mb0050 research methodology - cover page

Master of Business Administration-MBA Semester III

Name Ashwatha NarayananB

Roll No 511032634

Learning Centre GLACE

Learning Centre Code 2815

Course Master of Business Administration

Subject Research Methodology

Subject Code ndash MB0050

Semester III

Assignment No XXXX

Date of Submission at the Learning Centre 06122010

Roll No 511032634

ASSIGNMENTS ndash Set 1

Q 1 Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of research explaining why ndash a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c) Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research

Ans

Exploratory Research

It is also known as formulative research It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives It usually takes the form of a pilot study The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas or to increase the researcherrsquos familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies ldquoAt the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations at the second the discovery of relationships between variablesrdquo

Descriptive Study

It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation It is the simplest type of research It is more specific than an exploratory research It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study It contributes to the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation The information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action program

Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus It is directed towards discovering what is happening why it is happening and what can be done about It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it It may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem its thorough formulation clear-cut definition of the given population adequate

Roll No 511032634 Page 2

methods for collecting accurate information precise measurement of variables statistical analysis and test of significance

Evaluation Studies

It is a type of applied research It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development of the project area It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis It is concerned also with change over time

Q 2In the context of hypothesis testing briefly explain the difference between a) Null and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one tailed test d) Parametric and non parametric tests

Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

In the context of statistical analysis we often talk null and alternative hypothesis If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good then this assumption is termed as null hypothesis As against this we may think that the method A is superior it is alternative hypothesis Symbolically presented as

Null hypothesis = H0 and Alternative hypothesis = Ha

Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the hypothesis mean (micro H0) = 100 Then we would say that the null hypotheses are that the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolical we can express as H0 micro= micro H0=100If our sample results do not support these null hypotheses we should conclude that something else is true What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis If we accept H0 then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0 then we are accepting Ha For H0 micro= micro H0=100 we may consider three possible alternative hypotheses as follows


The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn (the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypothesis from the data he collects and testing the hypothesis from the same data) In the choice of null hypothesis the following considerations are usually kept in view

middot Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which wishes to prove and the null hypothesis are ones that wish to disprove Thus a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject the alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities

middot If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is α (the level of significance) which is chosen very small

middot Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis ie it should not state about or approximately a certain value

middot Generally in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis keeping the alternative hypothesis in view Why so The answer is that on assumption that null hypothesis is true one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample results but this cannot be done if we proceed with alternative hypothesis Hence the use of null hypothesis (at times also known as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent

Type I amp Type II Errors

In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors that researchers make We may reject H0 when H0 is true amp we may accept H0 when it is not true The former is known as Type I amp the later is known as Type II In other words Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted amp Type II error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected Type I error is donated by α (alpha) also called as level of significance of test and Type II error is donated by β(beta)


The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis If type I error is fixed at 5 it means there are about chances in 100 that we will reject H 0 when H0 is true We can control type I error just by fixing it at a lower level For instance if we fix it at 1 we will say that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 001But with a fixed sample size n when we try to reduce type I error the probability of committing type II error increases Both types of errors can not be reduced simultaneously There is a trade-off in business situations decision-makers decide the appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both types of errors If type I error involves time amp trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted where as type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned then in such a situation one should prefer a type II error As a result one must set very high level for type I error in onersquos testing techniques of a given hypothesis Hence in testing of hypothesis one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I amp Type II error

Two Tailed Test amp One Tailed Test

In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be clearly understood A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if say the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the population Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0 micro= micro H0 and Ha micronemicro H0 which may microgtmicro H0 or microltmicro H0 If significance level is and the two-tailed test to be applied the probability of the rejection area will be 005 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0025) and that of the acceptance region will be 095 If we take micro = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from micro in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test say whether the population mean in either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value


Testing of Hypothesis

The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between the conflicting hypotheses about the value of the population hypothesis about the value of the population of a population parameter Hypothesis testing helps to secede on the basis of a sample data whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or false Statisticians have developed several tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as

middot Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis

middot Non Parametric test or distribution ndash free test of the hypothesis

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw samples Assumption like observations come from a normal population sample size is large assumptions about the population parameters like mean variants etc must hold good before parametric test can be used But there are situation when the researcher cannot or does not want to make assumptions In such situations we use statistical methods for testing hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumption about the parameters of parent population Besides most non-parametric test assumes only nominal or original data where as parametric test require measurement equivalent to at least an interval scale As a result non-parametric test needs more observation than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I amp Type II error

