MCATBiological and Biochemical Foundations of Living SystemsBiomoleculesStructure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acidsAmino Acids

Descriptiono Absolute configuration at the alpha positiono Amino acids as dipolar ionso Classifications

Acidic or basic Hydrophobic or hydrophilic

Reactionso Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cysteineo Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteinso Hydrolysis

Protein Structure Structure

o 1st degree structure of proteinso 2nd degree structure of proteinso 3rd degree structure of proteins; role of proline, cysteine, hydrophobic bondingo 4th degree structure of proteins

Conformational stabilityo Denaturing and foldingo Hydrophobic interactionso Solvation layer (entropy)

Separation techniqueso Isoelectric pointo Electrophoresis

Non-Enzymatic Protein Function Binding Immune System Motors

Enzyme Structure and Function Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions Enzyme classification by reaction type Reduction of activation energy Substrates and enzyme specificity Active site model Induced-fit model Mechanism of catalysis

o Cofactorso Coenzymeso Water-soluble vitamins

Effects of local conditions on enzyme activityControl of Enzyme Activity

Kineticso General (catalysis)o Michaelis-Menteno Cooperativity

Feedback regulation

Inhibition – types:o Competitiveo Non-competitiveo Mixedo Uncompetitive

Regulatory enzymeso Allosteric enzymeso Covalently-modified enzymeso Zymogen

Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the proteinNucleic Acid Structure and Function

Description Nucleotides and nucleosides

o Sugar phosphate backboneo Pyrimidine, purine residues

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, Watson-Crick model of DNA structure Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C Function in transmission of genetic information DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization

DNA Replication Mechanism of replication: separation of strands, specific coupling of free nucleic acids Semi-conservative nature of replication Specific enzymes involved in replication Origins of replication, multiple origins in eukaryotes Replicating the ends of DNA molecules

Repair of DNA Repair during replication Repair of mutations

Genetic Code Central Dogma: DNA RNA protein The triplet code Codon-antocodon relationship Degenerate code, wobble pairing Missense, nonsense codons Initiation, termination codons Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transcription Transfer RNA (tRNA); ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Mechanism of transcription mRNA processing in eukaryotes, introns, exons Ribozymes, splicosomes, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), small nuclear RNA (snRNAs) Functional and evolutionary importance of introns

Translation Roles of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA Role and structure of ribosomes Initiation, termination co-factors Post-translational modification of proteins

Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization Chromosomal proteins Single copy vs. repetitive DNA

Supercoiling Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin Telomeres, centromeres

Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes Operon Concept, Jacob-Monod model Gene repression in bacteria Positive control in bacteria

Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes Transcriptional regulation DNA binding proteins, transcription factors Gene amplification and duplication Post-transcriptional control, basic concept of splicing (introns, exons) Cancer as a failure of normal cellular controls, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes Regulation of chromatin structure DNA methylation Role of non-coding RNAs

Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology Gene cloning Restriction enzymes DNA libraries Generation of cDNA Hybridization Expressing cloned genes Polymerase chain reaction Gel electrophoresis and southern blotting DNA sequencing Analyzing gene expression Determining gene function Stem cells Practical applications of DNA technology: medical applications, human gene therapy, pharmaceuticals,

forensic evidence, environmental cleanup, agriculture Safety and ethics of DNA technology

Transmission of heritable information from generation to generation and the processes that increase genetic diversityEvidence that DNA is Genetic MaterialMendelian Concepts

Phenotype and genotype Gene Locus Allele: single and multiple Homozygosity and heterozygosity Wild-type Recessiveness Complete dominance Co-dominance Incomplete dominance, leakage, penetrance, expressivity Hybridization: viability Gene pool

Meiosis and Other Factors Affecting Genetic Variability Significance of meiosis Important differences between meiosis and mitosis

Segregation of geneso Independent assortmento Linkageo Recombination

Single crossovers Double crossovers Synaptonemal complex Tetrad

o Sex-linked characteristicso Very few genes on Y chromosomeo Sex determinationo Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance

Mutationo General concept of mutation – error in DNA sequenceo Types of mutations: random, translation error, transcription error, base substitution, inversion,

addition, deletion, translocation, mispairingo Advantageous vs. deleterious mutationo Inborn errors of metabolismo Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens

Genetic drift Synapsis or crossing-over mechanism for increasing genetic diversity

Analytic Methods Hardy-Weinberg Principle Test cross Gene mapping: crossover frequencies Biometry: statistical methods

Evolution Natural selection

o Fitness concepto Selection by differential reproductiono Concepts of natural and group selectiono Evolutionary success as increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation

Speciationo Polymorphismo Adaptation and specializationo Inbreedingo Outbreedingo Bottlenecks

Evolutionary time as measured by gradual random changes in genome

Principles of bioenergetics and fuel molecule metabolismPrinciples of Bioenergetics

