Methodologies to Measure Nutrient Reduction and to Aggregate Results at the Project ,

National, and Regional Basin Levels

Ramesh KanwarDepartment of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA

and

Aaron Zazueta and Jitendra SrivastavaGlobal Environmental Facility and the World Bank

1818 H St. NW Washington D.C. 20433, USA

My Background

• Professor at Iowa State University since 1981 – mostly worked in areas of hydrology, modeling & water quality – nutrient reduction.

• Have published 250 plus scientific articles • Major professor for 25 Ph.D. and 27 MS students• Participated in GEF/World Bank projects in

Romania, Georgia, Turkey, Serbia, Africa, India, and Pakistan

• Have been involved in developing science based good agricultural practices for nutrient reduction and methodologies for nutrient assessments at local, regional, and national level

Presentation A. Introduction – major sources of nonpoint source pollution

B. Key motivators for monitoring – Hypoxia/regulations/EU Nitrate Directive

C. Objectives of nutrient reduction programs

D. Key water quality or stress indicators for assessment nutrient reduction

E. Water quality laws or standards for nutrients for water bodies

F. What is current status of science on nutrient reduction? What do we know?

F. Developing methods for assessment – local, country, & global level

G. Analysis, interpretation, and reporting of data – use of models

• H. Using Romania example to move from pilot level on to national level as country is willing to borrow 50 m euros to conduct national level assessment

H. Discussion

IntroductionIncreasing demand for food and meat has led to theintensification of agricultural and animal productionsystems which can pose major threats to:

• global water, soil, and air quality, and public health

• mitigating measures are needed to protect environment

• Developing countries ecosystems are more at risk

• Without appropriate public policies, funding, and nutrient control plans, trends in water degradation are likely to continue.

Major sources of nonpoint water pollution are: Agriculture and Animal Production Systems

Major pollutant is soilMajor pollutant is soil

Other major pollutants areOther major pollutants areagriculture and animal wasteagriculture and animal waste

What are key motivators for water quality assessment or monitoring? Is it hypoxia or eutrophication or human health?

• Globally – it is the hypoxia that is driving the agenda

- Main cause of hypoxia is directly related to nitrogen levels in water

- Hypoxic conditions develop at dissolved oxygen levels of < 2 mg/l

- For fishing waters, dissolved oxygen should stay above 5 mg/l

- Hypoxic conditions in national/international water are increasing since 1960’s

- hypoxic conditions in the Baltic Sea and Black Sea are severe

- The Gulf of Mexico is the third largest hypoxic area in the world (12400 sq. km)

WORLD HYPOXIC ZONES and their Assessment at Regional Level

Agricultural Contribution: World Perspective

• 60% N and 25% P from European Ag to North Sea

• 48% of nutrient pollution in the former Czechoslovakia

• Significant levels flowing into the Adriatic Sea

• Eutrophication problems in Lake Erie

Objectives of Nutrient Reduction Program Should be:

• Protection of human health• Protection of aquatic ecosystems • Eutrophication prevention

This will require the following three steps:

• Reducing the impact of landscape activities on water quality of local and international waters using good agricultural practices – this is the key

• Meeting the requirements of EU Nitrate Directive and/or other national/local water quality regulations

• Assuring safe water supplies for human consumption and ecological health of aquatic life on sustainable basis

Water quality stress indicators for assessment

Before we establish a water monitoring program or methodologies fornutrient reduction measurements, we must decide on the keyindicators for assessment

Water Quality Indicators are: N, P, pathogens, dissolved oxygen BOD5, heavy metals, and bio-diversity.