Important Parametric Tests

The important parametric tests are

middot z-test

middot t-test

middot x2-testmiddot f-test

All these tests are based on the assumption of normality ie the source of data is considered to be normally distributed In some cases the population may not be normally distributed yet the test will be applicable on account of the fact that we mostly deal with samples and the sampling distributions closely approach normal distributions


Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical measures particularly the mean The relevant test statistic is worked out and compared with its probable value (to be read from the table showing area under normal curve) at a specified level of significance for judging the significance of the measure concerned This is a most frequently used test in research studies This test is used even when binomial distribution or t-distribution is applicable on the presumption that such a distribution tends to approximate normal distribution as lsquonrsquo becomes larger Z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a sample to some hypothesis mean for the population in case of large sample or when population variance is known as z-test is also used for judging the significance of difference between means to of two independent samples in case of large samples or when population variance is known z-test is generally used for comparing the sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or for judging the difference in proportions of two independent samples when happens to be large Besides this test may be used for judging the significance of median mode co-efficient of correlation and several other measures

T-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of sample mean or for judging significance of difference between the two means of the two samples in case of samples when population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate the population variance) In case two samples are related we use paired t-test (difference test) for judging the significance of their mean of difference between the two related samples It can also be used for judging the significance of co-efficient of simple and partial correlations The relevant test statistic t is calculated from the sample data and then compared with its probable value based on t-distribution at a specified level of significance for concerning degrees of freedom for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis it may be noted that t-test applies only in case of small sample when population variance is unknown

X2-test is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance is unknownF-test is based on f-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent samples This test is also used in the context of variance (ANOVA) for judging the significance of more than two sample means at one and the same time It is also used for judging the significance of multiple correlation coefficients Test statistic f is calculated and compared with its probable value for accepting or rejecting the H0


Q 3 Explain the difference between a causal relationship and correlation with an example of each What are the possible reasons for a correlation between two variables

Ans

Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis Testing Research

When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis it is known as a hypothesis-testing research Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design A research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as lsquoexperimental hypothesis-testing researchrsquo where as a research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed as lsquonon-experimental hypothesis-testing researchrsquo Eg assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income influences the social attendance of a group of students by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two variables Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because the independent variable family income is not manipulated Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay their school fees regularly and them classifies them into tow sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A whose parents have regular earning and 75 in group B whose parents do not have regular earning And that at the end of the study the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in this particular study the independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated

Q 4 Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique What are the characteristics of a good sample

Ans

Sampling Procedure

The decision process of sampling is complicated one The researcher has to first identify the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance


the conflicting factors The various criteria governing the choice of the sampling technique

1 Purpose of the Survey What does the researcher aim at If he intends to generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population then an appropriate probability sampling method must be selected The choice of a particular type of probability sampling depends on the geographical area of the survey and the size and the nature of the population under study

2 Measurability The application of statistical inference theory requires computation of the sampling error from the sample itself Probability samples only allow such computation Hence where the research objective requires statistical inference the sample should be drawn by applying simple random sampling method or stratified random sampling method depending on whether the population is homogenous or heterogeneous

3 Degree of Precision Should the results of the survey be very precise or even rough results could serve the purpose The desired level of precision as one of the criteria of sampling method selection Where a high degree of precision of results is desired probability sampling should be used Where even crude results would serve the purpose (Eg marketing surveys readership surveys etc) any convenient non-random sampling like quota sampling would be enough

4 Information about Population How much information is available about the population to be studied Where no list of population and no information about its nature are available it is difficult to apply a probability sampling method Then exploratory study with non-probability sampling may be made to gain a better idea of population After gaining sufficient knowledge about the population through the exploratory study appropriate probability sampling design may be adopted

5 The Nature of the Population In terms of the variables to be studied is the population homogenous or heterogeneous In the case of a homogenous population even a simple random sampling will give a representative sample If the population is heterogeneous stratified random sampling is appropriate

6 Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population If the area covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is quite large multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate But if the area and the size of the population are small single stage probability sampling methods could be used