Bioenergetics/thermodynamicso Free energy/Keq

Equilibrium constant Relationship of the equilibrium constant ΔGo

o Concentration Le Chatlier’s Principle

o Endothermic/exothermic reactionso Free energy: G

o Spontaneous reactions and ΔGo

Phosphoryl group transfers and ATPo ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0o ATP group transfers

Biological oxidation-reductiono Half-reactionso Soluble electron carrierso Flavoproteins

Carbohydrates Description

o Nomenclature and classification, common nameso Absolute configurationo Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoseso Epimers and anomers

Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products

o Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis) Gluconeogenesis Pentose phosphate pathway Net molecular energetic results of respiration process

Principles of Metabolic Regulation Regulation of metabolic pathways

o Maintenance of a dynamic steady state Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis Metabolism of glycogen Regulation of glycogen synthesis and breakdown

o Allosteric and hormonal control Analysis of metabolic control

Citric Acid Cycle Acetyl-CoA production Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products Regulation of the cycle Net molecular and energetic results of respiration process

Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins Description of fatty acids Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats Oxidation of fatty acids

o Saturated fatso Unsaturated fats

Ketone bodies Anabolism of fats Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides Metabolism of proteins

Oxidative Phosphorylation Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features of the

pathway

Electron transfer in mitochondriao NADH, NADPHo Flavoproteinso Cytochromes

ATP synthase, chemiosmotic couplingo Proton motive force

Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress

Hormonal regulation and Integration of Metabolism Higher level integration of hormone structure and function Tissue specific metabolism Hormonal regulation of fuel metabolism

Obesity and regulation of body mass

CellsAssemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within single cellular and multicellular organismsPlasma Membrane

General function in cell containment Composition of membranes

o Lipid components Phospholipids (and phosphatides) Steroids Waxes

o Protein componentso Fluid mosaic model

Membrane dynamics Solute transport across membranes

o Thermodynamic considerationso Osmosis

Colligative properties, osmotic pressureo Passive transporto Active transport

Sodium/potassium pump Membrane channels Membrane potential Membrane receptors Exocytosis and endocytosis Intercellular junctions

o Gap junctionso Tight junctionso Desmosomes

Membrane-Bound Organelles and Defining Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells Defining characteristics of eukaryotic cells: membrane bound nucleus, presence of organelles, mitotic

division Nucleus

o Compartmentalization, storage of genetic informationo Nucleolus: location and functiono Nuclear envelope, nuclear pores

Mitochondriao Site of ATP productiono Inner and outer membrane structureo Self-replication

Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes Endoplasmic reticulum

o Rough and smooth componentso Rough endoplasmic reticulum site of ribosomeso Double membrane structureo Role in membrane biosynthesiso Role in biosynthesis of secreted proteins

Golgi apparatus: general structure and role in packaging and secretion Peroxisomes: organelles that collect peroxides

Cytoskeleton General function in cell support and movement Microfilaments: composition and role in cleavage and contractility Microtubules: composition and role in support and transport Intermediate filaments, role in support Composition and function of cilia and flagella Centrioles, microtubule organizing centers

Tissues Formed From Eukaryotic Cells Epithelial cells Connective tissue cells

The structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes and virusesCell Theory

History and development Impact on biology

Classification and Structure of Prokaryotic Cells Prokaryotic domains

o Archaeao Bacteria

Major classifications of bacteria by shapeo Bacilli (rod-shaped)o Spirilli (spiral shaped)o Cocci (spherical)

Lack of nuclear membrane and mitotic apparatus Lack of typical eukaryotic organelles Presence of cell wall in bacteria Flagellar propulsion, mechanism

Growth and Physiology of Prokaryotic Cells Reproduction by fission High degree of genetic adaptability, acquisition of antibiotic resistance Exponential growth Existence of anaerobic and aerobic variants Parasitic and symbiotic Chemotaxis

Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells Existence of plasmids, extragenomic DNA Transformation: incorporation into bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium Conjugation

Transposons (also present in eukaryotic cells)Virus Structure

General structural characteristics (nucleic acid and protein, enveloped and non-enveloped) Lack organelles and nucleus Structural aspects of typical bacteriophage Genomic content – RNA or DNA Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells

Viral Life Cycle Self-replicating biological units that must reproduce within specific host cell Generalized phage and animal virus life cycles

o Attachment to host, penetration of cell membrane or cell wall, and entry of viral genetic materialo Use of host synthetic mechanism to replicate viral componentso Self-assembly and release of new viral particles

Transduction: transfer of genetic material by viruses Retrovirus life cycle: integration into host DNA, reverse transcriptase, HIV Prions and viroids: subviral particles

