Media & Audiences: Media & Audiences: Theories about the Role Theories about the Role of the Media in of the Media in everyday life.everyday life.

Chapter 10. Pages 253-289Chapter 10. Pages 253-289

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OverviewOverview Uses & Gratification TheoryUses & Gratification Theory Reception StudiesReception Studies Information Processing TheoryInformation Processing Theory Information Processing Model Information Processing Model

OVERVIEW:OVERVIEW: 1970’s & 1980’s researchers in US 1970’s & 1980’s researchers in US

became increasingly interested on became increasingly interested on media audience. Their attempt was media audience. Their attempt was to gain more useful information to gain more useful information about audience. As more studies about audience. As more studies were carried out the Audience were carried out the Audience Centered Theories were also Centered Theories were also developed.developed.

Active Audience Theory Active Audience Theory or (Audience Centered or (Audience Centered Theory)Theory) This theory focus on assessing on what This theory focus on assessing on what

people do with media. It does not focus on people do with media. It does not focus on what the media do to the people. This what the media do to the people. This theory is micro-level in its approach.theory is micro-level in its approach.

The argument for such theories were quite The argument for such theories were quite convincing. E.g. why were advertisers spend convincing. E.g. why were advertisers spend billion of dollars to purchase advertising billion of dollars to purchase advertising time if the messages on the media has no time if the messages on the media has no effect on the audience ? Why were the TV effect on the audience ? Why were the TV network audience still growing? network audience still growing?

A. Uses & Gratification A. Uses & Gratification TheoryTheory Herzog (1944) was the first to create Herzog (1944) was the first to create

the theory of Uses & Gratification. He the theory of Uses & Gratification. He identify 3 types of gratifications: identify 3 types of gratifications:

1. Gratification as a means of 1. Gratification as a means of emotional emotional releaserelease

2. Gratification as opportunities of 2. Gratification as opportunities of wishful wishful thinkingthinking

3. Gratification as the advice obtained 3. Gratification as the advice obtained from from listening to daytime radio listening to daytime radio programme. programme.

Schramm (1954) continued to offer the Schramm (1954) continued to offer the gratification theory by describing how gratification theory by describing how individual make media and content choices individual make media and content choices based on expectation of reward and effort based on expectation of reward and effort required. required.

Schramm argued that our decision to select Schramm argued that our decision to select the content materials based on our the content materials based on our expectations of having some need met, expectations of having some need met, even if the decision is not to make a choice. even if the decision is not to make a choice.

The revival of Uses & The revival of Uses & Gratification thinking Gratification thinking

The scenario:The scenario: By 1970 the limited effects paradigm had By 1970 the limited effects paradigm had

demonstrated study after study media role demonstrated study after study media role was found to marginal in comparison the was found to marginal in comparison the effect it had with other social factors. effect it had with other social factors.

But the question that trouble researchers’ But the question that trouble researchers’ mind were that how could this be true when mind were that how could this be true when media audiences were on the increase & media audiences were on the increase & people spend so much time consuming people spend so much time consuming media? Why were advertisers spend billion media? Why were advertisers spend billion of dollars to purchase advertising time if of dollars to purchase advertising time if their message had no effect?their message had no effect?

Why were the network television Why were the network television audiences continue to grow? audiences continue to grow? Didn't any of the media use Didn't any of the media use have important consequences for have important consequences for the people who were engaged in the people who were engaged in it? Why didn’t research found it? Why didn’t research found these reasoning? these reasoning?

Therefore the Therefore the first first revival interest among revival interest among researchers looking into the Uses & researchers looking into the Uses & Gratifications perspectives can be traced Gratifications perspectives can be traced into three development areas such as:into three development areas such as:

A. A. 1. New survey research into methods & 1. New survey research into methods & data analysis techniques to allow data analysis techniques to allow

new new studies to be developed. studies to be developed. 2. The increasing in awareness that 2. The increasing in awareness that

people’s people’s are active in using the media. are active in using the media. 3. Although some researchers found that 3. Although some researchers found that

there were some positive uses of the there were some positive uses of the media but these findings were media but these findings were

often often ignored. ignored.

The The second second revival was because of the revival was because of the rapid diffusion of Internet & World Wide rapid diffusion of Internet & World Wide Web (www) led to the intensity use of Web (www) led to the intensity use of the media aggressively (interactively).the media aggressively (interactively).

In other words researchers began to In other words researchers began to examine the issues of:examine the issues of:(a) Interactivity i.e. the degree to which (a) Interactivity i.e. the degree to which

participants in the communication participants in the communication process have control over, & can process have control over, & can

change change roles in their mutual roles in their mutual discourse (Williams, discourse (Williams, Rice & Rice & Rogers, 1988) Rogers, 1988)

(b) Demassification i.r. the ability (b) Demassification i.r. the ability of of media audience to select media audience to select from a from a wide range of wide range of media media & the & the characteristics that allow characteristics that allow

individuals to tailor messages individuals to tailor messages to to their needs (e.g. internet) their needs (e.g. internet) Rugeriero, 2000.Rugeriero, 2000.

