear of the invaders impressed by them among local pop-ulations. The first Piasts reinforced their rule by burn-ing local strongholds and replacing them with new larger

fortresses, located in strategic positions. Archaeologicalstudies show that this practice was abandoned only at theend of Mieszkos reign, when his position was alreadywell-established.

The largest social group in Mieszkos state were freepeasants(kmiecie), who cultivated their own land. Theyhad to support the state by levies collected from them andby supporting the duke and his attendants as he traveledaround the country. There were also service villages, spe-cializing in production of certain types of items.

Many trade routes went through the Polish lands, whichfacilitated the development of trade.Amber, fur and salt

(extracted inKuyaviaand aroundKoobrzeg) were ex-ported to other countries, while cloth, crafts, tools andornaments were imported.

Mieszkosdenar(either Mieszko I or his grandsonMieszko II)

5 Accomplishments

Unification of Polish lands. Mieszkos state was thefirst state that could be called Poland. He is of-ten considered the founder, the principal creator andbuilder of the Polish state.[67]

Acceptance of Roman Catholicism and therefore in-clusion of his country in the mainstream civilizationand political structures of Roman Catholic Europe.

Erection of churches. TheGniezno Cathedralwasconstructed during Mieszkos rule. Very likely theDuke also founded thechurch at Ostrw Tumski andthePozna Cathedral.[68]

Possibly during Mieszko Is reign Poland began

minting its own coin, thedenarius.[69]

At the end of his rule, Mieszko I left to his sons aterritory at least twice as large as what he inheritedfrom his father. The most significant were the ad-ditions ofSilesia,Western Pomerania, and probablyLesser PolandincludingKrakw.

The first ruler conducted efficient foreign policy,which included agreements withGermany, Bohemiaand Sweden, and prudently used his military re-sources.

6 Marriages and issue

According to Gallus Anonymus, before becoming a Ro-man Catholic Mieszko had seven pagan wives, whomhe had to get rid of as he married Dobrawa. Noth-ing is known for sure of any children from theserelationships.[71] In 965, before his baptism, MieszkomarriedDobrawa (b. 940/45 d. 977), daughter ofBoleslav I the Cruel, Duke ofBohemia. They had twochildren:

1. Bolesaw I the Brave (Chrobry)(b. 967 d. 17 June1025).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boleslaus_I,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobrawa_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3whttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denariushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archcathedral_Basilica_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gniezno_Cathedralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mieszko_II_Lamberthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denariushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%82obrzeghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuyaviahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanna_K%C3%B3%C4%8Dka-Krenzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenotaphhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archcathedral_Basilica_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quedlinburg


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11

Mieszko Is burial site, believed to be found in 1952 at thePozna Cathedral, was vandalized, possibly by Bretislaus I,Duke of Bohemia, in 1039. According to a new theory, BishopJordanwas buried here, while Mieszkos grave location is prob-ably the Chapel of the Virgin Mary atOstrw Tumskipalatiumcomplex.[70]

2. witosawa (Sigrid) (b. 968/72 d. ca. 1016),married first toEric the Victorious, King ofSwedenand later toSweyn Forkbeard, King ofDenmark.From her second marriage, she probably was themother of Cnut the Great, King of Denmark,NorwayandEngland.

According to one hypothesis there was another daughterof Mieszko, married to a Pomeranian Slavic Prince; she

could be a daughter of Dobrawa or of one of the previouspagan wives.[72] Also, a theory exists (apparently basedon Thietmar and supported byOswald Balzerin 1895)thatVladivoj, who ruled as Duke ofBohemiain 10021003, was a son of Mieszko and Dobrawa.[73] Althoughmost modern historians reject this claim, Bohemian his-toriography supported the Piast parentage of Vladivoj.[74]

In 978/79 Mieszko I marriedOda(b. 955/60 d. 1023),daughter ofDietrich of Haldensleben, Margrave of theNorthern March. She was abducted by her future hus-band from the monastery ofKalbe. They had three sons:

1. Mieszko(b. ca. 979 d. aft. 992/95).2. witopek(b. ca. 980 d. bef. 991?).

3. Lambert(b. ca. 981 d. aft. 992/95).

After a struggle for power between Bolesaw I and Odawith her minor sons (Bolesaws half-brothers), theeldestson of Mieszko Itook control over all of his fathers stateand expelled his stepmother and her sons from Poland.

7 Bibliography

Jasiski K., Rodowd pierwszych Piastw,Warszawa-Wrocaw (1992), p. 5470.

Labuda G., Mieszko I, (in) Polski Sownik Bi-ograficzny, vol. 21, 1976.