Processes of cell division, differentiation, and specializationMitosis

Mitotic process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase Mitotic structures

o Centrioles, asters, spindleso Chromatids, centromeres, kinetochoreso Nuclear membrane breakdown and reorganizationo Mechanisms of chromosome movement

Phases of cell cycle: G0, G1, S, G2, M Growth arrest Control of cell cycle Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer cells

Biosignaling Oncogenes, apoptosis

Reproductive System Gametogenesis by meiosis Ovum and sperm

o Differences in formationo Differences in morphologyo Relative contributions to next generation

Reproductive sequence: fertilization, implantation, development, birthEmbryogenesis

Stages of early development (order and general features of each)o Fertilizationo Cleavageo Blastula formationo Gastrulation

First cell movements Formation of primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)

o Neurulation Major structures arising out of primary germ layers Neural crest Environment-gene interaction in development

Mechanisms of Development

Cell specializationo Determinationo Differentiationo Tissue types

Cell-cell communication in development Cell migration Pluripotency: stem cells Gene regulation in development Programmed cell death Existence of regenerative capacity in various species Senescence and aging

Body SystemsStructure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and ways in which these systems coordinate the organ systemsNervous System: Structure and Function

Major functionso High level control and integration of body systemso Adaptive capability to external influences

Organization of vertebrate nervous systems Sensor and effector neurons Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: antagonistic control Reflexes

o Feedback loop, reflex arco Role of spinal cord and supraspinal circuits

Integration with endocrine system: feedback controlNerve Cell

Cell body: site of nucleus, organelles Dendrites: branched extensions of cell body Axon: structure and function Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon Synapse: site of impulse propagation between cells Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules Resting potential: electrochemical gradient Action potential

o Threshold, all-or-noneo Sodium/potassium pump

Excitatory and inhibitory nerve fibers: summation, frequency of firing Glial cells, neuroglia

Electrochemistry Concentration cell: direction of electron flow, Nernst equation

Biosignalling Gated ion channels

o Voltage gatedo Ligand gated

Receptor enzymes G protein-coupled enzymes

Lipids Description; structure

o Steroidso Terpenes and terpenoids

Endocrine System: Hormones and Their Sources Function of endocrine system: specific chemical control at cell, tissue, and organ level Definitions of endocrine gland, hormone Major endocrine glands: names, locations, products Major types of hormones Neuroendocrinology – relation between neurons and hormonal systems

Endocrine System: Mechanisms of Hormone Action Cellular mechanisms of hormone action Transport of hormones: blood supply Specificity of hormones: target tissue Integration with nervous system: feedback control regulation by second messengers

Structure and integrative functions of the main organ systemsRespiratory System

General functiono Gas exchange, thermoregulationo Protection against disease: particulate matter

Structure of lungs and alveoli Breathing mechanisms

o Diaphragm, rib cage, differential pressureo Resiliency and surface tension effects

Thermoregulation: nasal and tracheal capillary beds; evaporation, panting Particulate filtration: nasal hairs, mucus/cilia system in lungs Alveolar gas exchange

o Diffusion, differential partial pressureo Henry’s Law

pH control Regulation by nervous control

o CO2 sensitivityCirculatory System

Functions: circulation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, ions and fluids, removal of metabolic waste Role in thermoregulation Four-chambered heart: structure and function Endothelial cells Systolic and diastolic pressure Pulmonary and systemic circulation Arterial and venous systems (arteries, arterioles, venules, veins)

o Structural and functional differenceso Pressure and flow characteristics

Capillary bedso Mechanisms of gas and solute exchangeo Mechanism of heat exchangeo Source of peripheral resistance

Composition of bloodo Plasma, chemicals, blood cellso Erythrocyte production and destruction; spleen, bone marrowo Regulation of plasma volume

Coagulation, clotting mechanisms

Oxygen transport by bloodo Hemoglobin, hematocrito Oxygen contento Oxygen affinityo Oxygen transport by blood; modification of oxygen affinity

Carbon dioxide transport and level in blood Nervous and endocrine control

Lymphatic System Structure of lymphatic system Major functions

o Equalization of fluid distributiono Transport of proteins and large glycerideso Production of lymphocytes involved in immune reactionso Return of materials to the blood

Immune System Innate (non-specific) vs. adaptive (specific) immunity Adaptive immune system cells

o T-lymphocyteso B-lymphocytes

Innate immune system cellso Macrophageso Phagocytes

Concept of antigen and antibody Antigen presentation Clonal selection Antigen-antibody recognition Structure of antibody molecule Recognition of self vs. non-self, autoimmune diseases Major histocompatibility complex

Digestive System Ingestion

o Saliva vs. lubrication and source of enzymeso Ingestion, esophagus, transport function

Stomacho Storage and churning of foodo Low pH, gastric juice, mucal protection against self-destructiono Production of digestive enzymes, site of digestiono Structure (gross)

