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Eating to be Pretty: Justifications for Using Food for Cosmetic Enhancement

Melissa Rosman

December 13, 2013

STS 200A – Food and Society: Politics, Culture and Technology

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Introduction

For thousands of years, humans have been using substances typically thought of as

“food” items for beautification purposes. In the hopes of improving the appearance of their skin

and hair, people ate certain foods and applied others topically. Though the relationship between

food and beauty is ancient, media sources continue to discuss it today. The majority of this

media is directed toward women and channeled through women’s magazines, major blogs, and

social media networking websites, like Pinterest. As science advances, more knowledge about

the true effects of certain foods on the body increases. This has led to both the strengthening of

arguments for using food cosmetically as well as the debunking of older ideas, often relegated to

being “myths.”

The following research aims to examine articles recommending the usage of food as

beauty products, focusing on skin and hair beauty ideals over weight-related ones. Several

dimensions of the subject will be studied: different justifications for using these ingredients, how

the ingredients are used, and who the authority figures are. While the scientific accuracy of these

recommendations is not the main focus of this research, some consideration of scientific research

is done to problematize particular pieces of advice, particularly in situations where there is

conflicting “evidence” between different articles. My research also looks at changes in the

publication of these articles over time in terms of frequency and content.

My objective with this research is to map out how women are told to incorporate food

products into their beauty routines. In an era of scientific and technological innovation, there are

hundreds of new products being released by the beauty industry every year that have been

engineered to enhance one’s outward appearance, ranging from inexpensive drugstore items to

coveted, high-end ones such as Crème de la Mer. However, there still appears to be a constant

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stream of a more natural, holistic approach to beauty. Through my data collection and literature

review, I intend to explore the use of food products for the enhancement of one’s appearance,

how they have been propagated and justified over time, why publishers continue to create related

content, and the relevant impact on the wider beauty industry.

Historical Background

Food and Beauty in Ancient Civilization

The use of food products for cosmetic purposes has been traced back to ancient Egypt,

where Cleopatra’s legendary milk baths originated. These milk baths softened the skin by

exfoliating. Scientific research today shows that milk contains alpha hydroxy acid, which is the

component that acts as an exfoliant for dead skin cells (Rose). Cleopatra is often depicted as a

beautiful, powerful woman, which has likely contributed to the wider adoption and belief in the

effectiveness of her beauty rituals, such as this one.

Another food product that has historically been used for beauty is honey. When applied

to the skin, it attracts and retains moisture, which keeps the skin looking smoother and younger.

The technical term for this property is “humectant,” though the exact chemistry behind honey’s

workings may not have been known by its ancient consumers. In addition to its moisturizing

benefits, honey also works as an antiseptic and contains nutrients and enzymes (Garret 75).

The third Egyptian beauty trick was using olive oil, which has been identified as another

one of Cleopatra’s secrets. Olive oil – which may also be applied to the hair – acts as a natural

moisturizer. Like milk and honey, olive oil can enhance the look of skin by making it softer and

smoother, resulting in a more youthful appearance. The ancient Greeks and Romans also used

olive oil to treat the skin (Rose).

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In addition to these foods, herbs and other essential oils have also historically been used

for cosmetic purposes. Substances such as coconut oil, green tea leaves, and sandalwood have

been mixed into baths, teas, and other treatments to improve physical appearance. Scientists

have attached specific qualitative terms to herbs and oils like antioxidizing, noncomedogenic,

and circulatory (Gediya, Mistry, Patel, Blessy & Jain). More nutrients and compounds are being

identified in different foods, contributing to a growing awareness and better understanding of

how the things we put on and in our bodies can help or harm us.

The Modern Cosmetic Industry

According to IBISWorld, the multibillion-dollar U.S. cosmetic market has been growing

since 2010 (after struggling between 2008 and 2009) and is projected to continue growing in the

future. In 2013 alone, the cosmetic manufacturing industry has made an estimated $48 billion in

revenue, driven by a gradual increase in disposable income and an industry push for product

development to create more diverse, high-quality products (“Cosmetic & Beauty Products

Manufacturing in the US”). The industry has also been taking note of public awareness

regarding natural versus synthetic products, and more “natural” cosmetics lines are emerging

from both niche and mainstream brands. For example, the common drugstore brand Physician’s

Formula has an “Organic Wear” line that claims to be “100% Natural Origin Makeup” and

“good for your skin and good for the environment” (“Organic Wear®”).