• Main concern for high nitrate levels is infant health– Nitrate/nitrite causes “blue baby” disease– Newborn babies essentially suffocate –hypoxic conditions– Water Quality Standard for Nitrate-nitrogen is 10 mg/l

• SURFACE WATER BODIES:– Ammonia > 2 mg/l Kills Fish– Phosphate > 0.05 mg/l promotes excess algae growth which leads

Eutrophication– BOD5 depletes oxygen which causes Fish Kills - Hypoxia

Major Ag-related Water Pollutants - become stress indicators

• Eroded soil• Nutrients – of importance to GEF

– Nitrogen– Phosphorus

• Pesticides• Pathogens

• BOD5

BOD5 Strength of various types of waste water mg/l

• Treated Municipal Sewage 10

• Raw Municipal Sewage 200

• Swine Lagoon Water 700

• Open Cattle Feedlot Runoff 1000

• Raw Swine Manure 30000

* BOD5 in water leads to hypoxic conditions

U.S. Water Quality Law and Assessment Process

• Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 regulates discharge of pollutants into waters of the U.S.

• Section 305b of CWA requires states to assess and report quality of their waters to Congress every 2 years

• Section 303d requires states to provide a prioritized listing of “impaired waters” every 2 years

U.S. Water Quality Law• Impairment Assessment Process

– Each water body assigned one or more “designated uses”

– Water quality standards are established to indicate the extent to which designated uses are met.

– Water bodies are compared to standards and categorized as:

• “fully supporting”, “threatened”, “partially supporting” (impaired), or “NOT supporting” (impaired)

– Impaired water listings (“303d” list) are used by states to prioritize restoration activities (establish TMDL) – establish good agricultural practices in watersheds

EC Nitrate Directive – steps for its implementation

1.Detection of polluted or threatened waters (1 year monitoring) - Protection of human health

- Protection of aquatic ecosystems

- Eutrophication prevention

2.Designation of "vulnerable zones" (NVZs): Areas of agricultural land with significant contribution to N pollution at watershed level (2 year monitoring)

3.Action Programs within NVZs - Code of good agricultural practice becomes mandatory – what is the status of solid science for GAPs?

- Other measures (nutrient balance, manure storage, spreading < 170 kg N organic/Yr)

4.National monitoring and reporting every 4 yrs on NO3 conc. and eutrophication (algae) and assessment of action programs impact of NVZs

EU Water Quality standards for Rivers and Groundwater

In Netherlands, following environmental policy is used

• For Nitrogen: - Ground water: NO3 < 50 mg/L - Surface water: Nt < 2.2 mg/L - NH3 emission: in 2000 50% of that in 1980

• For Phosphorus: - Ground water: < 0.15 mg Pt/L - Surface water: < 0.15 mg Pt/L - P saturated soils when > 25% of binding capacity is used

US Water Quality Standards for Rivers and Lakes for P

• NEW national effort to develop P criteria• EPA requiring all states to develop nutrient standards for streams

and lakes by 2004

Lakes & Reservoirs Total P

National EPA recommendation for Iowa

0.037 mg/L

Rivers & Streams  

National EPA recommendation for Iowa

0.076 mg/L

Water Quality Standards for Rivers and Lakes for N

• NEW national effort to develop N criteria• EPA requiring all states to develop nutrient standards for streams

and lakes by 2004

Lakes & Reservoirs Total N

National EPA recommendation for Iowa

0.78 mg/L

Rivers & Streams  

National EPA recommendation for Iowa

2.18 mg/L

Total N

Good Agricultural Practices - Use GAPs as Proxies for mitigating environmental pollution

• Good agricultural practices (GAPs) are defined as those practices that can be used to control soil erosion and nutrient reduction in water bodies, minimize non-point source pollution, and increase crop production

• GAPs are developed using years of field experiments and have a strong basis of solid science.

• GAPs that have been demonstrated to perform well under different hydro-geologic conditions can be promoted for implementation in watersheds with similar conditions

• GAPs would then be used as proxies in meeting EU Nitrate Directive and other international nutrient reduction regulations at project level to improve the quality international water bodies.

What is current status of science? What do we know on nutrient reduction

technologies or good agricultural practices?