Livero Structural relationship of liver within gastrointestinal systemo Production of bileo Role in blood glucose regulation, detoxification

Bileo Storage in gall bladdero Function

Pancreaso Production of enzymeso Transport of enzymes to small intestine

Small intestineo Absorption of food molecules and water

o Function and structure of villio Production of enzymes, site of digestiono Neutralization of stomach acido Structure (anatomic subdivisions)

Large intestineo Absorption of watero Bacterial florao Structure (gross)

Rectum: storage and elimination of waste, feces Muscular control

o Peristalsis Endocrine control

o Hormoneso Target tissues

Nervous control: the enteric nervous systemExcretory System

Roles in homeostasiso Blood pressureo Osmoregulationo Acid-base balanceo Removal of soluble nitrogenous waste

Kidney structureo Cortexo Medulla

Nephron structureo Glomeruluso Bowman’s capsuleo Proximal tubuleo Loop of Henleo Distal tubuleo Collecting duct

Formation of urineo Glomerular filtrationo Secretion and reabsorption of soluteso Concentration of urineo Counter-current multiplier mechanism

Storage and elimination: ureter, bladder, urethra Osmoregulation: capillary reabsorption of H2O, amino acids, glucose, ions Muscular control: sphincter muscle

Reproductive System Male and female reproductive structures and their functions

o Gonadso Genitaliao Differences between male and female structures

Hormonal control of reproductiono Male and female sexual developmento Female reproductive cycleo Pregnancy, parturition, lactationo Integration with nervous control

Muscle System Important functions

o Support: mobilityo Peripheral circulatory assistanceo Thermoregulation (shivering reflex)

Structure of three basic muscle types: striated, smooth, cardiac Muscle structure and control of contraction

o T-tubule systemo Contractile apparatuso Sarcoplasmic reticulumo Fiber typeo Contractile velocity of different muscle types

Regulation of cardiac muscle contraction Oxygen debt: fatigue Nervous control

o Motor neuronso Neuromuscular junction, motor end plateso Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervationo Voluntary and involuntary muscles

Specialized Cell – Muscle Cell Structural characteristics of striated, smooth, and cardiac muscle Abundant mitochondria in red muscle cells: ATP source Organization of contractile elements: actin and myosin filaments, crossbridges, sliding filament model Sarcomeres: “I” and “A” bands, “M” and “Z” lines, “H” zone Presence of troponin and tropomyosin Calcium regulation of contraction

Skeletal System Functions

o Structural rigidity and supporto Calcium storageo Physical protection

Skeletal structureo Specialization of bone types, structureso Joint structureso Endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton

Bone structureo Calcium/protein matrixo Cellular composition of bone

Cartilage: structure and function Ligaments, tendons Endocrine control

Skin System Structure

o Layer differentiation, cell typeso Relative impermeability to water

Functions in homeostasis and osmoregulation Functions in thermoregulation

o Hair, erectile musculatureo Fat layer for insulationo Sweat glands, location in dermis

o Vasoconstriction and vasodilation in surface capillaries Physical protection

o Nails, calluses, hairo Protection against abrasion, disease organisms

Hormonal control: sweating, vasodilation, and vasoconstriction

Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological SystemsSensing Environments, Processing Signals, Responding to ChangesTranslational motion, forces, work, energy, and equilibrium in living systemsTranslational Motion

Units and dimensions Vectors, components Vector addition Speed, velocity (average and instantaneous) Acceleration

Equilibrium Concept of force, units Analysis of forces acting on an object Newton’s first law of motion, inertia Torques, lever arms

Work Derived units, sign conversion Mechanical advantage Work kinetic energy theorem PV diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve

Energy Kinetic energy: KE = ½ mv2, units Potential energy

o PE = mgh (gravitational, local)o PE = ½ kx2

Conservation of energy Conservative forces Power, units

Importance of fluids for the circulation of blood, gas movement, and gas exchangeFluids

Density, specific gravity Buoyancy, Archimedes’ principle Hydrostatic pressure

o Pascal’s lawo Hydrostatic pressure; P = pgh (pressure versus depth)

Viscosity: Poiseuille Flow Continuity equation (Av = constant) Concept of turbulence at high velocities Surface tension Bernoulli’s equation Venturi effect, pitot tube

Circulatory System Arterial and venous systems; pressure and flow characteristics

Gas Phase Absolute temperature, (K) Kelvin scale Pressure, simple mercury barometer Molar volume at 0C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol Ideal gas

o Definitiono Ideal gas law: PV = nRTo Boyle’s law: PV = constanto Charles’ law: V/T = constanto Avogadro’s law: V/n = constant

Kinetic molecular theory of gaseso Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressureo Boltzmann’s constant

Deviation of real gas behavior from ideal gas lawo Qualitativeo Quantitative (Van der Waal’s equation)