Smaller brands like Lavera and Ecco Bella specialize in natural and organic beauty

products. While these two companies are not readily found in beauty retailers, another natural

beauty brand has risen to mainstream popularity relatively quickly. Yes To has created several

lines with different spotlight ingredients and benefits: carrots (“nourishing”), cucumbers

(“soothing”), grapefruit (“correct and repair”), blueberries (“age refresh”), tomatoes (“clear

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skin”), and baby carrots (for sensitive skin). According to their website, the company has

become a “global leader in natural beauty” and can be found all over the world not only in small

stores, but big-box retailers as well (“Our Story”). Following the industry’s increased interest in

research and development, more products labeled as “natural” may become available.

Data and Methods

Glamour, a popular, nationally distributed women’s lifestyle magazine, was the main

source used for data collection. This monthly periodical covers many aspects of a typical

woman’s life: fashion, beauty, health, work, relationships, food, well-being, and other general

news. Its main demographic is women between the ages of 18 to 49. According to their

statistics, 68% of their readers have had some degree of college education and 67% are employed

(“Media Kit”). As is standard for many similar women’s magazines, Glamour is filled with

advertisements from cosmetic, fashion, and other lifestyle-related companies. Compared to

Vogue (usually associated with fashion) or Cosmopolitan (infamous for its provocative headlines

for sex advice), Glamour does not have a particularly strong stereotype, making it a relatively

balanced choice for sourcing relevant articles.

The time periods examined included 1977 – 1986 and 2002 – 20131. There were a total

of 249 monthly issues examined and 63 articles analyzed and coded. Articles were included for

data if they mentioned the use of any food product for the purpose of improving the condition of

one’s skin or hair. The articles were coded according to their framing, how certain foods were to

be used, and who (if any) the mentioned authority figures were. The data was then analyzed for

patterns in content as well as patterns over time. Below is a table of statistics from the coding

data collected (See Appendix A for a more detailed codebook explanation):

1 Some issues were not counted in the 2002 – 2013 period due to incomplete library records; see Appendix C for list

of undocumented issues. The 2013 issues examined run through October 2013.

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CODE NUMBER OF ARTICLES FREQENCY

THRIFTINESS 6 9.5%

NATURAL/ORGANIC 9 14.3%

MYTH DEBUNKING 6 9.5%

DIY 28 44.4%

NUTRITIONISM 24 38.1%

EXTERNAL USAGE 36 57.1%

INTERNAL USAGE 18 28.6%

DOCTOR/EXPERT REFERENCE 17 27.0%

BRAND-AFFILIATED REFERENCE 12 19.0%

CELEBRITY REFERENCE 5 7.9%

Literature Review

Nutritionism

The nutritional benefits of foods are often used as justification or “proof” for why they

should be used in one’s beauty regimen. Desirable nutrients from protein to vitamin E to citric

acid and beyond are found in common, unprocessed food items, and many claims had been made

for beautification inside and out. This focus on nutritional content echoes the “nutritionism”

ideology that Michael Pollan writes about. He describes the main assumption of nutritionism to

be that “Foods are essentially the sum of their nutrient parts,” and that “From this basic premise

flow several others” (Pollan 28). Articles that advocate the use of food for cosmetic purposes

follow this framework by emphasizing the nutrients in certain foods and extolling their effects on

one’s skin and hair. By conditioning hair with protein-rich eggs, one’s hair – which is

constructed mostly of protein – can grow stronger; by eating antioxidant-rich foods, one reduces

the danger of developing wrinkles. Whether the food product takes action internally or

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externally, expert opinions will point out the specific components that contribute to enhanced

beauty.

Though it is true that foods contain all sorts of good things for the body, not all scientists

will agree that they can be translated and applied directly to skin care and hair care. In fact, there

seems to be no definitive “answer” about the relationship between diet and its potential cosmetic

effects. A consulting professor from the Department of Dermatology at Duke University writes

that “while eating a ‘well-balanced’ diet is considered to be the best way to improve skin

appearance, it is unclear exactly what constitutes a well-balanced diet” (Draelos 270). She

continues, pointing out vitamin D as one of the questionable nutrients in one’s beauty diet.

