MegapoliPM2.5/PM10 emissions

24-30 June 2009

Anthropogenic (TNO)

MegapoliPM2.5/PM10 concentrations

24-30 June 2009

SURFPro

MINNI 2005: Uso degli algoritmi implementati nel modello per la stima delle emissioni naturali

Camillo Silibello

ENEA, Riunione plenaria MINNI - Bologna, 4 marzo 2010

Resuspension of particles by wind and turbulence

*

Vautard et al., 2005Bulk resuspension scheme

43.1*u)w(FfF

where F is tht dry soil resuspension flux [g m-2 h-1], f(w) is a function of the soil water: f(w)=0 when w > 0.2 kg kg-1; f(w)=1 when w < 0.1 kg kg-1; between these values a linear interpolation is performed to compute f(w).2/3 of emissions are attributed to the fine mode (< 2.5 m) and 1/3 to the coarse mode (2.5-10 m)

*

where is the sandblasting mass efficiency (=5x10-5), fb is the fraction of bare ground where dust is available for entrainment and fc is the crustation factor. The product fb fc is taken constant over land and is tuned to optimize the model/observation correlations (=4x10-3). k is the von Karman constant (=0.4),

Vautard et al., 2005Bulk erosion scheme

“…our goal is not to develop a sophisticated erosion scheme for temperate regions …”

w

t

s

s

t

scbas

fuu

wuz

ku

u

uuff

g

CF

0*,*

5.02*

2

0*,

2*,

2

*3*,

2.1/10ln

1

z0 is the saltation roughness length (=5x10-4 m), w* the convective velocity scale (m s-1), fw is the soil moisture factor and u*,0 is the minimal u* for dust entrainment over soil (=0.1 m s-1). When w > 0.2 kg kg-1 dust emissions are set to zero and kept as the scheme calculates when w < 0.16 kg kg-1; between these values a linear interpolation is performed.50% of emissions are attributed to 10-40 m mode, 45% to 2.5-10 m mode and 5% to fine mode.

*

Dust emissionsFINE fraction (Vautard et al.)

*

Dust emissionsCOARSE fraction (Vautard et al.)

*

Dust emissionsLARGE fraction (Vautard et al.)

Theory

*

REFERENCESMaB95 B. Marticorena and G. Bergametti, Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 1-Design of a soil

derived dust production scheme, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 16415-16430, 1995 MaB97a B. Marticorena, G. Bergametti, B. Aumont, Y. Callot, C. N'Doumé and M. Legrand,

Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 2-Simulations of Saharan dust sources, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 4387-4404, 1997

MaB97b B. Marticorena, G. Bergametti, D. A. Gillette and J. Belnap, Factors controlling threshold friction velocity in semiarid and arid areas of the United States, J. Geophys.Res., 102, 23277-23287, 1997

FMB99 F. Fécan, B. Marticorena and G. Bergametti Parameterization of the increase of the aeolian erosion threshold wind friction due to soil moisture for semi-arid areas, Annales Geophysicae, 17, 149-157, 1999.

Vau05 R. Vautard, B. Bessagnet, M. Chin, L. Menut On the contribution of natural Aeolian sources to particulate matter concentrations in Europe: Testing hypotheses with a modelling approach, Atmospheric Environment, 39, 3291-3303 (2005).

NKP01 S. Nickovic, G. Kallos, A. Papadopoulos, O. Kakaliagou A model for prediction of desert dust

cycle in the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 106, D16, 18113-18129, 2001

ZBN03 Zender, C. S., H. Bian, and D. Newman, Mineral Dust Entrainment And Deposition (DEAD) model: Description and 1990s dust climatology, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D14), 4416

ChF08 Yu-Jin Choi and H.J.S. Fernando Implementation of a windblown dust parameterization into

MODELS-3/CMAQ: Application to episodic PM events in the US/Mexico border, Atmospheric Environment, 42, 6039-6046 (2008).

