Michael GarciaEthics of Dev. In a Global EnvironmentMay 30, 2005Professor Lusignan

The Space Race:

The U.S – Soviet/ Russian Relationship in Regards to Space

Exploration

Throughout history, technology has played a crucial role in

international relations. The space race between the United States and

the Soviet Union during the 1950’s and 60’s is indeed a major

landmark in the history of technological feats accomplished by man. To

historically understand of the significance of this race, it is important to

not only look at the events that transpired during these years but to

also examine what motivated each of these world powers to take part

of such a competition. Significantly, the events that took place during

this time have shaped current U.S. and Russian involvement in space

exploration and these current involvements also deserve our attention.

The Origins of the Space Race

What motivated the U.S. and the Soviet Union to spend countless

dollars and resources in an attempt to reach the moon? To answer this

question, we must first look at the true origins of the “space race.”

Interestingly, it was neither the Soviet Union nor the U.S., but rather

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the German military that began and led the advancement of rocket

technology during World War II.

At the end of the war, all of the major allied

powers began to investigate and exploit the advances

in German missile technology. Nordhausen, a major

German rocketry center for the A-4 missile program,

became a prime target of the Soviets. However, when

they reached Nordhausen to obtain crucial rocketry information, they

found that the German engineers working on the A-4 program had

already willingly surrendered to the U.S. Army. Within days of the

surrender, parts for at least 100 A-4 missiles were shipped into the U.S.

zone from Nordhausen along with crucial rocket technology

documentation (russianspaceweb.com). In response to the Americans

swift takeover of Germany’s rocketry technology, Stalin was reported

saying:

This is absolutely intolerable. We defeated the Nazi armies; we

occupied Berlin and Peenermunde; but the Americans got the

rocket engineers. What could be more revolting and more

inexcusable? How and why was this allowed to happen? (Siddiqi 24)

Such a victory by the U.S. boosted its advancement in missile and

rocket technology. However, this loss by the Soviet Union did not seem

to hinder their progression in rocketry. By 1948, the Soviets were able

to reach a level of technological ability equivalent to the wartime

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German accomplishments. During this time, the Soviets not only

focused on missiles, but also on researching artificial satellites and

launch vehicles. The progress that the Soviets made between the years

of 1949 and 1953 was quite remarkable. By 1953, the “Soviets had

almost completely left behind the German antecedents of the missile

program and moved into the realm of intercontinental ballistic missile

(ICBM) development, effectively laying the foundation for the birth of

the Soviet space program” (Siddiqi 69).

Meanwhile on the American side, in 1950, a U.S. Army team

stationed in Huntsville, Alabama began work on developing a series a

Redstone rockets. These rockets were tested at Cape Canaveral Air

Force base. During this time, work was also being done to complete

the Atlas, the first U.S. intercontinental ballistic missile (Koman).

However, despite all the American progress that was taking place, the

Soviets were not only pulling ahead in rocketry progress, they were

also broadening the “missile gap.”

By 1954, the Soviets successfully tested an H-bomb and were

mass producing a medium-range ballistic missile, the SS-3. Within the

next three years, the Soviet Union was able to fire an intercontinental

ballistic missile that had a range of over five thousand miles. The U.S.

officials were stunned by the rate at which the Soviets were able to

advance their rocket technology. However, the American public did

not fully realize the technological successes of the Soviets until the

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launching of Sputnik (Koman). The launching of this artificial satellite

fueled a major fear of the United States that it was quickly falling

behind the Soviets in what would quickly become known as the “space

race” (historychannel.com).

Sputnik and the Dawn of the Space Age

On October 4, 1957, the launching of Sputnik changed the course

of history. For the first time, man had been able to overcome the

bounds of Earth and break free from this planets atmosphere and send

their handiwork into space. With this great soviet accomplishment

came heavy social, political, and military implications for the U.S. and

for the world.

“The Soviet satellite served as a distinct milestone; it moved the

Cold War into a new phase – one characterized by the very real

possibility of Soviet dominance in the new arena of space, and thus

by extension, on Earth. With only a ball of metal, the Soviets had

managed to achieve what they were unable to convey with decades

of rhetoric on the virtues of socialism: that the USSR was a power

with which to be reckoned” (Siddiqi 171).

sputnik indeed had its roots in military technology. The artificial space

satellite was launched with the same rocket engine as the

intercontinental ballistic missile SS-3, a demonstration of the power of

the Soviet military. For much of the American public, the Soviet’s

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ability to launch satellites into orbit translated into the Soviet’s

capability to launch ballistic missiles that could carry nuclear bombs

from Europe to the United States. Senator Lyndon Johnson was quoted

saying; “Soon, they will be dropping bombs on us from space like kids

dropping rocks onto cars from freeway overpasses” (batnet.com).