According to her article, vitamin D deficiency has been linked to bone loss (among other health

concerns), which in turn ties into bone structures that provide support for beautiful skin.

However, as women age, they would technically need more than five times the

recommended daily allowance of vitamin D in order to properly prevent a deficiency (Draelos

270). Because getting that much vitamin D would otherwise take a massive daily intake of dairy

products, this is a case in which women may want to take a vitamin D supplement. Another

article, which specifically focuses on acne-related issues, states that “There are, perhaps

surprisingly, few studies that examine the role of diet in acne” and that three studies that

examined the effects of eating chocolate were either uncontrolled or did not result in any

differences (Magin, Pond, Smith & Watson 63).These are only two examples, but they reveal

how complicated the idea of eating one’s way to better hair and skin is and how much research

there is left to do.

In addition to picking up on specific nutrients, magazine articles in particular perpetuate

another claim Pollan makes about nutritionism, which is that journalists act as the information

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channel between scientists and the public (Pollan 28). While this particular case may not

necessarily be dangerous to peoples’ health, realizing that one cannot take every journalist’s

claims at face-value is important. Because the writers themselves may not be scientists, it is

possible that they repurpose scientific information to reach their own goals. For example, a

journalist may refer to research saying that protein intake may improve hair growth and

extrapolate it to mean that any kind of protein, applied in any manner, will make hair healthier

and more beautiful. This trap can be especially tricky in women’s magazines, where products

that may contain protein and make similar claims are often advertised alongside advice columns.

A “Natural” Lifestyle

Another justification is that using certain foods for cosmetic enhancement is more

“natural” and therefore healthier. In a time when awareness and wariness of genetically

modified organisms is growing, the movement for products branded with the words “natural” or

“organic” seeps into a variety of industries, including the cosmetic industry. However, as in the

food industry, it has become increasingly difficult for consumers to find completely pure

products. As noted in the introduction, smaller companies are finding ways to create organic,

natural, and even vegan cosmetics, but products like these are far from common and not always

easily accessible.

Because genetically modified (GM) foods were not introduced into the U.S. market until

the 1990s, an emphasis on the natural- or organic-ness of food products before that decade is not

expected. As Jasanoff writes, “The demarcation between the natural and the unnatural in any

society is not given in advance but is crafted through situated, culturally specific forms of

boundary work” (Jasanoff 131). These boundaries did not exist prior to the 1990s, therefore I

was not expecting to encounter this category of justification. However, as time and society

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progresses, these boundaries become more defined. As the FDA struggled in the 1990s to deal

with the emergence of modified foods, it may face problems with the growing natural cosmetic

industry and consumer demand for more product knowledge. By suggesting a beauty treatment

using only raw fruit products, magazines are able to bypass some of the ambiguity in the natural

makeup space and appeal to those who want to avoid synthetics.

Women, Food, Beauty

The final part of this literature review takes a closer look at the relationship between

women, food, and beauty. I have identified two major aspects of this relationship: the

performativity of women with regards to their desire for conventional beauty and the historical,

stereotypical ties they have to food preparation. The cosmetic space is highly gendered, and

these considerations are particularly relevant because similar beautification articles aimed at men

are much less common.

First, women have long been prone to manipulating their diets to reach their cultures’

beauty ideas. Brumberg writes about the development of anorexia as a disease in females and

how such a definition was created over time and cultural changes. In her book, she says that “In

thinking about anorexia nervosa and its relation to food, we need to explore more than questions

of availability or nutritional value” (Brumberg 4). Though not as extreme as anorexia, other

beauty-related benefits gained via diet or topical product application should also be questioned

outside of availability and nutrition. In contemporary America, being thin is an ideal that hang

over the heads of many females, from young girls to grown women. Other ideals are smooth,

young-looking skin and silky hair, qualities which are as prevalent as skinniness in advertising

and women’s advice columns. In terms of performativity, women are expected to take care of

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themselves and look a certain, feminine way. By participating in beauty trends and regimens,

women perpetuate this performativity.

The second aspect addresses the relationship women have with food preparation.