ShL00 Yaping Shao and Hua Lu A simple expression for wind erosion threshold frictionvelocity. J. Geophys. Res., 105, D17, PAGES 22,437-22,443, SEPTEMBER 16, 2000

Particle motionCREEP

Too large or too heavy to be lifted from the

surface, roll and creep along the surface

Dp >2000 m

SALTATION

Able to be lifted from the surface at a height of some tenth of cm. Since the drag is not

sufficient to exceed the weight they are carried downwind back to the

surface

60 < Dp < 2000 m

SUSPENSION

Small enough to be transported upward by

turbulent eddies

Dp < 60 m

Particle motionSANDBLASTING

Lift by wind shear Lift by saltation of large particles

blasting

suspension

The movement of fine particles is not initiated directly by the wind friction on the erodible surface (strong cohesion forces linking them

to each other) and requires sandblasting or bombardment processes to disrupt the aggregates and produce dust particles that

will be set in suspension.

Horizontal flux (saltation)The friction velocity u* is the fundamental quantity determining dust emissions. The horizontal flux (saltation) is given by the following functional form (g, cm, s units):

s*,

t*

3s*,as

h u

u

g

uCQ

*

where Cs is a constant equal to 2.61, a is the air density (0.001227 g cm-3), u*,s the saltation friction velocity (cm s-1), g the gravity acceleration (980 cm s-2) and a functional form whose role is to suppress emissions when saltation friction velocity is below its threshold value:

1993,Shao;u

u1

u

u1

1979,White;u

u1

u

u1

uu,0

u

u

s*,

t*

s*,

t*

2

s*,

t*

s*,

t*

t*s*,

s*,

t*

Threshold friction velocity u*t

Following Marticorena et al. (1995) u*t is given by the following expression (g, cm, s

units):

10Re0617.0exp0858.01K129.0

1Re928.1

K129.0

u

t*

5.0092.0t*t

*

0.03 < Re*t10

Re*t>10

baDDu

Re

gD

006.01

gDK

xp

pt*

t*

5.0

pp

5.0

a

pp

with:

where p and Dp are respectively the particle density (2.65 g cm-3) and diameter. Re*t is the friction Reynold number where is the kinematic viscosity of air.0.006 is g cm0.5 s-2, all other are dimensionless.In the approximate expression a=1331, b=0.38 and x =1.56.

Threshold friction velocity u*t

Following Shao and Lu (2000) u*t is given by the following expression (g, cm, s

units):

5.0

paa

ppN

t* D

gDAu

where AN =0.0123 and =0.3 g s-2.

Threshold friction velocity u*t

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0

Dp [m]

u*t [

cm

/s]

strong cohesion forces linking fine

particles each other

Minimum at about D0=75 m

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0

Marticorena et al. 1995 Shao et al. 2000

The optimal particle size for saltation D0 occurs where u*t is at minimum. Following

Marticorena et al.(1995) all soils in erodible regions contains particles of size D0, so that saltation is initiated whenever u*

> u*t(D0)

u*t dependency on roughness length

Saltating grains, alternating contact with the the surface and the air, remove momentum from the air and thus produce a sort of resistance to the wind. The presence in soils of nonerodible elements affects the erosion threshold by two ways: 1) roughness elements cover part of the surface and thus protect it from aeolian erosion; 2) consume part of the momentum that will not be available to initiate particle motion. This process is expressed as an increase fd in the threshold friction velocity to saltation:

1

8.0

sm,0

sm,0

m,0

d

z1.0

35.0ln

z

zln

1f

where 0.1 m. Zender at al. have proposed following values for z0,m (roughness length for momentum transfer) and zs

0,m (“smooth” roughness length) 100 m and 33.3 m (10 m Marticorena et al.)

u*t dependency on soil

moistureWind erosion threshold increase with increasing soil moisture, due to interparticle forces. This process is expressed as an increase fw in the threshold friction velocity due to soil moisture:

5.068.0'21.11

1

wwfw

w < w’

w > w’

Fecan et al. (1999) proposed the calculation of w’ as a function of clay content in soil:

(%clay) 0.17- (%clay) 0.0014 ' 2 w

Owen effect

Saltation increases friction speed by roughening surface ("Owen's effect“). Increase in friction velocity due to saltation varies as square of difference between reference wind speed and reference threshold speed:

u -u0.3u = u

u

uu = u

2t10,10*s*,

*

t*

10t10,

Land use constraint

Significant dust plumes emanate from completely barren regions (e.g. deserts) However there are significant sources of dust in semi-arid regions where vegetation may act as a primary dust constraint. The fraction of bare soil suitable for mobilization Am is the maximally overlapped product of the fractions of dry ground, ground not covered with snow, nonurban and nonvegetated ground (Zender et al., 2003):

urbanvegetsnowwaterm AAAAA 1111

*

Soil Texture(FAO Soil data)

Two ASCII files which contains the depth and particle size information (SOILDATA.NEW) and the 1x1 degree ocean/continental coding and Zoblers World soil file data (CONTZOB.LER).

Webb, Robert S., Rosenzweig, Cynthia E., and Levine, Elissa, R. "A Global Data Set of Soil Particle Size Properties". NASA Technical Memorandum 4286

*

- 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 02 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

0

0 . 0 5

0 . 1

0 . 1 5

0 . 2

0 . 2 5

0 . 3

0 . 3 5

0 . 4

0 . 4 5

0 . 5

0 . 5 5

0 . 6

0 . 6 5

0 . 7

0 . 7 5

Clay fraction

Soil Texture

*

Nickovic et al. (2001) have classified particle emanating from desert soils into four classes, based on the contents of clay, silt (50% small and 50% large silt) and sand.

Type Particle radius

[m]

Particle density [g cm-3]

CLAY 0.73 2.50 0.08

SILT, small 6.10 2.65 1.00

SILT, large 18.00 2.65 1.00

SAND 38.00 2.65 0.12

is the ratio between the mass available for uplift and the total mass

The horizontal (saltation) mass flux Qh is converted to a vertical dust mass flux F with an efficiency called sandblasting mass efficiency =F/Qh. Observations reveal that F exhibits high sensitivity to parent soil texture. Chemical analysis of desert aerosol samples indicates that these dust particles are mainly composed of aluminosilicated components indicating that the soil fraction able to deliver fine particles id the clay fraction. Following expression is used to estimates :

6 - clay,20.)0.134min(% )(log10

0.E+00

1.E-04

2.E-04

3.E-04

4.E-04

5.E-04

6.E-04

00.

010.

020.

030.

040.

050.

060.

070.

080.

09 0.1

0.11

0.12

0.13

0.14

0.15

0.16

0.17

0.18

0.19 0.

2

Soil clay content [fraction]

F/G

[c

m-1

]

Sandblasting mass efficiency

Shao,hsoilmsoil QETAF

where E is the erodibility factor (0.13 Liu and Westphal, 2001), soil is the ratio between the mass available for uplift and the total mass for each soil type, T is a tuning factor (a posteriori =7x10-4, Zender et al., 2003 ) and is the sandblasting mass efficiency. According to Zender et al. (2003) the erodibility is set to zero along coasts and north of 60°N.

Vertical flux

The vertical dust mass flux F [g m-2 s-1] is given by the following expression Zender et al., 2003 :

wdt*

t* ffuu

u -u0.3u = u 2t10,10*s*,

Tests MINNI domain, 2005

*

Soil compositionCLAY

*

Soil compositionSILT

*

Soil compositionSAND

*

Soil compositionSAND

FAO vs Soil Atlas

FAO

Soil Atlas

*

Dust emissions [t/y]FINE fraction (Vautard et al.)

*

Dust emissions [t/y] FINE fraction (T=2x10-4)

*

Dust emissions [t/y] FINE fraction (T=7x10-4)

*

Dust emissions [t/y] - ResuspensionFINE fraction

*

Dust emissions [t/y]COARSE fraction (Vautard et al.)

*

Dust emissions [t/y] COARSE fraction (T=2x10-4)

*

Dust emissions [t/y] COARSE fraction (T=7x10-4)

*

Dust emissions [t/y] - ResuspensionCOARSE fraction

Sea Salts emissions

*

REFERENCES

Alduchov and Eskridge (1996) Improved Magnus Form Approximations of Saturation Vapor Pressure, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 35, 601-609.

Binkowski F.S. and S.J. Roselle (2003) Models-3 Community Multiscale Air

Quality (CMAQ) model aerosol component 1: Model Description, J. Geophys. Res., 108, D6, 4183.