• Good news is that science is well advanced on this front and lot of good research has been conducted

• Numerous technologies or good agricultural practices are available for farmers adoption in watersheds as proxies to water quality monitoring

• In this study a total of more than 100 refereed journal articles were reviewed and 13 good agricultural practices are recommended for nutrient reduction

Science based technologies for nutrient reduction

(good agricultural practices*)* more than 100 refereed journal articles reviewed to arrive at the following conclusionsGood Agricultural Practices Change Range in nutrient reduction, %

1. Tillage practices/systems Moldboard plow to no-till 0 to 30% N reduction

2. Crop rotations Continuous corn (CC) to corn -soybean rotation (CS)

25 to 77% N reduction

3. Strip cropping systems CC to corn-soybean - Oats 42%

4. Buffer Strips CC/CS to buffer strips 68-75% N, 28-35%, total P

5. Alt. cropping systems Switch corn to alfalfa 50% to 90% reduction in N & P

6. Alt. system - cover crops Use of rye as cover crop 20-50% reduction in N

7. Conservation reserve, CR CC or CS to C R 91 to 94%

8. N application rate to corn Reduce N rate from 180 to 135 kg/ha 15 to 25%

9. Timing of N applications No N applications in fall 0 to 24%

10. Use of N inhibiters N inhibiter with fall N-application 19%

11. Use of wetlands 1% of area under wetlands 40 to 70%

12. Manure storage No storage to proper storage 35-50% reduction in total N & P

13. Manure use as a fertilizer for crop nutrient needs

From excessive N and P applications to meet N and P uptake needs

38 to 52% reduction

Methodology/Assessment at plot level– ISU Water Quality Site

Poultry manure plotsPoultry manure plots

Strip croppingStrip cropping

No-till plotsNo-till plots

Swine manure plotsSwine manure plots

Wetland cellsWetland cells

Methods: Treatment Application

• 168 kg/ha UAN (Plots 4, 6, 8, & 9)

• 168 kg/ha Poultry Manure (Plots 2, 5, & 10)

• 336 kg/ha Poultry Manure (Plots 1, 3, & 7)

• Control (no treatment) (check plot)

Field Plot: Poultry Manure Application

Field Plot: Sampling

Shallow groundwater samples

ISCO automated sampler for surface water sampling

Construction of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (piezometers)

Average of tile flow and nitrate load in tile drain over 8 years (1998-2005)

Treatments Tile flow(cm)

NO3-N concentration(mg/L)*

NO3-N loss(kg/ha)*

PM (168 kg-N/ha) 6.80 17.37a 13.65a

PM2 (336 kg-N/ha) 8.26 25.30b 18.57b

UAN (168 kg-N/ha) 9.10 18.80c 14.38c

None (0 kg-N/ha) 10.63 6.76 7.96

* The values in the same column followed by the same letters are not significantly different at significant level ( = 0.05)

No-till System and Fertilizer Injection in No-till Field

Erosion Control: Conservation tillage (no-till)

is the best technology of 20th century: Reduces sediment and phosphorus losses

Placement of fertilizers next to plants rather than broadcasting

Fertilizer Injector to apply at precise application rates and at multiple timings during the growing season

Strip Cropping Systems in Iowa-reduced use of N-fertilizer

GAPs: Erosion Control Practices - Contour planting and strip crooping

Contour Buffer Strips on Different Slopes

BMPs: Sediment traps - Stream Bank Management

After

Buffers filter/treat:

– Sediment– Nutrients– Pathogens

Before

Before

After

Buffer Strips along with Trees to Enhance Biodiversity and Improve Water Quality

Animal Manure/Waste Nutrient Utilization

• Crop Nutrient Needs depends on Yield• Considerable Nitrogen is Lost in Manure

Storage • Ammonia is volatile, and will go into the

air and move from the field• Crops are not 100% efficient at nutrient

uptake. Some will remain for the following year

Liquid Manure Storage

Liquid Swine Manure Injection into a Corn Field in the USA - best use of animal waste as a fertilizer