DeVault writes about recognizing “women’s work,” and that “in many settings the work of

producing, processing, distributing, and serving foods provides a valued identity or a kind of

power for women” (Devault 232). Here, it seems that DeVault indicates that in the act of

performing stereotypical “womanly” activities, women may form their identities as food

handlers. Perhaps it is something about the comfort that women are supposed to have in the

kitchen that makes using food for beauty more attractive, as it is familiar. For example, articles

often suggest mixing one’s own facial or hair masks – typical preparation, as if every woman is

already used to following recipes in her kitchen. In general, it is primarily women who are

portrayed in movies, television shows, and advertisements as the facial mask users and seekers of

pampering. With a few handy recipes, a woman can create her own relaxation outside of the spa,

in the comfort of her own kitchen.

Analysis

Though nutritionism started to pick up and become more evident in the supermarkets of

the 1980s, I was surprised to find that there were very few articles to be found in Glamour at the

time regarding food and beauty (Pollan 19). The following chart shows the number of food-

related articles in Glamour magazine between 1977 and 1986:

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While looking through these old issues, I readjusted my parameters for “food-related

articles.” When I started my research, I originally only wanted to consider “foods” as things that

one would normally eat raw, a group from which I excluded herbs. However, the few articles I

came across were more heavily interested in herbal effects. I extended the category to include

them for all time periods. Because herbs have historically been used to enhance beauty, I felt

that this was an appropriate modification to my methods.

Overall, the lack of relevant articles in this time period indicates that Glamour readers

were relatively unconcerned with using food products to look better in a cosmetic sense. Rather,

food-related articles revolved mostly around being a good hostess, cooking a delicious meal, and

weight control (both gaining and losing weight). Only two of the surveyed articles addressed the

effects of diet on the skin. As further evidence that one cannot be sure of dietary effects, these

two articles actually contradicted each other. An article from May 1984 states that one should

“Moisturize from the inside out…The softness of your skin varies with the amount of water in its

outer layers. When water makes up 10 percent of its weight, skin looks smooth, healthy”

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1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

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(Chatelain). On the contrary, a March 1986 issue tells readers that “Drinking lots of fluids to

moisturize skin from the inside out is useless,” and “Feeding skin internally with specific

vitamins will not provide it with the right amount of necessary nutrients” (“Beauty Smarts:

Update Your Skincare Routine!”). The effects of water actually appear to be the most

controversial, even in modern times, with experts continuing to disagree about whether or not

drinking more actually affects the skin.

For this time period, the most popular method was using topical applications of food

products, whether in a mask or in a bath. However, the general inclination of Glamour in the

late 1970s to mid-1980s was to recommend buying specific products over using a do-it-yourself

remedy. Very often, I would come across a title that sounded promising, such as April 1977’s

“The First Beauty and Health Makeover Diet,” to find that there was no mention of the actual

diet in relation to skin or hair improvements (“The First Beauty and Health Makeover Diet”).

On the other hand, the 21st century brought on more frequent articles that involved food

products and cosmetic improvement. Because there was such a drastic change in frequency

between these time periods, I assume that this trend began picking up pace sometime during the

1990s2. The following is a chart with the number of food-and-beauty articles from issues

sampled between 2002 and 2013:

2 Due to time and resource access restrictions, I was not able to collect data from 1987 to 2002.

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As in the previous time period, the majority of advice relates to external application of

food products to the body. Of the articles, 41% touch on diet and cosmetic appearance,

compared to a mere 8.3% in the earlier period. In this the more recent period, the popular beauty

diet foods are those containing protein and fat. There is more consistency in opinions there, with

no articles “debunking” the benefits of adding some related foods to the diet. However, though

science and knowledge about nutritional value in foods have undoubtedly developed between

this time period and the previous one, only 43.6% gave “nutritionistic” explanations for using

certain foods in this period. That is, they specifically pointed out specific nutrients that would

result in certain improvements.

It is unclear why a scientific explanation is not included for every suggested food.

However, given space constraints on a magazine page, I suspect that using the term

“moisturizing” optimizes space and gets the message across quicker than something like “rich in

skin-repairing vitamin E” (Guglielmetti). In a less optimistic light, this type of writing may also

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be happening because the editors have decided that women are not interested in the real science

behind the workings of the human body.