7 Financial resources If the available finance is limited it may become necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling or even quota sampling as a compromise However if the


objectives of the study and the desired level of precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget there is no alternative than to give up the proposed survey Where the finance is not a constraint a researcher can choose the most appropriate method of sampling that fits the research objective and the nature of population

8 Time Limitation The time limit within which the research project should be completed restricts the choice of a sampling method Then as a compromise it may become necessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple random sampling instead of stratified samplingsampling with probability proportional to size multi-stage cluster sampling instead of single-stage sampling of elements Of course the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent

9 Economy It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost A sample is economical if the precision per unit cost is high or the cost per unit of variance is low

The above criteria frequently conflict and the researcher must balance and blend them to obtain to obtain a good sampling plan The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the sampling theory to the available facilities and resources That is it represents a compromise between idealism and feasibility One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques

Characteristics of a Good Sample

The characteristics of a good sample are described below

middot Representativeness a sample must be representative of the population Probability sampling technique yield representative sample

middot Accuracy accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample An accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population

middot Precision the sample must yield precise estimate Precision is measured by standard error

middot Size a good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable

Q 5 Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary sources to gather the required information

Ans


Primary Sources of Data

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected eg collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness brand preference brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior from a sample of consumers by interviewing them Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation interviewing mailing etc

Advantage of Primary Data

middot It is original source of data

middot It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time

middot It flexible to the advantage of researcher

middot Extensive research study is based of primary data

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources In this case the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming Yet for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources

In such cases where the available data are inappropriate inadequate or obsolete primary data have to be gathered They include socio economic surveys social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities sociological studies of social problems and social institutions Marketing research leadership studies opinion polls attitudinal surveys readership radio listening and TV viewing surveys knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies farm managements studies business management studies etc

There are various methods of data collection A lsquoMethodrsquo is different from a lsquoToolrsquo while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data a tool is an instruments used for the method For example a schedule is used for interviewing The important methods are


(a) observation (b) interviewing (c) mail survey (d) experimentation (e) simulation and (f) projective technique Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the later chapters

Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies eg census reports annual reports and financial statements of companies Statistical statement Reports of Government Departments Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional Banks published by the NABARD Reports of the National sample survey Organization Reports of trade associations publications of international organizations such as UNO IMF World Bank ILO WHO etc Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports but also unpublished records The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms and organizations eg accounting and financial records personnel records register of members minutes of meetings inventory records etc

Features of Secondary Sources

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials they have certain common characteristics

First they are readymade and readily available and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them

Second they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others Clearly this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources

Finally secondary sources are not limited in time and space That is the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered

Use of Secondary Data


The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher First some specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose For example the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country their coverage of villages their capital structure volume of business etc may be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected districtstate

Second secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research may be tested eg the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole and so on

Finally secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project Such studies as securities Market Behavior Financial Analysis of companies Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks sociological studies on crimes historical studies and the like depend primarily on secondary data Year books statistical reports of government departments report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises Censes Reports etc serve as major data sources for such research studies

Advantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources have some advantages

1 Secondary data if available can be secured quickly and cheaply Once their source of documents and reports are located collection of data is just matter of desk work Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided thanks to Xeroxing facilities

2 Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost Thus the use of secondary data extends the researcherrsquos space and time reach

3 The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made

4 Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study

5 The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data It readily meets the need for additional empirical support The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected


Evaluation of Secondary Data

When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research he should evaluate them before deciding to use them

1 Data Pertinence

The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problem under study The following questions should be considered

middot What are the definitions and classifications employed Are they consistent

middot What are the measurements of variables used What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research

middot What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time Does this coverage fit the needs of our research

On the basis of above consideration the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data

2 Data Quality

If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs the next step is to examine the quality of the data The quality of data refers to their accuracy reliability and completeness The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected What is the authority and prestige of the organization Is it well recognized Is it noted for reliability It is capable of collecting reliable data Does it use trained and well qualified investigators The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which has quoted from the original Then only the researcher can review the cautionary ands other comments that were made in the original source

3 Data Completeness

The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original


organization Is the methodology sound Is the sample size small or large Is the sampling method appropriate Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study The question of possible bias should also be examined Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the data had a particular orientation Has the study been made to promote the organizationrsquos own interest How the study was conducted These are important clues The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and sampling design Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the researcherrsquos study