Manure Injection

Consider alternate technologies –other uses of manure

- Composting - Anaerobic digestion

- Solid/Liquid Separation - Lagoon Amendments

Methodologies to Measure Nutrient Reduction at Various Scales

A. The Farm/Project Level - Key to improve Water Quality/Nutrient Reduction at all scales

• Use Good Agricultural Practices as Proxies and make calculations in nutrient reduction on the basis of % area covered by a set of GAPs

• Similar approach could be used even at the watershed level provided key water bodies (a river and groundwater ) is monitored for water quality to have minimum data base to observe cause vs effect relationship

At Farm Level - Develop a Comprehensive Nutrient Management Plan For the Animal Feeding Operations - Animal Feeding Operations must have a Comprehensive Nutrient Management Plan (CNMP) developed by 2008*

*Lara B. Moody, P.E, Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University

6 Main Parts of a CNMP

1. Manure & Wastewater Storage & Handling

2. Nutrient Management

3. Land Treatment Practices - Use Good Agricultural Practices for erosion control and improve water quality

6 Main Parts of a CNMP

4. Feed Management

5. 5. Record Keeping

6. Alternative Utilization

(Composting, biogas)

1. Manure & Wastewater Storage & Handling• Show that current or planned system is adequate to collect and store the manure• land application of manure according to available equipment and cropping system as

a fertilizer• Manure Storage and Handling Plan will include

– Animal numbers

– Animal types

– Animal weights

– Confinement times

– Manure production volumes

– Nutrient content of wastes

– Number of acres required to apply manure

2. Nutrient Management

• Includes application of all nutrients and organic byproducts– Inorganic Fertilizers– Manures– Municipal sludge

Develop Whole Farm Nutrient Balance for sustainability

Whole Farm Nutrient Balance

Inputs - Outputs = Nutrient Imbalance (Build-up on Farm)

FarmBoundary

Inputs Outputs Feed

Animals

Fertilizer

Meat/Milk/EggsCrops

Manure

Gas Emissions

Nutrient Management

• Nitrogen or Phosphorus application rate?

• How many acres of crops to utilize manure?

• How many animals can farm sustain?

Inputs - Outputs = Nutrient Imbalance (Build-up on Farm)

3. Land Treatment Practices -Good Agricultural Practices

Grassed Waterways

Riparian Zones and Buffers Wind Breaks

Contour Buffer Strips

4. Feed Management

• Feed to optimize production while minimizing environmental impact– Reduce excreted nutrients

5. Record Keeping

• Document Nutrient Management Plan implementation

• Develop historical records for operation

• Required for regulatory approval

6. Alternative Utilization• Consider alternative technologies

– Composting– Anaerobic digestion – Solid/Liquid Separation – Lagoon Amendments

• Iowa State University trains and certifies people to prepare CNMP – Burns and Moody

CNMP Development Training Programs for Certified Trainers

Methodology for Assessment• What is current level of science/knowledge at different

scales?• What methods are used at these scales to create

science based data sets? • What are the gaps? Identify these gaps.

Methodology for assessment

• First develop a baseline data• Multi-country – could be called global• Country level – several basins• Regional level – basin scale• State level – multiple watersheds• Local–lysimeter scale, field plot scale, watershed scale

Methodology for Assessment

• Identify the water bodies for assessment• Clearly identify goals – meeting water quality standards?• Establish a clear implementation plan• Establish an administrative structure to achieve these goals

- EPA, inter-departmental supervisory committee etc.

- Develop policies for providing incentives to watershed

citizens in implementing good agricultural practices

- Technical coordination between monitoring, watershed

citizen groups, and upper administration

- website, data transparency, actions advertised

- provide resources for implementation

Surface and Groundwater Monitoring

• Must establish baseline data for future assessment or want to see changes in the future i.e. after 10 years from the project

• Sampling schedules: Weekly, monthly, 1-2 per year??• Quality VS quantity

For Groundwater sampling:• At what depth would you like to collect water samples?• Shallow depth < 3 m.• Deep groundwater > 3 m.• Monitor at depth increments 5, 10, 15, … 50 m??