..

(c) Asynchroneity (mediated (c) Asynchroneity (mediated messages) i.e. senders & messages) i.e. senders & receivers receivers of electronic of electronic messages can read messages can read mail at mail at different times & still different times & still interact interact convenientlyconveniently

In other words uses & In other words uses & gratification theory proved to gratification theory proved to useful in explaining how & why useful in explaining how & why the ‘new media’ are use to the ‘new media’ are use to supplement & in some cases supplement & in some cases replace older media. replace older media.

Blumler (1979) claimed that one of the Blumler (1979) claimed that one of the major problem in using the uses & major problem in using the uses & gratification theory is the ability this theory gratification theory is the ability this theory capable of explaining a wide range of capable of explaining a wide range of meaning on the concept of meaning on the concept of activityactivity. He . He identified several meanings for this term as identified several meanings for this term as follows:follows:

(1) (1) UtilityUtility i.e. media have uses for people i.e. media have uses for people & & people can put media to those uses.people can put media to those uses.

(2) (2) IntentionalityIntentionality: i.e. that consumption of : i.e. that consumption of media content media content can be directed by can be directed by

people’s people’s motivations.motivations.

(3) (3) Selectivity Selectivity i.e. People use of i.e. People use of the the media might reflect their media might reflect their existing existing interests & preferences.interests & preferences.

(4) (4) Imperviousness to Imperviousness to influenceinfluence: : i.e. audience will i.e. audience will certainly try to certainly try to avoid certain avoid certain types of media.types of media.

What the uses & gratification What the uses & gratification theory does is to provide a theory does is to provide a framework for understanding framework for understanding whenwhen & & how how different media consumers, different media consumers, involvement in the media. involvement in the media.

Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch (1974) Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch (1974) described five elements in the uses described five elements in the uses & gratifications model: & gratifications model:

1.1. The media is active & its media use is goal oriented.The media is active & its media use is goal oriented.

2.2. The initiative link to the need gratification to the The initiative link to the need gratification to the media choice media choice rests with the audience member.rests with the audience member.

3.3. The media compete with other sources for need The media compete with other sources for need satisfaction.satisfaction.

4.4. Audience are self aware of their own media use, Audience are self aware of their own media use, interest & motivates to be able to provide with an interest & motivates to be able to provide with an accurate picture of that use.accurate picture of that use.

5.5. Value judgments linking to the need of specific Value judgments linking to the need of specific media content media content should be suspended. That means should be suspended. That means people can use the same people can use the same content in vary different ways content in vary different ways & therefore the same content & therefore the same content should have very should have very different consequences. different consequences.

With above conclusions the With above conclusions the researches raised other questions, researches raised other questions, such as:such as:

What factors effecting the level of What factors effecting the level of activeness of media use among activeness of media use among audience? What other factors in the audience? What other factors in the environment (social situations) environment (social situations) influence audience needs of which influence audience needs of which media use? media use?

Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch (1974) explained that Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch (1974) explained that the ‘social situations’ involving media related the ‘social situations’ involving media related needs as follows: needs as follows:

1.1. Social situation can produced tensions Social situation can produced tensions & & conflicts, conflicts, leading to pressure to utilize or leading to pressure to utilize or consumed consumed certain selected media.certain selected media.

2.2. Social situations can create an awareness Social situations can create an awareness of of problems that demand attention thus, to problems that demand attention thus, to fulfill this fulfill this demand, information could be demand, information could be obtained form the obtained form the media.media.

3. 3. Social situations can deprive your real life Social situations can deprive your real life opportunity to satisfy these needs, and opportunity to satisfy these needs, and

media can media can substitute this need instead. substitute this need instead.

4.4. Social situations can transmit Social situations can transmit certain certain specific value which also specific value which also can be can be obtained from certain obtained from certain media.media.

5.5. Social situation can provide Social situation can provide anticipated anticipated familiarity with the familiarity with the media which must media which must be met in be met in order to fulfilled the order to fulfilled the aspirations of aspirations of the social group norms.the social group norms.

Uses & Gratifications Uses & Gratifications

STRENGTH:STRENGTH: Focus attention of individuals in the mass Focus attention of individuals in the mass

communication process.communication process. Respect intellect & ability of media consumers.Respect intellect & ability of media consumers. Provides insightful analysis of how people Provides insightful analysis of how people

experience media contents.experience media contents. Differentiate active use of the media from more Differentiate active use of the media from more

passive uses.passive uses. Studies of the use of media as part of our Studies of the use of media as part of our

everyday social interaction.everyday social interaction. Provides useful insight into adoption of new Provides useful insight into adoption of new

media,media,

WEAKNESSES:WEAKNESSES: Alliance on functional analysis can Alliance on functional analysis can

create status quo orientationcreate status quo orientation Cannot easily addressed the Cannot easily addressed the

present or absent of media effects.present or absent of media effects. Measurement of key concepts is Measurement of key concepts is

criticized. It is too micro-level criticized. It is too micro-level orientation. orientation.