Partial pressure, mole fraction Dalton’s law relating partial pressure to composition

Electrochemistry and electrical circuits and their elementsElectrostatics

Charge, conductors, charge conservation Insulators Electric field E

o Field lineso Field due to charge distribution

Potential difference, absolute potential at point in spaceCircuit Elements

Current I = ΔQ/Δt, sign conventions, units Electromotive force, voltage Resistance

o Ohm’s law; I=V/Ro Resistors in serieso Resistors in parallelo Resistivity: p=RA/L

Capacitanceo Parallel plate capacitoro Energy of charged capacitoro Capacitors in serieso Capacitors in parallelo Dielectrics

Conductivityo Metallico Electrolyte

MetersElectrochemistry

Electrolytic cello Electrolysiso Anode, cathodeo Electrolyte

o Faraday’s law relating amount of elements deposited (or gas liberated) at an electrode to currento Electron flow, oxidation, and reduction at the electrodes

Galvanic or voltaic cellso Half-reactionso Reduction potentials, cell potentialo Direction of electron flow

Concentration cell Batteries

o Electromotive force, voltageo Lead-storage batterieso Nickel-cadmium batteries

Specialized Cell – Nerve Cell Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon

How light and sound interact with matterSound

Production of sound Relative speed of sound in solids, liquids, and gases Intensity of sound, decibel units, log scale Attenuation (damping) Doppler effect: moving sound source or observer, reflection of sound from a moving object Pitch Resonance in pipes and strings Ultrasound Shock waves

Light, Electromagnetic Radiation Concept of interference; Young double-slit experiment Thin films, diffraction grating, single-slit diffraction Other diffraction phenomena, X-ray diffraction Polarization of light Circular polarization Properties of electromagnetic radiation

o Velocity equals constant c, in vacuoo Electromagnetic radiation consists of perpendicularly oscillation electric and magnetic fields;

direction of propagation is perpendicular to both Classification of electromagnetic spectrum, photon energy E = (hf) Visual spectrum, color

Molecular Structure and Absorption Spectra Infrared region

o Intramolecular vibrations and rotationso Recognizing common characteristic group absorptions, fingerprint region

Visible regiono Absorption in visible region gives complementary coloro Effect of structural changes on absorption

Ultraviolet regiono Pi-electron and non-bonding electron transitionso Conjugated systems

NMR spectroscopyo Protons in a magnetic field; equivalent protons

o Spin-spin splittingGeometrical Optics

Reflection from plane surface: angle of incidence equals angle of reflection Refraction, refractive index n, Snell’s law: n1 sin theta 1 = n2 sin theta 2 Dispersion, change of index of refraction with wavelength Conditions for total internal reflection Spherical mirrors

o Center of curvatureo Focal lengtho Real and virtual images

Thin lenseso Converging and diverging lenseso Use of formula 1/p + 1/g = 1/f, with sign conventionso Lens strength, diopters

Combination of lenses Lens aberration Optical instruments, including the human eye

Atoms, nuclear decay, electronic structure, and atomic chemical behaviorAtomic Nucleus

Atomic number, atomic weight Neutrons, protons, isotopes Nuclear forces, binding energy Radioactive decay

o Alpha, beta, gamma decayo Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots

Mass spectrometerElectron Structure

Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principle quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital Ground state, excited states Absorption and emission line spectra Use of Pauli exclusion principle Paramagnetism and diamagnetism Conventional notation for electronic structure Bohr atom Heisenberg uncertainty principle Effective nuclear charge Photoelectric effect

The Periodic Table – Classification of Elements into Groups by Electronic Structure Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals; their chemical characteristics Halogens; their chemical characteristics Noble gases; their chemical and physical characteristics Transition metals Representative elements Metals and non-metals Oxygen group

The Periodic Table – Variations of Chemical Properties with Group and Row Valence electrons First and second ionization energy

o Definition

o Prediction from electron structure for elements in different groups or rows Electron affinity

o Definitiono Variation with group and row

Electronegativityo Definitiono Comparative values for some representative elements and important groups

Electron shells and the sizes of atoms Electron shells and the sizes of ions

Stoichiometry Molecular weight Empirical versus molecular formula Metric units commonly used in the context of chemistry Description of composition by percent mass Mole concept, Avogadro’s number Definition of density Oxidation number

o Common oxidizing and reducing agents Disproportionation reactions Description of reactions by chemical equation

o Conventions for writing chemical equationso Balancing equations, including redox equationso Limiting reactantso Theoretical yields

Chemical InteractionsUnique nature of water and its solutionsAcid/Base Equilibria

Bronsted-Lowery definition of acid, base Ionization of water

o Kw, its approximate valueo Definition of pH: pH of pure water

Conjugate acids and bases Strong acids and bases Weak acids and bases

o Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salto Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or baseso Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases

Equilibrium constants Ka and Kb; pKa and pKb

Bufferso Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)o Influence on titration curves

Ions in Solutions Anion, cation: common names, formulas, and charges for familiar ions Hydration, the hydronium ion

Solubility Units of concentration Solubility product constant; equilibrium expression Ksp

Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations

o Complex ion formationo Complex ions and solubilityo Solubility and pH

Titration Indicators Neutralization Interpretation of the titration curves Redox titration

Nature of molecules and intermolecular interactionsCovalent Bond

Lewis electron dot formulaso Resonance structureso Formal chargeo Lewis acids and bases

Partial ionic charactero Role of electronegativity in determining charge distributiono Dipole moment

Sigma and pi bondso Hybrid orbitals: sp3, sp2, sp and respective geometrieso Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of moleculeso Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Clo Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules

Multiple bondingo Effect on bond length and bond energieso Rigidity in molecular structure

Stereochemistry of covalently bonded moleculeso Isomers

Structural isomers Stereoisomers (diastereomers, enantiomers, cis/trans isomers) Conformational isomers

o Polarization of light, specific rotationo Absolute and relative configuration

Conventions for writing R and S forms Conventions for writing E and Z forms

Liquid Phase – Intermolecular Forces Hydrogen bonding Dipole interactions Van der Waal’s Forces (London dispersion forces)

Separation and purification methodsSeparations and Purifications

Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents Distillation Chromatography

o Basic principles involved in separation process Column chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography High pressure liquid chromatography

o Paper chromatographyo Thin-layer chromatography

Separation and purification of peptides and proteinso Electrophoresiso Quantitative analysiso Chromatography

Size-exclusion Ion-exchange Affinity

Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers

Structure, function, and reactivity of biologically-relevant moleculesNucleotides and Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides and nucleosides: compositiono Sugar phosphate backboneo Pyrimidine, purine residues

Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA, double-helix Chemistry Other functions

Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins Amino acids: description

o Absolute configuration at the alpha positiono Dipolar ionso Classification

Acidic or basic Hydrophilic or hydrophobic

o Synthesis of alpha amino acids Strecker synthesis Gabriel synthesis

Peptides and proteins: reactionso Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cysteineo Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteinso Hydrolysis

General principleso 1st degree structure of proteinso 2nd degree structure of proteinso 3rd degree structure of proteinso Isoelectric point

The Three-Dimensional Protein Structure Conformational stability

o Hydrophobic interactionso Solvation layer (entropy)

4th degree quaternary structure Denaturing and folding

Non-Enzymatic Protein Function Binding Immune system Motor

Lipids Types

o Storage Triacyl glycerols

Free fatty acids: saponificationo Structural

Phospholipids and phosphatides Sphingolipids Waxes

o Signals/cofactors Fat-soluble vitamins Steroids Prostaglandins

Carbohydrates Description

o Nomenclature and classification, common nameso Absolute configurationo Cyclic structure and conformation of hexoseso Epimers and anomers

Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage Keto-enol tautomerism of monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Aldehydes and Ketones Description

o Nomenclatureso Physical properties

Important reactionso Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond

Acetal, hemiacetal Imine, enamine Hydride reagents Cyanohydrin

o Oxidation of aldehydeso Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry

Keto-enol tautomerism (alpha racemization) Aldol condensation, retro-aldol Kinetic versus thermodynamic enolate

General principleso Effect of substituents on reactivity of C=O; steric hindranceo Acidity of alpha-H; carbanions

Alcohols Description

o Nomenclatureo Physical properties (acidity, hydrogen bonding)

Important reactionso Oxidationo Protection of alcoholso Preparation of mesylates and tosylates

Carboxylic Acids Description

o Nomenclatureo Physical properties

Important reactions

o Carboxyl group reactions Amides (and lactam), esters (and lactone), anhydride formation Reduction Decarboxylation Reactions at 2-position, substitution

Acid Derivatives (Anhydrides, Amides, Esters) Description

o Nomenclatureo Physical properties

Important reactionso Nucleophilic substitutiono Transesterficationo Hydrolysis of amides

General principleso Relative reactivity of acid derivativeso Steric effectso Electronic effectso Strain

Phenols Oxidation and reduction, ubiquinones; biological 2e- redox centers

Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds Biological aromatic heterocycles

Principles of chemical thermodynamics and kineticsEnzymes

Classification by reaction type Mechanism

o Susbtrates and enzyme specificityo Active site modelo Induced-fit modelo Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins

Kineticso General (catalysis)o Michaelis-Menteno Cooperativityo Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity

Inhibition Regulatory enzymes

o Allosterico Covalently modified

Principles of Bioenergetics Bionergetic/thermodynamics

o Free energy/Keq

o Concentration Phosphorylation/ATP

o ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0o ATP group transfers

Biological oxidation-reductiono Half-reactionso Soluble electron carriers

o FlavoproteinsPhosphorus Compounds

Description, structure of phosphoric acidsEnergy Changes in Chemical Reactions – Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic system – state function Zeroth law – concept of temperature First law: ΔE = Q-W (conservation of energy) Second law – concept of entropy

o Entropy as a measure of “disorder”o Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states

Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation Endothermic/exothermic reactions

o Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formationo Hess’ law of heat summation

Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation Free energy: G Spontaneous reactions and ΔGO

Coefficient of expansion Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization Phase diagram: pressure and temperature

Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions – Kinetics and Equilibrium Reaction rate Dependence of reaction rate upon concentration of reactants

o Rate law, rate constanto Reaction order

Rate-determining step Dependence of reaction rate upon temperature

o Activation energy Activated complex or transition state Interpretation of energy profiles showing energies of reactants, products, activation

energy, and ΔH for the reactiono Use of the Arrhenius Equation

Kinetic control versus thermodynamic control of a reaction Catalysts Equilibrium in reversible chemical reactions

o Law of mass actiono Equilibrium constanto Application of Le Chatelier’s principle

Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔGO

Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of BehaviorPerceiving, Thinking, ReactingSensing the environmentSensory Processing

Sensationo Thresholdso Weber’s Lawo Signal detection theory

o Sensory adaptation Sensory receptors

o Sensory pathwayso Types of sensory receptors

Vision Structure and function of the eye Visual processing

o Visual pathways in the braino Parallel processingo Feature detection

Hearing Auditory processing

o Auditory pathways in the brain Sensory reception by hair cells

Other Senses Somatosensation

o Pain perception Taste

o Taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals Smell

o Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicalso Pheromoneso Olfactory pathways in the brain

Kinesthetic sense Vestibular sense

Perception Perception

o Bottom-up/Top-down processingo Perceptual organizationo Gestalt principles

Making sense of the environmentAttention

Selective attention Divided attention

Cognition Information-processing model Cognitive development

o Piaget’s stages of cognitive developmento Cognitive changes in late adulthoodo Role of culture in cognitive developmento Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development

Biological factors that affect cognition Problem solving and decision making

o Types of problem solvingo Barriers to effective problem solvingo Approaches to problem solvingo Heuristics, biases, intuition, and emotion

Overconfidence and belief perseverance Intellectual functioning

o Multiple definitions of intelligenceo Influence of heredity and environment on intelligenceo Variations in intellectual ability

Consciousness States of consciousness

o Alertnesso Sleep

Stages of sleep Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles Sleep and circadian rhythms Dreaming Sleep disorders

o Hypnosis and meditation Consciousness altering drugs

o Types of consciousness altering drugs and their effects on the nervous system and behavioro Drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain

Memory Encoding

o Process of encoding informationo Processes that aid in encoding memories

Storageo Types of memory storageo Semantic networks and spreading activation

Retrievalo Recall, recognition, and relearningo Retrieval cueso The role of emotion in retrieving memories

Forgettingo Aging and memoryo Memory dysfunctionso Decayo Interferenceo Memory construction and source monitoring

Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learningo Neural plasticityo Memory and learningo Long-term potentiation

Language Theories of language development Influence of language on cognition Different brain areas control language and speech

Responding to the worldEmotion

Three components of emotion Universal emotions Adaptive role of emotion Theories of emotion

o James-Lange theoryo Cannon-Bard theory

o Schachter-Singer theory The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion

o Generation and experience of emotions involve many brain regionso The role of the limbic system in emotiono Emotional experiences can be stored as memories that can be recalled by similar circumstanceso Prefrontal cortex is critical for emotional experience, and is also important in temperament and

decision makingo Emotion and the autonomic nervous systemo Physiological markers of emotion (signatures of emotion)

Stress The nature of stress

o Appraisalo Different types of stressorso Effects of stress on psychological functions

Stress outcomes/response to stresso Physiologicalo Emotionalo Behavioral

Managing stress

Influencing Behavior, Behavioral ChangeIndividual influences on behaviorBiological Bases of Behavior

The nervous systemo Neurons

The reflex arco Neurotransmitterso Peripheral nervous systemo Central nervous system

The brain The brainstem The cerebellum The diencephalon The cerebrum Control of voluntary movement in the cerebral cortex Information processing in the cerebral cortex Lateralization of cortical functions Methods of studying the brain

Neurons communicate and influence behavior Influence of neurotransmitters on behavior The endocrine system

o Components of the endocrine systemo Effects of the endocrine system on behavior

Behavioral geneticso Genes, temperament, and heredityo Adaptive values of traits and behaviorso Interaction between heredity and environmental influences

Genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of behaviorso Experience and behavior

o Regulatory genes and behavioro Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations

Human physiological developmento Prenatal developmento Motor developmento Developmental changes in adolescence

Personality Theories of personality

o Psychoanalytic perspectiveo Humanistic perspectiveo Trait perspectiveo Social cognitive perspectiveo Biological perspectiveo Behaviorist perspective

Situational approach to explaining behaviorPsychological Disorders

Understanding psychological disorderso Biomedical vs. biopsychosocial approacheso Classifying psychological disorderso Rates of psychological disorders

Types of psychological disorderso Anxiety disorderso Somatoform disorderso Mood disorderso Schizophreniao Dissociative disordero Personality disorder

Biological bases of nervous system disorderso Schizophreniao Depressiono Alzheimer’s diseaseo Parkinson’s diseaseo Stem cell-based therapy to regenerate neurons in CNS

Motivation Factors that influence motivation

o Instincto Arousalo Drives

Negative feedback systemso Needs

Theories that explain how motivation affects human behavioro Drive reduction theoryo Incentive theoryo Other: cognitive and need based theories

Application of theories of motivation to understand behaviorso Biological factors in regulation of these motivational processeso Socio-cultural factors in regulation of these motivational processes

Attitudes Components of attitudes

The link between attitudes and behavioro Processes by which behavior influences attitudeso Processes by which attitudes influence behaviorso Cognitive dissonance theory

Social processes that influence human behaviorHow the Presence of Others Affects Individual Behavior

Social facilitation Deindividuation Bystander effect Social loafing Peer pressure

Group Processes Group polarization Groupthink

Culture Assimilation Multiculturalism Subcultures

Socialization Definition of socialization Norms Agents of socialization Stigma and deviance Conformity and obedience

Attitude and behavior changeHabituation and DishabituationAssociative Learning

Classical conditioningo Neutral, conditioned, and unconditioned stimulio Conditioned and unconditioned responseo Processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination

Operant conditioningo Processes of shaping and extinctiono Types of reinforcement: positive, negative, primary, conditionalo Reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-intervalo Punishmento Escape and avoidance learning

Cognitive processes that affect associative learning Biological factors that affect associative learning

o Mirror neuronso Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions

Applications of observational learning to explain individual behaviorTheories of Attitude and Behavior Change

Elaboration likelihood modelo Information processing routes to persuasion

Social cognitive theory Factors that affect attitude change

Self and OthersSelf-identitySelf-Concept and Identity

Definitions of self-concept, identity, and social identity The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity Different types of identities

Formation of Identity Stages of identity development

o Theories of developmental stages Influence of social factors on identity formation

o Influence of individualso Influence of group

Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation

Social thinkingAttributing Behavior to Persons or Situations

Attribution theoryo Fundamental attribution erroro How culture affects attributions

How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others

Prejudice and Bias Definition of prejudice Processes that contribute to prejudice

o Power, prestige, and classo The role of emotion in prejudiceo The role of cognition in prejudice

Stereotypes Ethnocentrism

o In-group and out-groupo Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism

Processes Related to Stereotypes Self-fulfilling prophecy Stereotype threat

Social interactionsElements of Social Interaction

Statuses Roles Groups Networks Organizations

Self-presentation and Interacting with Others Expressing and detecting emotion

o Gender shapes expressiono Culture shapes expression

Impression managemento Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach)

Verbal and nonverbal communication Animal signals and communication

Social Behavior Attraction Aggression Attachment Social support Biological explanations of social behavior in animals

o Foraging behavioro Mating behavior and mate choiceo Applying game theoryo Altruismo Inclusive fitness

Discrimination Individual vs. institutional discrimination The relationship between prejudice and discrimination How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination

Cultural and Social Influences on HealthUnderstanding social structureTheoretical Approaches

Functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism Social constructionism

Social Institutions Education Family Religion Government and economy Health and medicine

Culture Material culture Symbolic culture

o Language and symbolso Values and beliefso Norms and ritual

Culture and social groups Evolution and human culture

Demographic characteristics and processes Demographic Structure of Society

Age Gender Race and ethnicity Immigration status Sexual orientation

Demographic Shifts and Social Change Demographic transition Fertility, migration, and mortality Social movements Globalization Urbanization

Social Stratification and Access to ResourcesSocial inequalitySpatial Inequality

Residential segregation (neighborhoods) Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks) Global inequalities

Social Class Aspects of social stratification

o Class, status, and powero Cultural capital and social capitalo Social reproductiono Privilege and prestigeo Intersections with race, gender and age

Patterns of social mobilityo Intergenerational and intragenerational mobilityo Downward and upward mobilityo Meritocracy

Povertyo Relative and absoluteo Social exclusion (segregation and isolation)

Health Disparities Race, gender, and class inequalities in health

Healthcare Disparities Race, gender, and class inequalities in healthcare