Q 6 Case Study You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City in order to ascertain reader habits and interests Develop a title for the study define the research problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the study

Ans

For this case I would like to take ldquoThe Times of Indiardquo as an example to improve there circulation in Bangalore

Process of Observations

The use of observation method requires proper planning

middot First the researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation method to the data needs of the selected study

middot Second he must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use of observation method These determine the data to be collected

middot Third he must decide the observation content viz specific conditions events and activities that have to be observed for the required data The observation content should include the relevant variables

middot Fourth for each variable chosen the operational definition should be specified


middot Fifth the observation setting the subjects to be observed the timing and mode of observation recording procedure recording instruments to be used and other details of the task should be determined

middot Last observers should be selected and trained The persons to be selected must have sufficient concentration powers strong memory power and unobtrusive nature Selected persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical training

Participant Observation

In this observation the observer is a part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an observer and a participant For example a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities like folk dance The persons who are observed should not be aware of the researcherrsquos purpose Then only their behavior will be lsquonaturalrsquo The concealment of research objective and researcherrsquos identity is justified on the ground that it makes it possible to study certain aspects of the grouprsquos culture which are not revealed to outsiders

Advantages The advantages of participant observation are

middot The observer can understand the emotional reactions of the observed group and get a deeper insight of their experiences

middot The observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the observed behavior and heard statements

Disadvantages Participant observation suffers from some demerits

1 The participant observer narrows his range of observation For example if there is a hierarchy of power in the groupcommunity under study he comes to occupy one position within in and thus other avenues of information are closed to him

2 To the extent that the participant observer participates emotionally the objectivity is lost

3 Another limitation of this method is the dual demand made on the observer Recording can interfere with participation and participation can interfere with observation Recording on the spot is not possible and it has to be postponed until the observer is alone Such time lag results in some inaccuracy in recording


Importance of Questionnaire

The significance of questionnaire method is that it affords great facilities in collecting data from large diverse and widely scattered groups of people It is used in gathering objective quantitative data as well as for securing information of a qualitative nature In some studies questionnaire is the sole research tool utilised but it is more often used in conjunction with other methods of investigations In questionnaire technique great reliance is placed on the respondentrsquos verbal report for data on the stimuli or experiences which is exposed as also for data on his behavior

Advantages of Questionnaires

The advantages of mail surveys are

middot They are less costly than personal interviews as cost of mailing is the same through out the country irrespective of distance

middot They can cover extensive geographical areas

middot Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are difficult to reach in any other way

middot The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their convenience

middot Mail surveys being more impersonal provide more anonymity than personal interviews

middot Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewerrsquos bias as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the investigator

middot Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail questionnaire



Q 1Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study

Ans Types of Questionnaires

1 Structured Standardized Questionnaire2 Unstructured Questionnaire

Alternative Modes of Sending Questionnaires1 Personal Delivery2 attaching Questionnaire to a Product3 Advertising the Questionnaires4 News-Stand Inserts


The significance of questionnaire method is that it affords great facilities in collecting data from large diverse and widely scattered groups of people It is used in gathering objective quantitative data as well as for securing information of a qualitative nature In some studies questionnaire is the sole research tool utilized but it is more often used in conjunction with other methods of investigations In questionnaire technique great reliance is placed on the respondentrsquos verbal report for data on the stimuli or experiences which is exposed as also for data on his behavior











Disadvantages of Questionnaires

The disadvantages of mail surveys are

1 The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of literacy is very low

2 The response rate of mail surveys is low Hence the resulting sample will not be a representative one

Q 2 In processing data what is the difference between measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion What is the most important measure of central tendency and dispersion

Ans

Measures of Central Tendency (Review)


You are already familiar with the following measures of central tendency These statistics indicate where the dataare centeredMean ( X ) The mean (average) of a set of scores is the sum of the scores divided by the number of scoresMedian The median of a set of scores is the middle score when the numbers are arranged in size order Ifthere is an even number of data values as in x = 15 74131110 the median is the average of the twomiddle scores4 7 1011Median=10+112=105 13 15The first quartile (Q1) is the median of the values of below the medianThe third quartile (Q3) is the median of the values of above the medianExamples11 15Q1 22 31Median 32 41Q3 5222 34 39Q1=34+392=36556 67Median$ 69 72 84Q3=72+842=7887