B. Reception Studies B. Reception Studies or Reception Analysis or Reception Analysis

This is an audience centered theory that This is an audience centered theory that focuses on how various types of audience focuses on how various types of audience members make sense of media contents.members make sense of media contents.

1. 1. Critical theorists view that the Critical theorists view that the producer producer intended meaning of the piece intended meaning of the piece of content the of content the assumption was to assumption was to reinforced the status quo reinforced the status quo also known also known as as preferred readingpreferred reading..

2. 2. or audience provide an or audience provide an alternative alternative interpretation which is interpretation which is known as the known as the negotiated readingnegotiated reading..

3. or It is also possible that the 3. or It is also possible that the

audience audience made an interpretation is made an interpretation is directly directly opposite to the preferred opposite to the preferred reading reading which is also known as which is also known as the the oppositional decoding.oppositional decoding.

STRENGTHS:STRENGTHS: Focus attention on individuals.Focus attention on individuals. Respect intellectual ability of audience.Respect intellectual ability of audience. Acknowledge range of meanings.Acknowledge range of meanings. Seek in-depth understanding of how Seek in-depth understanding of how

people interpret media content.people interpret media content. Can provide an insightful analysis the Can provide an insightful analysis the

way media are used in everyday social way media are used in everyday social contect.contect.

WEAKNESS:WEAKNESS: Based on subjective interpretation Based on subjective interpretation

of audience report.of audience report. Cannot address the presence or Cannot address the presence or

absence of effects.absence of effects. Qualitative research methods Qualitative research methods

preclude causal explanation.preclude causal explanation. Too micro level in its orientation. Too micro level in its orientation.

C. Frame AnalysisC. Frame Analysis This analysis deals with the idea about This analysis deals with the idea about

how people use expectations to make how people use expectations to make sense of everyday life. sense of everyday life.

In other words the expectations we get In other words the expectations we get from the media are based from:from the media are based from:

(a) Previous experience (through media or (a) Previous experience (through media or personal).personal).

(b) Pudience can be quite resistant to (b) Pudience can be quite resistant to change change despite of having all the factual despite of having all the factual information.information.

(c)(c) Audience can associated Audience can associated with with emotions such as emotions such as hate, fear, hate, fear, love. love.

(d) It is difficult to control despite (d) It is difficult to control despite of of having all the factual having all the factual

information information

Goffman (1974) theory of Frame analysis Goffman (1974) theory of Frame analysis provides us with a systematic account of provides us with a systematic account of how we use our expectations to make how we use our expectations to make sense of our everyday life situations.sense of our everyday life situations.

Goffman was convinced that the daily life Goffman was convinced that the daily life is much more complicated than it appears. is much more complicated than it appears.

He argued that we often change the way He argued that we often change the way we define the situations as people moves we define the situations as people moves through space & time. In other words our through space & time. In other words our experience of the world constantly shifting, experience of the world constantly shifting, sometimes in major ways other times not. sometimes in major ways other times not.

We always monitor the social We always monitor the social environment for environment for social cuessocial cues that that signal when are to make the change. signal when are to make the change.

Goffman therefore used the term Goffman therefore used the term frame to refer to a specific set of frame to refer to a specific set of expectations that are used to make expectations that are used to make sense of a social situation at a given sense of a social situation at a given point of time. point of time.

But when we are ready to move But when we are ready to move from one set of frames to another from one set of frames to another we then said to applied the we then said to applied the downshiftdownshift or or upshift.upshift. We are We are expected to change frames expected to change frames depending the seriousness of the depending the seriousness of the case. case.

That is we move back & forth That is we move back & forth between serious & less serious sets between serious & less serious sets of expectations.of expectations.

It is just like an animal cubs It is just like an animal cubs acquiring skill of catching frogs & acquiring skill of catching frogs & butterfly and as the cubs grows butterfly and as the cubs grows maturity these skills are transfer to a maturity these skills are transfer to a more serious situations to kill when more serious situations to kill when the animal grows up in order to the animal grows up in order to survive. These skills were learned at survive. These skills were learned at the early stage. the early stage.

According to Goffman daily life According to Goffman daily life involves countless shifts in frames & involves countless shifts in frames & these shifts are negotiated by using these shifts are negotiated by using social cues. Some social cues are social cues. Some social cues are very conventional while others are very conventional while others are subtle. E.g. couples usually develop subtle. E.g. couples usually develop a very complex set of cues when to a very complex set of cues when to uplift or downshift in their uplift or downshift in their interaction. interaction.