The Soviets success could also easily be heard and seen by the

world by looking into the heavens. The

satellite was a small sphere, about two

feet across with long “whiskers pointing

out from one side, and although it was

only 184 pounds, it carried radio

transmitters to allow the world to hear its powerful and recognizable

“beeps.” Its rocket booster, which weighed nearly four tons, also

reached orbit and could easily be seen from Earth. The satellite was

also successful in obtaining valuable information about the densities of

the upper layers of the atmosphere and the propagation of radio

signals in the ionosphere. (windows.ucar.edu).

Interestingly, in 1957, there was actually no set out Soviet space

program governing body nor were there any long-range goals,

no financial planning, and no agenda. This lack of total Soviet space

program structure lasted for a few years. However, massive amounts

of propaganda produced by Soviet officials suggested otherwise to the

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U.S.S.R public, “hailing the glorious benefits of a nationwide effort”

(Siddiqi 171).

Nevertheless, the launching of Sputnik called

for immediate action in the U.S. By January of

1958, the U.S. launched its own artificial satellite,

Explorer 1, after a failure of an initial launch in

December of 1957. Explorer 1 indeed had its

successes for the U.S. The U.S. satellite led to the

first scientific discovery of the space race. It

showed that the Earth was surrounded by heavy bands of radiation

that would be named Van Allen named after James A. Van Allen, the

director of the operation.

The launch of Sputnik also directly led to the proposal of

America’s own space program. The creation of the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was proposed in the

National Aeronautics and Space Act, commonly called the “Space Act”

(hq.nasa.gov). The proposal stated:

The Congress declares that the general welfare and security of

the United States require that adequate provision be made for

aeronautical and space activities. The Congress further declares

that such activities shall be the responsibility of, and shall be

directed by, a civilian agency exercising control over aeronautical and

space activities sponsored by the United States, except that activities

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peculiar to or primarily associated with the development of

weapons systems, military operations, or the defense of the United

States (including the research and development necessary to make

effective provision for the defense of the United States) shall be the

responsibility of, and shall be directed by, the Department of

Defense. (National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958).

The congress approved the Space Act and it was signed by President

Eisenhower on July 29th, 1958. As a result, NASA was officially

created on October 1st, 1958.

Sending Man into Space

“Our mission is to ensure that the Soviet rockets fly higher and

farther than has been accomplished anywhere else up until now. Our

mission is to ensure that a Soviet man be the first to fly in a rocket.

And our mission is to ensure that it is Soviet rockets and Soviet

spaceships that are the first to master the limitless space of the

cosmos” –Sergey Korolev, leader of USSR space program

After the successful launching of Sputnik, an ambitious idea

began to form in the minds of the Soviets; launching a satellite that

would carry a living individual. Sergey Korolev, a mechanical

engineer who was a major leader of the Soviet space program,

suggested that a dog be used. The plan was to have completed

preparations for the launch in time for the fortieth anniversary of the

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Great October Socialist Revolution on November 7th. The official order

for the launch was issued on October 12, 1957, just eight days after

the launching of Sputnik. This operation required Soviet engineers to

modify the structure that was used for the fist satellite, which was

called the PS-1. The modified satellite that was to be used came to be

known as Simple Satellite No. 2 (PS-2).

The building of PS-2 officially began on October 10, 1957, even

before the official order for the

operation took place. The

Soviets found it extremely

important to have the launch in

time for the holiday as it would

have great political

significance. The PS-2 was a

small stubby cylindrical container for one dog. The container was

equipped with systems for monitoring the life of the dog, as well as

instruments for feeding the animal and supplying it with oxygen and

ridding the container of carbon dioxide.

A dog named Layka was chosen for the mission and on

November 3, 1957, the Soviets became the first to send a life into

space. Sadly, on November 7, Layka died of heat exhaustion due to

malfunctions in the spacecraft’s temperature control. The dog was

never planned to return to Earth, however, Layka was initially

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supposed to be put to sleep by a lethal injection. Layka paved the way

for the future of the Soviet and U.S. space programs (Siddiqi 172-

175).