Seinfeld, J.H. and S.N. Pandis (1998) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics - from

air pollution to climate change, John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

Zhang, K.M., E.M. Knipping, A.S. Wexler, P.V. Bhave, G.S. Tonnesen (2005) Size distribution of sea-salt emissions as a function of relative humidity, Atmospheric Environment, 39, 3373-3379.

*

Sea salts emissions [t/y]FINE fraction

*

Sea salts emissions [t/y]COARSE fraction

Vegetation

*

Theory

VOClandland

VOClandemissions DVOC

According to ANPA (2001) VOC emissions [g m-2 h-1] from vegetation are given by:

where is the emission potential potential [g g h-1] associated with land use

categories, D the foliar density [g m-2] and is a complex factor depending on temperature and solar radiation. Isoprene emissions occur between April and October and during daylight, while monoterpenes emissions have no time dependency.

ANPA (2001) Linee Guida agli Inventari Locali di emissioni in Atmosfera, RTI CTN_ACE 3/2001

*

Theory

*

ISOPRENE emissions [t/y]

*

MONOTERPENES emissions [t/y]

NO from soils

According to Williams et al. (1992) NO emissions [ngN m-2 s-1] from soils are given by:

landairlandland

soil

T*0.071seasonland

season,landemissions

bTaT

eNOlandsoil

where the seasonal modulation and , Tsoil, a and b respectively the emission factor [ngN m-2 s-1], soil temperature [°C], and soil temperature parameters associated with land use categories.

E.J.Williams, A. Guenther, F.C. Fehsenfeld (1992) An Inventory of Nitric Oxide Emissions from soils in the United States, J. Geophys. Res., 97, D7, 7511-7519.

Theory

*

Theory

*

NO emissions [t/y]

!============================================================================! Biogenic/natural emissions!============================================================================

IOUTBIOVOC = 1 ! (0/1) = flag to activate biogenic VOC emissions moduleIOUTBIONO = 1 ! (0/1) = flag to activate biogenic NO emissions moduleIOUTBIODUST = 1 ! (0/1) = flag to activate natural dust emissions moduleIOUTBIOSSALT = 1 ! (0/1) = flag to activate sea salt emissions module

AEOLIAN_SCHEME = 2 ! (0/1/2) = flag to activate aeolian emissions : ! 0=no aeolian erosion ; ! 1=Vautard et al. 2005 ; ! 2=Marticorena et al., 1995 + other works

TUNING_FACT = 7e-4 ! Tuning factor if AEOLIAN_SCHEME = 2 (Zender et al., 2003: 7.e-4)

SOIL_DIR = ../../FAO/ ! Directory containing Global Soil data (FAO) (dummy do not use)

CLAY_SCAL = 0.18SILT_SCAL = 0.35SAND_SCAL = 0.47

IRESUSP = 0 ! (0/1) = flag to activate resuspension emissions using Vautard et al. 2005 method

SURFPro 3Initialization file

Dust emissions Sensitivity Tests Megapoli domain

1-7 July 2009

*

Soil compositionCLAY

*

Soil compositionSILT

*

Soil compositionSAND

*

Dust emissionsFINE fraction (T=7x10-4)

*

Dust emissionsFINE fraction (constant soil)

CLAY= 0.18SILT = 0.35SAND= 0.47

*

Dust emissionsFINE fraction (T=2x10-4)

*

Dust emissionsFINE fraction (Vautard et al.)

*

Dust emissionsCOARSE fraction (T=7x10-4)

*

Dust emissionsCOARSE fraction (constant soil)

CLAY= 0.18SILT = 0.35SAND= 0.47

*

Dust emissionsCOARSE fraction (T=2x10-4)

*

Dust emissionsCOARSE fraction (Vautard et al.)

*

Dust emissionsLARGE fraction

*

Dust emissionsLARGE fraction (constant soil)

CLAY= 0.18SILT = 0.35SAND= 0.47

*

Dust emissionsLARGE fraction (T=2x10-4)

*

Dust emissionsLARGE fraction (Vautard et al.)