In gender ads for example Goffman In gender ads for example Goffman argued that advertising that uses the argued that advertising that uses the sex appeal of women to attract sex appeal of women to attract attention of men indirectly teaches us attention of men indirectly teaches us how social cues were learned & that how social cues were learned & that could have a serious consequences – could have a serious consequences – e.g. stereotyping of women etc. e.g. stereotyping of women etc.

We learned more than just product We learned more than just product presentation. We learned vast arrays presentation. We learned vast arrays of other social cues & thus reinforcing of other social cues & thus reinforcing the formation of ‘the formation of ‘dominant public dominant public culture’.culture’.

What we are experiencing here What we are experiencing here according to Goffmn what is according to Goffmn what is known as ‘known as ‘primary orprimary or dominant dominant realityreality’. That is in the real world ’. That is in the real world people will obey certain people will obey certain conventional & accepted rules.conventional & accepted rules.

In this theory Goffman’s focuses on how In this theory Goffman’s focuses on how individual learn to routinely trying to individual learn to routinely trying to make sense of their social world that we make sense of their social world that we lived in. lived in.

Goffman provides us with an interesting Goffman provides us with an interesting way that we are all attracted of how the way that we are all attracted of how the media can reinforced the dominant public media can reinforced the dominant public culture. E.g. ads did not creates sex-role culture. E.g. ads did not creates sex-role stereotyping but homogenizing how stereotyping but homogenizing how women are publicly depicted.women are publicly depicted.

Powerful visual imagery is used to Powerful visual imagery is used to associates products with women. Ads associates products with women. Ads both teaches & reinforce these cues.both teaches & reinforce these cues.

According to Goffman we firmly According to Goffman we firmly committed ourselves to live in what we committed ourselves to live in what we experience as part of the frame known experience as part of the frame known as the ‘as the ‘dominant realitydominant reality’ – that is a ’ – that is a real world in which people & events real world in which people & events obey certain conventional & accepted obey certain conventional & accepted rules. rules.

Thus, according to Goffman we Thus, according to Goffman we are all prisoners of our own reality are all prisoners of our own reality whatever it might be. And if do whatever it might be. And if do make mistake with framing the make mistake with framing the reality the result would be reality the result would be devastating. devastating.

Frame analysis theory as developed Frame analysis theory as developed by Goffman is a microscopic theory. It by Goffman is a microscopic theory. It creates conceptual framing theory creates conceptual framing theory that focuses how individual learn to that focuses how individual learn to make sense of their social world make sense of their social world throughthrough

the use of the concepts of (a) the use of the concepts of (a) framing (b) what can they learned framing (b) what can they learned from the media. from the media.

C. Information C. Information Processing Processing Theory.Theory. This theory discusses the use of This theory discusses the use of

mechanistic analogies to describe & mechanistic analogies to describe & interpret how people deal with the interpret how people deal with the flood of information that we they flood of information that we they receive every day.receive every day.

This theory describes individuals as This theory describes individuals as complex computers with certain complex computers with certain build in information capabilities. It build in information capabilities. It can received, recognize, filter, make can received, recognize, filter, make sense, store & retrieve sense, store & retrieve information. information.

According to the information According to the information processing theory we can never processing theory we can never be conscious of more than very be conscious of more than very small fraction of the information small fraction of the information present in our environment present in our environment

One advantage of the information One advantage of the information processing perspective is that it provides processing perspective is that it provides more objective in learning.more objective in learning.

We blame ourselves if we fail to learn We blame ourselves if we fail to learn something that we think we should have something that we think we should have learned. We assumed that a little more learned. We assumed that a little more conscious effort learning would have conscious effort learning would have made the difference. But would that a made the difference. But would that a little more efforts would have made little more efforts would have made much difference? Or could that be much difference? Or could that be possible that could led you to possible that could led you to breakdown? breakdown?

In this case what you need is revamping In this case what you need is revamping of your routine information handling of your routine information handling skills & strategies that is a skills & strategies that is a transformation of your information transformation of your information processing system.processing system.

Information processing theory provides Information processing theory provides us with a means of developing a more us with a means of developing a more objective assessment of the mistakes we objective assessment of the mistakes we make when processing information. make when processing information. These mistakes are routine outcomes These mistakes are routine outcomes from a particular cognitive process & from a particular cognitive process & not personal errors caused by personal not personal errors caused by personal failings. failings.

By the end of this lesson you By the end of this lesson you have learned the following topics have learned the following topics as follows:as follows:

A.A. Uses & Gratification TheoryUses & Gratification Theory B. Reception StudiesB. Reception Studies C. Information Processing TheoryC. Information Processing Theory