By the end of 1957, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union began

making preparations for human spaceflight. In 1958, NASA initiated

Project Mercury, the first man-in-space program, which consisted of

three main goals, “to orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth; to

investigate man's ability to function in space; to recover both man and

spacecraft safely” (nasa.gov). In April 1959, NASA selected the

American armed forces to choose its first astronauts. All of which had

backgrounds in aviation. It is likely that this, in fact, influenced the

Soviets to choose pilots as well as their cosmonauts.

Indeed, it became a frantic race between the U.S. and the Soviet

Union to see who could be the first to have human presence in space.

John F. Kennedy emphasized the importance of the Mercury Project

during an address at Rice University in 1962:

“We set sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to

be gained, and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used

for the progress of all people. For space science, like nuclear

science and all technology, has no conscience of its own. Whether it

will become a force for good or ill depends on man, and only if the

United States occupies a position of preeminence can we help

decide whether this new ocean will be a sea of peace or a new,

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terrifying theater of war.”

It was not just a competition of technological ability, but of political

superiority between Soviet socialism and American capitalism. The

space race would prove to have huge impacts on the public of the two

governments.

Unfortunately for the U.S. the Soviet would again add to their

long list of firsts in the Space Race. On April 12, 1961, The Soviet

Union sent the first man, Yuri Gagarin, into space. Less than a month

later, the U.S. sent their own into space. On May 5, 1961, Alan

Shepard became the first American to enter space. Between 1961 and

1963, the U.S. made six successful manned flights to space.

It is interesting to note that the U.S. and the Soviet Union were

the only two countries to send man into space for nearly four decades.

China finally became the third nation to send one of their citizens into

space on October 15, 2003. Yang Liwei orbited the Earth and safely

returned a few days later as a Chinese

hero. The Chinese mission had

extremely close ties with its military

and as a result, the operation was

surrounded with secrecy. However,

the launch itself was solicited to the

Chinese public to boost national wide

pride and to increase popular sentiment behind the communist party

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(CNN.com). According to Chinese leaders, the launch was also to raise

the profile of Chinese technology, which today is recognized as one of

the worlds most advanced.

A Sprint to the Moon

"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal,

before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning

him safely to the Earth. No single space project...will be more

exciting, or more impressive to mankind, or more important...and

none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish” -John F. Kennedy,

May 25, 1961

In March 1965, NASA began making

major preparations for space travel to the

moon by creating Project Gemini. Project

Gemini utilized extremely sophisticated

space craft. During Gemini missions,

U.S. astronauts were able to conduct

space walks and were able to change their orbit; something that no

Soviet crew had ever accomplished. Project Gemini also consisted of

astronauts spending long periods of time in space. One mission lasted

14 days; the estimated time that a lunar trip would take. The Apollo

Project officially began in 1963, with many Americans and NASA

engineers wondering if Kennedy’s ambitious goal could ever be

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accomplished. However, on July 20, 1969 America finally became a

‘first’ in the long space race with the Soviets. On that glorious day for

America, Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin of Apollo 11

became the first humans to step foot on the moon. Americans

understood this to be a huge victory over the Soviet Union and over

socialism.

It is now understood that placing an American on the moon was

a key maneuver in John F. Kennedy’s Cold War strategy. Kennedy

gave NASA programs top priority and many times the Kennedy

administration implied that Eisenhower had not done nearly enough

during the rapid technological advancement of the Soviets before and

during the launching of Sputnik. During his administration, Kennedy

found it to be extremely important to prevent the Soviets from getting

to the moon first and from governing it with “a hostile flag of

conquest,” but rather wanted America to be the first so that it could

place on the moon a “banner of freedom and peace.” Kennedy’s

assignation gave the mission an aura of sacredness and President

Johnson pushed for its completion in the name of the past president

(Koman).

The Soviets never landed a man on the moon, although they

were successful in landing a series of rovers for which they used to

explore the lunar surface. During the moon race, the Soviet engineers

built the Soyuz spacecraft, which was very similar to the Apollo. The

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Soyuz soon became a major interest to NASA. Interestingly, after

America’s major victory in the space race, U.S. – Soviet tensions

began to decrease, eventually to the point when the two countries

joined together for the Apollo-Soyuz test project in 1975.

U.S – Soviet/Russian Cooperation

The Apollo-Soyuz test project, which consisted of the American

Apollo spacecraft docking to the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in orbit, was

the first international cooperation in regards to space exploration. It

would become a huge milestone in technological development as it

showed that political adversaries could work together to conduct a

complex space project. The mission also epitomized what President

Nixon labeled as “detente.” Each country did, however, have its own

intentions.