Thriftiness was a justification that I was particularly interested in tracking during this

time period, considering the Great Recession that was particularly poignant between 2007 and

2009. From the previous chart, it appears as though there was no significant increase in such

articles. In fact, there was only one article in 2008 that talked about using food for beauty, and

its justifications had nothing to do with thriftiness. Perhaps Glamour saw value in suggesting

money-saving tips in other lifestyle areas, or maybe they wanted to maintain an idea that

pampering oneself is worth the price, no matter the economic circumstances.

Overall, the data collected reveals that while using food as a beauty product was not

popular in Glamour during the late 1970s and mid-1980s, it became more frequent in the

following decades. In the first time period, 20% of articles mentioned food (including herbs) to

be used for cosmetic purposes, compared to just over 30% in the more recent time period.

Additionally, referring to doctors or other experts (dermatologists, nutritionists, etc.) as a source

of information seems to have become more popular. Whereas only 8.3% of the first period

articles referred to an expert, over 38.5% of the other period’s article asked for an expert opinion.

Because only one publication was considered for this research, I cannot conclude

definitively that this is a new phenomenon. It is known that food products have long been used

for cosmetic purposes, so it is unlikely that these habits ceased to exist in specific decades.

Rather, other societal priorities may have been more important, reflected in the content of

Glamour during those times.

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Beyond Glamour

Of course, there are many sources outside of Glamour where women may find the

information they are looking for when it comes to eating to make themselves look better. With

the explosion of internet use, nearly anyone can post their own beauty recipes for the world to

see. Popular women’s blogs consistently publish headlines that become nearly repetitive, such

as “The Kick-Ass Skin Diet,” “Beauty Diets? How These Health Tomes Stack Up,” and

“Breaking Out? Here’s What You Should Eat”3. Social networking websites like Pinterest also

offer countless beauty food tips and tricks shared by users, particularly under the “Hair &

Beauty” category. When everyone has something to say every day, there is a virtually endless

flow of articles telling women how their food can make them prettier.

This research also specifically addressed women and women’s publications. While most

beauty-related content is targeted at women, men also have publications that cater to their

cosmetic interests. A quick Google Trends search resulted in the following graph:

Source: Google Trends, 12 December 2013

3 All Refinery29 (www.refinery29.com); published 17 Oct 2013, 21 Oct 2013 and 5 Dec 2013, respectively.

healthy skin for men healthy hair for men healthy skin for women healthy hair for women

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This chart shows the interest in these search terms over time. While “healthy hair for

women” tops all of the others, there is obviously an interest in male hair and skin health. Google

searches for “healthy skin for men” and “healthy hair for men” return results from male-centric

publications such as Men’s Health and Men’s Journal, though there are less results than the

corresponding women’s searches, as shown in this table (see Appendix D for more).

Conclusion

Overall, Glamour suggested several justifications and techniques for using foods as

beauty enhancers. Actual publication of this information varies over time, with a higher

frequency of relevant articles within the most recent decade. Scientific discoveries and socio-

economic factors have likely influenced the publication of such articles. The more we learn

about how food products can truly affect the body, whether more effective from the inside or on

the outside, the more options we may have in the cosmetics market. If larger manufacturers

develop more “natural” beauty products with recognizable ingredients, they could increase their

profits by appealing to those concerned about using synthetic products in and on their bodies.

Going into the beauty aisle could become more similar to entering the produce section at the

grocery store in that the consumer will be able to choose between chemically engineered

products and ones that are natural or organic. In the end, if everything becomes too

overwhelming, there’s always the option for a good, old-fashioned milk bath.

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References

“Beauty Smarts: Update Your Skincare Routine!” Glamour March 1986: 309, 349-350.

Brumberg, Joan Jacobs. Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa. New York: Vintage

Books, 1988/2000.

Chatelain, Alex. “Get Ready Now: Hot Beauty Scoops to Summer-ize Your Looks.” Glamour

May 1984: 296-301.

“Cosmetic & Beauty Products Manufacturing in the US.” IBISWorld. IBISWorld, November

2013. 11 December 2013.

<http://clients1.ibisworld.com/reports/us/industry/default.aspx?entid=499>.

Devault, Marjorie. Feeding the Family: The Social Organization of Caring as Gendered Work.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Draelos, Zoe Diana. “Cosmetics, diet, and the future.” Dermatologic Therapy 25 (2012): 267-

272. 11 December 2013. <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1529-

8019.2012.01500.x/pdf>.