Mode The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a set The mode of 2 3 1 2 4 3 5 6 2 5 is 2since 2 appears more times than any other value in the list Some data sets have no mode and others will havemultiple modesMeasures of DispersionThe range and standard deviation are measures of dispersion since these statistics describe how spread out the dataareRange The range of a set of scores is the difference between the largest and smallest scoresStandard Deviation The standard deviation of a set of scores is a statistic that measures how far apart theindividual scores are from the mean If the data represent an entire population (for example the scores of anentire class) the population standard deviation denoted X is used Sometimes it is impractical to collectdata for the entire population so a representative sample would be used to collect information about the entirepopulation In these cases the sample standard deviation denoted Sx is usedCalculating Standard Deviation Using the Graphing Calculator1 Data is stored in Lists on the calculator Locate and pressthe STAT button on the calculator Choose EDIT Thecalculator will display the first three of six lists (columns) forentering data Simply type your data and press ENTER Useyour arrow keys to move between listsData can also be entered from the home screen using setnotation --15 22 32 31 52 41 11 1049312 L1(where 1049312 is the STO key)2 Press the STAT button Choose CALC at the top Select 1-Var StatsNotice that you are now on the home screen Specify the list youwish to use by choosing the 2nd button and the list name(Note If you omit the list name the calculator uses L1 bydefault)Press ENTER and view the calculations Use the down arrow to viewall of the informationthe meanthe sum of the datathe sum of the squares of the datathe sample standard deviationthe population standard deviation


the sample size ( of pieces of data)the smallest data entrydata at the first quartiledata at the median (second quartile)data at the third quartilethe largest data entry

Mean Median and ModeIn many real-life situations it is helpful to describe data by a single number that ismost representative of the entire collection of numbers Such a number is called ameasure of central tendency The most commonly used measures are as follows1 The mean or average of numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by 2 The median of numbers is the middle number when the numbers are writtenin order If is even the median is the average of the two middle numbers3 The mode of numbers is the number that occurs most frequently If twonumbers tie for most frequent occurrence the collection has two modes and iscalled bimodalExample 1 _ Comparing Measures of Central TendencyOn an interview for a job the interviewer tells you that the average annual incomeof the companyrsquos 25 employees is $60849 The actual annual incomes of the 25employees are shown below What are the mean median and mode of theincomes Was the person telling you the truth$17305 $478320 $45678 $18980 $17408$25676 $28906 $12500 $24540 $33450$12500 $33855 $37450 $20432 $28956$34983 $36540 $250921 $36853 $16430$32654 $98213 $48980 $94024 $35671SolutionThe mean of the incomes isTo find the median order the incomes as follows$12500 $12500 $16430 $17305 $17408$18980 $20432 $24540 $25676 $28906$28956 $32654 $33450 $33855 $34983$35671 $36540 $36853 $37450 $45678$48980 $94024 $98213 $250921 $478320


From this list you can see that the median (the middle number) is $33450 Fromthe same list you can see that $12500 is the only income that occurs more thanonce So the mode is $12500 Technically the person was telling the truthbecause the average is (generally) defined to be the mean However of the threemeasures of central tendency Mean $60849 Median $33450 Mode $12500it seems clear that the median is most representative The mean is inflated by thetwo highest salaries

Choosing a Measure of Central TendencyWhich of the three measures of central tendency is the most representative Theanswer is that it depends on the distribution of the data and the way in which youplan to use the dataFor instance in Example 1 the mean salary of $60849 does not seem veryrepresentative to a potential employee To a city income tax collector who wantsto estimate 1 of the total income of the 25 employees however the mean isprecisely the right measureExample 2 _ Choosing a Measure of Central TendencyWhich measure of central tendency is the most representative of the data shownin each frequency distributiona Number Tally b Number Tally c Number Tally1 7 1 9 1 62 20 2 8 2 13 15 3 7 3 24 11 4 6 4 35 8 5 5 5 56 3 6 6 6 57 2 7 7 7 48 0 8 8 8 39 15 9 9 9 0Solutiona For this data the mean is 423 the median is 3 and the mode is 2 Of thesethe mode is probably the most representativeb For this data the mean and median are each 5 and the modes are 1 and 9 (thedistribution is bimodal) Of these the mean or median is the most representativec For this data the mean is 459 the median is 5 and the mode is 1 Of thesethe mean or median is the most representative