• For drinking water wells – weekly/monthly (weekly for public wells, monthly/six month for industrial wells

Methodology for water quality monitoring at local and watershed levels – a catalyst (GEF Projects)

a

ISU MonitoringSites

Backbone Park

Strawberry Point

Arlington

Starmont school

Selecting water quality monitoring sites on rivers within a Selecting water quality monitoring sites on rivers within a watershedwatershed

River Water Monitoring

Iowa Example: Nutrient/Water Quality Assessment/Monitoring Program at the Local State Level - 188 Surface Water Bodies on

Iowa’s List of Impaired Waters

Major Causes of Iowa’s Impaired Waters

Source: IDNR Water Quality Bureauhttp://www.state.ia.us/dnr/organiza/epd/wtresrce/files/tmdl_dev.htm

potentially impacted lake

impacted lake

potentially impacted watershed

potentially impacted stream

impacted watershed

State level assessment methodology:State level assessment methodology: Current Status of Current Status of Iowa LakesIowa Lakes

How do Iowa lakes compare with recommended P criteria?

Assessment at Basin Level – multi-Assessment at Basin Level – multi-statestate

USGS

Area of Hypoxic Zone, 1985-2000Source: N.N. Rabalais, Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, La.

Nitrogen losses to the Mississippi River Basin – US Example

Multi-state/multi-watershed Assessment of Surface Water Quality (sub-basin)

Average annual nitrate concentrations in the Mississippi River Basin in 1905-07 and in 1980-98

• US Example - Involves 59 of nation’s largest river basins and aquifers because of water use needs– intensively study about 20 of the 59 study units at one time– 3-5 years of intensive data collection in each study unit,

followed by 5-6 years of less intensive study….then start over

– re-study each study unit every 10 years to assess trends

• Covers about 1/2 of U.S.• Sources of drinking water for about 70% of U.S.• Correlates water quality with land use

– identifies causes & potential solutions

Water Quality/Nutrient Assessment Program at the National/water basin Level – US and Romania Examples

Source: “Design of national water-quality assessment program” by USGS ( http://water.usgs.gov/public/pubs/circ1112/)

National Water quality Assessment/Monitoring Program

Status of Groundwater Quality Monitoring

USGS

National Water Quality Inventory River & Stream Assessment

National Water Quality Inventory River & Stream Assessment

National Water Quality Inventory Lake & Reservoir Assessment

Use of Computer Models “RZWQM” for Assessments

Infrastructure for Assessment is Needed

i)i) We need to establish infra-structure for Nutrient We need to establish infra-structure for Nutrient assessment to accomplish these goals at various assessment to accomplish these goals at various scales (spatial and temporal). Who will do what scales (spatial and temporal). Who will do what and how things will get accomplished? Agencies and how things will get accomplished? Agencies like EPA and IDNR in the USA. like EPA and IDNR in the USA.

i)i) Try to use good proxies as much as we can Try to use good proxies as much as we can rather than intensive water quality monitoring rather than intensive water quality monitoring programsprograms

i)i) We do have science based computer models to We do have science based computer models to do assessments on a larger scale and integrate do assessments on a larger scale and integrate them from local scales to larger temporal and them from local scales to larger temporal and spatial scales.spatial scales.

Measurements at Temporal and Spatial Scales

• Development of methodologies for measuring water quality indicators at different scales and in a time series way; GEF projects are typically for 5-years where real impact may take 20 years.

• Conduct country wide assessment using Romania as model• Validation of methodology using all GEF funded projects

(like Georgia, Turkey, Romania, Maldova etc.)• Application of the methodology in other GEF projects – need

a infra-structure for projects with additional resources

Conclusions• Science based technologies are available for

nutrient reduction in watersheds• Environmental push by the EU or UNEP or other

national and international Agencies in combination and economic pull to improve farmer’s livelihoods will lead us to improve water quality. But there are two major problems:

- extension/educational programs are lacking to educate farmers on these available technologies on GAPs

- Sound policies and financial incentives are needed for farmers to adopt these technologies. Without farmer participation, nothing will work.