Garrett, Ginger. Beauty Secrets of the Bible: The Ancient Arts of Beauty and Fragrance.

Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2007.

Gediya, Shweta K., Rajan B. Mistry, Urvashi K. Patel, M. Blessy and Hitesh N. Jain. “Herbal

Plants: Used as a cosmetics.” Scholars Research Library (2008): 24-32. 9 December

2013. < http://scholarsresearchlibrary.com/JNPPR-vol1-iss1/JNPPR-2011-1-1-24-

32.pdf>.

Guglielmetti, Petra. “Your Top Beauty Problems Solved for $9, $4, FREE!” Glamour July 2009:

150.

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Jasanoff, Sheila. Designs on Nature: Science and Democracy in Europe and the United States.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.

Magin, Parker, Dimity Pond, Wayne Smith and Alan Watson. “A systematic review of the

evidence for ‘myths and misconceptions’ in acne management: diet, face-washing and

sunlight.” Family Pratice 22.1 (2005): 62-70. 11 December 2013.

<http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/content/22/1/62.full.pdf+html>.

"Organic Wear®." Physicians Formula. Physicians Formula, Inc., n.d. 11 Dec. 2013.

<http://www.physiciansformula.com/en-us/product-line/organic-wear.html>.

"Our Story." Yes To™. Yes To, Inc., n.d. 11 Dec. 2013. <http://www.yestocarrots.com/our-

story.html>.

Pollan, Michael. In Defense of Food: An Eater's Manifesto. New York: Penguin, 2008.

Rose, Ellen. "Beauty Secrets from Ancient Egypt." Holistic Health Magazine. Holistic Health

Magazine, Inc., 16 Mar. 2013. 17 Oct. 2013. <http://holistichealthmagazine.info/beauty-

secrets-from-ancient-egypt/>.

“The First Beauty and Health Makeover Diet.” Glamour April 1977: 218-221.

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Appendix

Appendix A

Codebook Definitions

CODE DESCRIPTION

THRIFTINESS Explicitly refers to saving money with their recommendation

NATURAL/ORGANIC Explicitly refers to benefits of natural/organic products

MYTH DEBUNKING Debunks/criticizes previous reports

DIY Clear motivation is novelty of DIY

NUTRITIONISM Explicitly uses scientific knowledge to justify

EXTERNAL USAGE Topical application (e.g. masks, washes)

INTERNAL USAGE Dietary recommendations

DOCTOR/EXPERT REFERENCE Refers to a doctor/similarly qualified expert

BRAND-AFFILIATED REFERENCE Refers to someone related to a brand (i.e. day spa CEO)

CELEBRITY REFERENCE Advice comes from a celebrity

Appendix B

Glamour Codebook Breakdown by Time Period

CODE 1977-1986

% IN

PERIOD 2002-2013

% IN

PERIOD

THRIFTINESS 1 4.2% 5 12.8%

NATURAL/ORGANIC 5 20.8% 4 10.3%

MYTH DEBUNKING 4 16.7% 2 5.1%

DIY 11 45.8% 17 43.6%

NUTRITIONISM 7 29.2% 17 43.6%

EXTERNAL USAGE 14 58.3% 22 56.4%

INTERNAL USAGE 2 8.3% 16 41.0%

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DOCTOR/EXPERT REFERENCE 2 8.3% 15 38.5%

BRAND-AFFILIATED REFERENCE 0 0.0% 12 30.8%

CELEBRITY REFERENCE 1 4.2% 4 10.3%

Appendix C

Glamour Issues Not Considered in Data Set (due to unavailability)

YEAR MONTHS

2002 February, March, May

2003 April, May, June, July, October

2004 May, June, July, September, October, November

2005 February, March, April, June

2006 February

Appendix D

Table of Sample Google Search Results (Searched on 12 December 2013)

SEARCH TERM APPROX. NUMBER OF RESULTS

HEALTHY SKIN FOR MEN 79,100,000

HEALTHY HAIR FOR MEN 98,100,000

HEALTHY SKIN FOR WOMEN 95,300,000

HEALTHY HAIR FOR WOMEN 131,000,000