Variance and Standard DeviationVery different sets of numbers can have the same mean You will now study twomeasures of dispersion which give you an idea of how much the numbers in aset differ from the mean of the set These two measures are called the variance ofthe set and the standard deviation of the setA6 Appendix A _ Concepts in StatisticsDefinitions of Variance and Standard DeviationConsider a set of numbers with a mean of The varianceof the set isand the standard deviation of the set is

Q 3 What are the characteristics of a good research design Explain how the research design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and diagnostic studies

Ans

Meaning of Research Design

The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head Even if he could he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-related Therefore he records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts Such a symbolic construction may be called the research design or model A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study It specifies the objectives of the study the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives It constitutes the blue print for the collection measurement and analysis of data It is the plan structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions The plan is the overall scheme or program of research A research design is the program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting analyzing and interpreting observations It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow elltiz Jahoda and Destsch and Cook describe ldquoA research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedurerdquo

Characteristics of a Good Research Design

1 It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction


2 It reduces wastage of time and cost

3 It encourages co-ordination and effective organization

4 It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications as circumstances demand when the study progresses new aspects new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study deepens

5 It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants

6 It has also to be kept within the manageable limits

Research design in case of exploratory research studies Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem broadly defined initially is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data Generally the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about

1 The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it Besides the bibliographical survey of studies already made in onersquos area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be looked into by the researcher

2 Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied The object of such a survey is to


obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered Generally the experience of collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours Hence it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that at the time of interview they may be able to contribute effectively Thus an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis This survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research

3 Analyses of lsquoinsight-stimulatingrsquo examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested For this purpose the existing records if nay may be examined the unstructured interviewing may take place or some other approach may be adopted Attitude of the investigator the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights Now what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied There is no clear cut answer to it Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances are more appropriate than others One can mention few examples of lsquoinsight-stimulatingrsquo cases such as the reactions of strangers the reactions of marginal individuals the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like In general cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of hypothesis formulation Thus in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies


Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or of a group where as diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are the example of diagnostic research studies As against this studies concerned with specific predictions with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual group of situation are all examples of descriptive research studies Most of the social research comes under this category From the point of view of the research design the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research studies In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies the researcher must be able to define clearly what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he wants to study Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies the procedure to be used must be carefully planned The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability With due concern for the economical completion of the research study the design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following

1 Formulating the objective of the study

2 Designing the methods of data collection

3 Selecting the sample

4 Collecting the data

5 Processing and analyzing the data

6 Reporting the findings

In a descriptive diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant If this is not done carefully the study may not provide the desired information Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained While designing data-collection procedure adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be ensured Which ever method is selected questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behavior

More often than not sample has to be designed Usually one or more forms of probability sampling or what is often described as random sampling are used


To obtain data free from errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them it is necessary to supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect and record information Checks may be set up to ensure that the data collecting staffs performs their duty honestly and without prejudice The data collected must be processed and analyzed This includes steps like coding the interview replies observations etc tabulating the data and performing several statistical computations

Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings This is the task of communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner

Q 4 How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research Give two specific examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research

Ans

Meaning of Case Study

Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit or entity be it a person a family an institution or a community The aim of case study method is to locate or identify the factors that account for the behavior patterns of a given unit and its relationship with the environment The case data are always gathered with a view to attracting the natural history of the social unit and its relationship with the social factors and forces operative and involved in this surrounding milieu In short the social researcher tries by means of the case study method to understand the complex of factors that are working within a social unit as an integrated totality Looked at from another angle the case study serves the purpose similar to the clue-providing function of expert opinion It is most appropriate when one is trying to find clues and ideas for further research

The major credit for introducing case study method into social investigation goes to Frederick Leplay Herbert Spencer was the first social philosopher who used case study in comparative studies of different cultures William Healey used case study in his study of juvenile delinquency Anthropologists and ethnologists have liberally utilized cast study in the systematic description of primitive cultures Historians have used this method for portraying some historical character or particular historical period and describing the developments within a national community