Labuda G.,Mieszko I, Wyd. Ossolineum, Wrocaw2002,ISBN 83-04-04619-9

Labuda G., Pierwsze pastwo polskie, KrajowaAgencja Wydawnicza, Krakw 1989,ISBN 83-03-02969-X

Philip Earl Steele Nawrcenie i Chrzest Mieszka I2005,ISBN 83-922344-8-0

Szczur S.,Historia Polski redniowiecze, chap. 2.2.1Pastwo gnienieskie Mieszka I (p. 4757) i 2.4.1Druyna ksica(p. 8384), Wydawnictwo Liter-ackie 2002,ISBN 83-08-03272-9

8 See also

Prehistory and protohistory of Poland

Poland in the Early Middle Ages

History of Poland (9661385)

List of Poles

9 References

[1] Historical dictionary of Poland. Greenwood PublishingGroup. 1996.ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0.

[2] Witold Chrzanowski: Kronika Sowian: Polanie. 2006.s. 238; Fragments of the history of Western Slavs. t.13;Gerard Labuda. Poznaskie Towarzystwo PrzyjaciNauk. 2003

[3] ca. 922 (O. Balzer), between 930932 (A.F. Grabski), ca.935 (K. Jasiski), between 940945 (S. Ktrzyski).

[4] Jerzy Strzelczyk "Mieszko pierwszy", vol. IV

[5] Wodzimierz K. Krzyanowski,Arystokracja rodowa wPolsce, Warszawa, 2007

[6] Gallus Anonymus,Kronika polska, vol. I, chap. 4

[7] Gregory Cattaneo, The Scandinavians in Poland: a re-evaluation of perceptions of the Vikings, Brathair 9 (2),2009: 0214. ISSN 1519-9053

[8] K. Jasiski,Siemomys, Polski Sownik Biograficzny, vol.37, 1996, pp. 5859.

[9] Gerard Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 1822

[10] Pocztki Polski w nowym wietle (The beginnings ofPoland in new perspective) by Tomasz Jasiski, p. 17.ThePolish Academy of Sciences, Portal Wiedzy www.portalwiedzy.pan.pl Nauka, April 2007

[11] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, p. 85; S. Szczur, Historia Polskiredniowiecze, pp. 3435
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Scienceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomasz_Jasi%C5%84skihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Labudahttp://brathair.com/revista/numeros/09.02.2009/2_cattaneo.pdfhttp://brathair.com/revista/numeros/09.02.2009/2_cattaneo.pdfhttp://brathair.com/revista/numeros/09.02.2009/2_cattaneo.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Labudahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-26007-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.ca/books?id=S6aUBuWPqywC&pg=PA354https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Poles#Royaltyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(966%E2%80%931385)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_and_protohistory_of_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8308032729https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8392234480https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/830302969Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/830302969Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8304046199https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Chrobryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Mieszkowichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Awi%C4%99tope%C5%82k_Mieszkowichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mieszko_Mieszkowichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Marchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_of_Haldenslebenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda_of_Haldenslebenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladivoj,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Balzerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnut_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmarkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_VI_of_Swedenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigrid_the_Haughtyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostr%C3%B3w_Tumski,_Pozna%C5%84https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan,_Bishop_of_Polandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretislaus_I,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretislaus_I,_Duke_of_Bohemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archcathedral_Basilica_of_St._Peter_and_St._Paul,_Pozna%C5%84


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12 9 REFERENCES

[12] S. Szczur,Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 34; Henrykowmiaski, Pocztki Polski, vol. V, p. 502; G. Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 121122

[13] Jerzy Wyrozumski Dzieje Polski piastowskiej(VIII w. 1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century 1370)),Krakw 1999, p. 76

[14] Jerzy Wyrozumski Dzieje Polski piastowskiej(VIII w. 1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century 1370)),Krakw 1999, p. 77

[15] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, cap. III.2.; S. Szczur,Historia Pol-ski redniowiecze, p. 26

[16] see for example G. Labuda,Mieszko I, chap. III.2.

[17] see for example Henryk owmianski, Pocztki Polski,Warsaw, 1973.

[18] Thietmari chronicon, vol. II chap. 29

[19] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, chap. III.2.; A.F. Grabski, BolesawChrobry, p. 25

[20] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 4345.

[21] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, p. 92

[22] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, chap. IV.3.

[23] H. owmiaski,Pocztki Polski, p. 342-345.

[24] Between 965967 according to theMonumenta PoloniaeHistoricaed. by A. Bielowski, vol. II, Lww 1872; in 966according to Tadeusz Wojciechowski.

[25] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 9297.[26] Historii Polski by Anna Paner and Jan Iluk

[27] Probably not the main stronghold of the region Wolin.G. Labuda,Mieszko I, cap. V.3.

[28] Legend of the 12th century, starting with the wordsTem-pore illo.

[29] Other sources indicated that she could be Mieszko Is sis-ter.