The Apollo-Soyuz test project had its roots in 1970, just one year

after Apollo landed on the moon, when representatives for NASA and

the USSR Academy of Science met in Moscow to discuss a possible

joint piloted space mission. Two years later, President Nixon and

Soviet Council of Ministers Chairman Alexey N. Kosygin signed the

document that ordered the Apollo-Soyuz project to take place.

The Apollo project was soon to come to an end to make way for

NASA’s new Space Shuttle program and the U.S. saw that cooperation

with the Soviet engineers would provide a valuable amount of

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previously unavailable information. For the Soviets, on the other hand,

such a mission was thought to be a great means to boost their public

relations. The Soviets were able to show that they were on the same

technological level as the U.S. which would be extremely helpful after

losing the race to the moon (Rumerman).

During the project, the U.S. remained extremely open about the

space program, unlike the Soviets who kept the details of the mission

secret from the USSR public. This was most likely because of the

Soviet space program’s close links to the military. The Soviets often

referred to the USSR Academy of Sciences when discussing the

Apollo-Soyuz test project to give the impression that it was run by the

Academy rather than the RKK Energia, the true company that built the

Soyuz spacecraft and worked for the Soviet Military (Rumerman).

Because of the difference is the countries’ spacecraft structure,

American and Soviet engineers had to work to modify each. They also

constructed the Docking Module,

the docking system which was

carried into orbit by the Apollo.

This module would later become

the foundation for the standard international docking system used

today.

On July 17, 1975, two days after Soyuz 19 was launched from

Baikonur and the Apollo was launched from the Kennedy Space

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Center, the two spacecrafts came into contact and carried out a

successful docking. Cosmonaut Leonov reported to Earth, “Soyuz and

Apollo are shaking hands now,” a phrase that undoubtedly contained

political significance (Rumerman).

The Apollo-Soyuz test project set the stage for future

technological relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The

U.S. began the Space Shuttle program with the hopes of building a

reusable winged spacecraft that would be able to deliver resources to

orbiting laboratories and space stations. Although this program

began in 1972, instituted by President Nixon, the first space shuttle,

Columbia, didn’t launch until 1981. Within this time frame, the

Soviets worked to develop and upgrade the Soyuz and in 1986, they

used the Soyuz to begin building space station Mir.

A year after the fall of the Soviet Union, President George H.W.

Bush and Russian President Yeltsin announced new space exploration

plans; flying an astronaut the Mir space station. Two years later,

President Clinton expanded U.S. – Relations by inviting Russia into the

building of the International Space Station (ISS), along with Europe,

Canada, and Japan. The building of the ISS utilized Mir. Building the

ISS also required Russia to adhere to the Missile Technology Control

Regime (MTCR) which “sought to stop the proliferation of missile

technology.” The MTCR objected to a contract that Russia had with

India that consisted of Russia giving India advanced rocket engines,

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technology, and information. The U.S. required Russia to reformat the

contract, and Russia claimed that do so would cost 400 million dollars.

The U.S. agreed to pay Russia 400 million dollars for their cooperation

in the ISS while Russia agreed to restructure the contract with India

to abide by the MTCR ( U.S. Government).

Currently, the progress of the ISS is in great jeopardy. The

2003 Columbia disaster in which 7 crewmembers were killed when the

space craft exploded caused the grounding of the U.S. Space Shuttle

program. With the grounding of the Shuttle, the U.S. has become

dependent on the Russian Soyuz and other Russian transport

capabilities. Unfortunately, after April of 2006, the U.S. will no longer

be able to pay for ISS programmed flights on the Soyuz because of the

Iran Non-Proliferation Act (INA) (The Economist). Enacted in 2000,

the INA was constructed to stop

“foreign transfers to Iran of weapons of mass destruction,

missile technology, and advanced convention weapons,

particularly from Russia. Section 6 of the INA bans U.S. payments

to Russia in connection with the ISS unless the U.S. President

determines that Russia is taking steps to prevent such

proliferation” (CRS Report).

At this time it appears unlikely that President Bush will determine that

Russia is complying with the INA; Iran’s nuclear program is a very

urgent concern at the present. At this point in time, the only way to

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ensure future U.S. access to the ISS is for the U.S. to have a

spacecraft to reach the ISS. Since the Columbia disaster, NASA has

spent over a billion dollars upgrading the Space Shuttle. However,

when the Shuttle will fly again is still to be determined, if, in fact, it

will ever fly again (Preston).