Advantages of Case Study Method

Case study of particular value when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities For example an in-depth study of a firmrsquos top sales people and comparison with worst salespeople might reveal characteristics common to stellar performers Here again the exploratory investigation is best served by an active curiosity and willingness to deviate from the initial plan when findings suggest new courses of inquiry might prove more productive It is easy to see how the exploratory research objectives of generating insights and hypothesis would be well served by use of this technique

Making Case Study Effective

Let us discuss the criteria for evaluating the adequacy of the case history or life history which is of central importance for case study John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows

i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series That is the case drawn out from its total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or community The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify thee community values standards and their shared way of life

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant That is the action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation In other words the social meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized That is in case of an individual being the member of a family the role of family in shaping his behavior must never be overlooked

iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be clearly shown That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism the man gradually blossoms forth into a social person are especially fruitful

v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed In other words the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee personrsquos various experiences


vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor One of the important criteria for the life history is that a personrsquos life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations

vii) The life history material itself must be organised according to some conceptual framework this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level

Case Study as a Method of Business Research

In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities For instance an in-depth study of a firmrsquos top sales people and comparison with the worst sales people might reveal characteristics common to stellar performers The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity and willingness to deviate from the initial plan when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry might prove more productive

Q 5 What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing would be more appropriate

Ans

Meaning of Observation

Observation means viewing or seeing Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study Observation is classical method of scientific study

General Characteristics of Observation Method

Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics

1 It is both a physical and a mental activity The observing eye catches many things that are present But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the given study

2 Observation is selective A researcher does not observe anything and everything but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the


nature scope and objectives of his study For example suppose a researcher desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over speeding When he observed the movements of vehicles on the road many things are before his eyes the type make size and colour of the vehicles the persons sitting in them their hair style etc All such things which are not relevant to his study are ignored and only over speeding and traffic violations are keenly observed by him

3 Observation is purposive and not casual It is made for the specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study It captures the natural social context in which persons behavior occur It grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social relations of the participants

4 Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research and such as observation schedule social metric scale etc and precision instruments if any










Types of Observations

Observations may be classified in different ways With reference to investigatorrsquos role it may be classified into (a) participant observation and (b) non-participant observation In terms of mode of observation it may be classified into (c) direct observation With reference to the rigor of the system adopted Observation is classified into (e) controlled observation and (f) uncontrolled observation

Advantages of observation

Observation has certain advantages

1 The main virtue of observation is its directness it makes it possible to study behavior as it occurs The researcher need not ask people about their behavior and interactions he can simply watch what they do and say

2 Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their natural settings Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researched situation for instance in interview the respondent may not behave in a natural way There is no such artificiality in observational studies especially when the observed persons are not aware of their being observed

3 Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate meaningfully eg studies of children tribal animals birds etc

4 Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of behavior Further more verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior through observation The validity of what men of position and authority say can be verified by observing what they actually do

5 Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs For example only observation can provide an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management representatives

6 Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their conduct than questioning

7 It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning

8 Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate data and also of making continuous observations over longer periods


Use of Observation in Business Research

Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes It may be used for studying (a) The behavior of human beings in purchasing goods and services life style customs and manner interpersonal relations group dynamics crowd behavior leadership styles managerial style other behaviors and actions (b) The behavior of other living creatures like birds animals etc (c) Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores factories residences etc (d) Flow of traffic and parking problems (e) movement of materials and products through a plant

Q 6 Case Study You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City in order to ascertain reader habits and interests What type of research report would be most appropriate Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections

Ans



































Q 1 Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of research explaining why ndash a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c) Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research

Ans

Exploratory Research

It is also known as formulative research It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives It usually takes the form of a pilot study The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas or to increase the researcherrsquos familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies ldquoAt the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations at the second the discovery of relationships between variablesrdquo

Descriptive Study

It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation It is the simplest type of research It is more specific than an exploratory research It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of study It contributes to the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation It can highlight important methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation The information obtained may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action program

Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus It is directed towards discovering what is happening why it is happening and what can be done about It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it It may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem its thorough formulation clear-cut definition of the given population adequate

Roll No 511032634


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