[30] At that time, Emperor Otto I was in Italy.

[31] Thietmari chronicon, vol. II p. 29

[32] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, p. 122.

[33] J.P. Sobolewski, Niemcy, Polska a Pomorze Zachodniew latach 971972, Kwartalnik Historyczny, Vol. 95,1988, No. 1. The same argument was also given by S.Szczur,Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 51.

[34] According to the reconstruction of the battle by W. Filip-iowak.

[35] Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 35.

[36] The limits were described in the document issued by thebishop of Prague toHenry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.

This document is preserved in the Chronicles of Cosmasof Prague and is considered a reliable copy; from G.LabudaMieszko Ipp. 148151.

[37] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, p. 160, 174.

[38] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, cap. VII.4.

[39] A. Buko, Maopolska czeska i Maopolska polaskapp.153158.

[40] S. Szczur,Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 52.

[41] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, chap. VI.4.



[44] It is understood that the marriage took place around 979980 (S, Szczur,Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 53).

[45] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV cap. 57

[46] G. Labuda,Bolesaw Chrobryp. 44.


[48] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV chap. 2

[49] S. Szczur,Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 54-55.



[52] Thietmari chronicon, vol IV, chap. 9; Chronicles ofHildesheim, p. 986.

[53] G. Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 180185; Marian Jedlicki,Sto-sunek prawny Polski, Pozna, 1939, p. 33.

[54] Henryk owmiaski,Pocztki Polski, vol. V, p. 563.


[56] Andrzej Buko, "Archeologia Polski wczesnored-niowiecznej", 2007, Ed. Trio.

[57] Thietmari chronicon, vol. I p. 33; argument presented byG. Labuda,Mieszko I, p. 171.

[58] Henryk owmiaski,Pocztki Polski, vol. V; A. Buko,Maopolska czeska i Maopolska polaska

[59] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV chap. 58; this theory is pre-sented by G. Labuda,Mieszko I, p. 176.

[60] In favor: G. Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 172173.

[61] Henryk owmiaski,Pocztki Polski, vol. V

[62] This theory has been presented in various forms by histo-rians, including Robert Holtzmann, Stanisaw Zakrzewski(Najdawniejsza bulla, pp. 2123) and Henryk owmi-aski (Pocztki Polski, vol. V, pp. 602603).

[63] S. Zakrzewski, Najdawniejsza bulla, pp. 1112; G.

Labuda,Mieszko I, pp. 193195.

[64] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV chap. 58
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmas_of_Praguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmas_of_Praguehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolin_(town)http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/histp/polish.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Wyrozumski


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[65] In 1951 the historianHelena Zoll-Adamikowaexaminedthe alleged resting place of Mieszko, but found no signs ofburial. Its not certain that the Cathedral had already beenbuilt before Mieszkos death, and the first mention of thisas his burial place comes only from the chronicles ofJanDugosz.

[66] The Warsaw Voice In brief (30 October 2008)

[67] G. Labuda,Studia nad pocztkami pastwa polskiego, p.324


[69] According to S. Suchodolski, themonetary system was in-stalled by Mieszko Is grandson and namesake, Mieszko IILambert.

[70] To nie Mieszko (Its not Mieszko) by Przemysaw Ur-baczyk,Gazeta Wyborcza, www.gazeta.pl portal, 2010-12-28

[71] Oswald Balzer(Genealogy of the Piasts, Krakw 1895)stated that Mieszko I had at least one son born from apagan wife. The theory was based on the allegation thatMieszkos son, who was to be placed by order of Otto Iin 973 as a hostage after the Imperial Diet of Quedlin-burg, couldn't be Bolesaw I the Brave because he wastoo young. This argument is refuted by Jan Widajew-icz (Czy Bolesaw Chrobry by w modoci zakadnikiemu Niemcw?,Roczniki Historyczne, vol. XVI, 1947, pp.243250). Modern historians have no doubts that the Pol-ish prince who was placed as the imperial hostage wasBolesaw I.

[72] According to one theory, this unnamed daughter ofMieszko I and her Pomeranian husband were the parentsofZemuzil, Duke of Pomerania.

[73] Cawley, Charles, BOHEMIA, Foundation for MedievalGenealogy, retrieved August 2012,

[74] J. emlika,echy v dob kniec, Prague 1997, pp. 7273.
http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/Intro.htmhttp://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/Intro.htmhttp://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/BOHEMIA.htm#Vladivoydied1003https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemuzil,_Duke_of_Pomeraniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Balzerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborczahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przemys%C5%82aw_Urba%C5%84czykhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przemys%C5%82aw_Urba%C5%84czykhttp://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/19046https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_D%C5%82ugoszhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_D%C5%82ugoszhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Zoll-Adamikowa


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14 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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