Currently, the U.S. does indeed have ambitious goals for the

future of its space program. In 2004, Bush announced that he wanted

to see the U.S. return to the moon by 2015, which would act as a

stepping stone to Mars;

"In the past 30 years, no human being has set foot on another

world or ventured farther up into space than 386 miles…It is time

for America to take the next steps…the desire to explore and

understand is part of our character."

Such goals will require the U.S. to have access to a space station to

conduct proper necessary research.

Last month, NASA was handed over to the leadership of Michael

Griffin, the new Administrator of NASA. Griffin was nominated by

President Bush and confirmed by the United States Senate. As the

holder of over nine degrees, Griffin seems more than capable of

leading NASA. Like Bush, Griffin holds the same plans for returning

to the moon as an eventual means of reaching Mars. Whether or not

this project will include Russia depends much on the current relations

we have with Russia and with the INA. NASA has cooperated with

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Russia very much on possible Mars exploration missions and recent

collaboration has centered on the Russian High Energy Neutron

Detector instrument.

Space exploration technology has progressed rapidly within the

last few decades. U.S. – Russian competition and cooperation has

impacted the world in ways that were thought impossible a century

ago. It will be extremely interesting to see how these countries

continue to change the course of space technology in the next few

decades.

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Sources

Siddiqi, Asif A. Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge. Miami: University Press of Florida, 2003.

Siddiqi, Asif A. The Soviet Space Race with Apollo. Miami: University Press of Florida, 2003.

Siddiqi, Asif A. “The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.” Centennialofflight.gov. 20 May, 2005.

http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/SPACEFLIGHT/ASTP/SP24.htm

U.S. Government, Committee on Space and Aeronautics and the House of Representatives. Hearing: U.S. – Russian Cooperation in Space. Serial No. 108-25. First Hearing, June 11, 2003.

Squassoni, Sharon and Marcia S. Smith. “CRS Report for Congress: The Iran Nonproliferation Act and the International Space Station: Issues and Options. March 2, 2005.

Pifer, Steven, Deputy Assistant Secretary for European and Eurasian Affairs. “The U.S. and Russia: Space Cooperation and Export Controls.” Testimony Before the House Science Committee, Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics. June 11, 2003.

Larry Wheeler. “NASA May Partially Abandon Space Station.” Florida Today. May 20, 2005.

Preston Lerner. “NASA’s Fixer-Upper Flies Again.” Popular Science. May 2005: 63-64.

“No Plan B for Outer Space.” The Economist.com. 20 May. 2005 http://www.economist .com/sciences/dispalystory.cfm?

story_id=3738885.

Lane, Earl. “Bush: Moon Return by 2015.” Newsday.com. 17 May. 2005. http://www. newsday.com/news/nationworld/nation/ny-bush-space-

0114,0,4190003. story?coll =ny-nationalnews-headlines

Scott, David. Two Sides of The Moon. New York: Simon and Shuster,

2004.

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Rumerman, Judy. “Space Shuttle.” Centennialofflight.gov. 10 May, 2005. http://www.centennialofflight .gov/essay/ SPACEFLIGHT/Shuttle/ SP25.htm.

“China's first manned spacecraft has successfully returned to the Earth with astronaut Yang Liwei in good health, according to Chinese news agency reports” CNN.com. 12 May. 2005. http://www.cnn.com /2003/TECH/space /10/15/china.launch/.

Koman, Rita G. “Man on the Moon: The U.S. Space Program as a Cold War Maneuver.” Oah.org. 15 May. 2005. http://www.oah.org/pubs

/magazine/coldwar/koman.html

Images

Image of Space Walk: http://www.space.com/news/spacehistory/greatest_space_events_1960s.html.

Image of Layka: www.bfi.org.uk/collections/etv/lists/space.html.

Image of A-4 missile: www.russianspaceweb.com/ kapyar_a4_erect_2.jpg

Image of Sputnik: www.2.fht-esslingen.de/ telehistory/sputnik.html

Image of Explorer: www.phy.mtu.edu/ rocket/explorer.gif

Image of Yang Liwei: http://www.cnn.com /2003/TECH/space /10/15/china.launch/.

Image of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: www.pilotfriend.com/.../ space/images5/9.jpg

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