mb0034 research methodology fall 10

8/8/2019 MB0034 Research Methodology Fall 10

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Q 1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of research,

explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c) Diagnostic research d)

Evaluation research.

Ans.: Research may be classified crudely according to its major intent or the methods.According to the intent, research may be classified as:

Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a

scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or inventsomething. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic

research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:

• How did the universe begin?

• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

• How do slime molds reproduce?

• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all branches of science isneeded in order for progress to take place. In other words, basic research lays down the

foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs

often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannotforesee the future well enough to predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only

did applied research, we would still be making better spears."

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to

acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to

improve the human condition.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• Improve agricultural crop production

• Treat or cure a specific disease

•

Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic

research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems

resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.

a ) Exploratory Research



Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. It

should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory research is a type of

research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps

determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. Given its

fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not

actually exist.

Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature

and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees,

management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus

groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for research

methods that are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with

up-to-date information; major search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers

by services such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods

of time by services such as Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to attract worldwide

feedback on any subject.

The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but

they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative

research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it

cannot tell us "how often" or "how many."

Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large..

b) Descriptive Research

Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about

the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who,what, where, when and how.

Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe

what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship,

where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a lowrequirement for internal validity.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_research

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Alerts

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Trends

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_population


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_research

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Alerts

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Trends




The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best

approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitativeresearch often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of

why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there are

always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the life of the people around

you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. Thereader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a

healthy life.

c) Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering

what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying thecauses of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering

and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior

knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population,adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables,

statistical analysis and test of significance.

d) Evaluation Studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the

development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantityof an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its

success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It isconcerned also with change over time.

Q2. In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a) Null and

alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one tailed test d)

Parametric and non parametric test.

Ans:- Some basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses are explained below -

a) Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk null and alternative hypothesis. If we are to

compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that

both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as null hypothesis. As againstthis, we may think that the method A is superior, it is alternative hypothesis. Symbolically

presented as:



known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other words, Type I error mean rejection of

hypothesis which should have been accepted & Type II error means accepting of hypothesis

which should have been rejected. Type I error is donated by α (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error is donated by β(beta).

Decision

Accept H0 Reject H0

H0 (true) Correct decision Type I error (α error)

Ho (false) Type II error (β error) Correct decision

The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there are about

chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I error just by fixing it

at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the maximum probability of

committing type I error would only be 0.01.

But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of committing

type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced simultaneously. There is a trade-

off in business situations, decision-makers decide the appropriate level of type I error byexamining the costs of penalties attached to both types of errors. If type I error involves time &

trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted, where as type II error

means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be

poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error means takinga chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such

a situation one should prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for type I

error in one’s testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of hypothesis, one mustmake all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I & Type II error.

c. One tailed and two tailed test

In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be clearly

understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantlyhigher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the population. Such a test

inappropriate when we haveH0: µ= µ H0 and Ha: µ≠µ H0 which may µ>µ H0 or µ<µ H0. If

significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied, the probability of the rejection areawill be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0.025) and that of the acceptance region will

be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from µ, in that case we

shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered

appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the populationmean in either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value.

Two-Tailed Test

A two-tailed t-test divides a in half, placing half in the each tail. The null hypothesis in this case

is a particular value, and there are two alternative hypotheses, one positive and one negative. The



critical value of t, tcrit, is written with both a plus and minus sign (± ). For example, the critical

value of t when there are ten degrees of freedom (df=10) and a is set to .05, is t crit= ± 2.228. The

sampling distribution model used in a two-tailed t-test is illustrated below:

One-Tailed -Test

There are really two different one-tailed t-tests, one for each tail. In a one-tailed t-test, all the

area associated with a is placed in either one tail or the other. Selection of the tail depends upon

which direction tobs would be (+ or -) if the results of the experiment came out as expected. The

selection of the tail must be made before the experiment is conducted and analyzed.

A one-tailed t-test in the positive direction is illustrated below:

The value tcrit would be positive. For example when a is set to .05 with ten degrees of freedom

(df=10), tcrit would be equal to +1.812.

A one-tailed t-test in the negative direction is illustrated below:



The value tcrit would be negative. For example, when a is set to .05 with ten degrees of freedom

(df=10), tcrit would be equal to -1.812.

Comparison of One and Two-tailed t-tests

1. If tOBS = 3.37, then significance would be found in the two-tailed and the positive one-tailed t-

tests. The one-tailed t-test in the negative direction would not be significant, because was

placed in the wrong tail. This is the danger of a one-tailed t-test.

2. If tOBS = -1.92, then significance would only be found in the negative one-tailed t-test. If the

correct direction is selected, it can be seen that one is more likely to reject the null hypothesis.

The significance test is said to have greater power in this case.

The selection of a one or two-tailed t-test must be made before the experiment is performed. It is

not "cricket" to find a that tOBS = -1.92, and then say "I really meant to do a one-tailed t-test."

Because reviewers of articles submitted for publication are sometimes suspicious when a one-

tailed t-test is done, the recommendation is that if there is any doubt, a two-tailed test should be

done.

d) Parametric and non parametric test

The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null

hypothesis) with a view to choose between the conflicting hypotheses about the value of the

population hypothesis about the value of the population of a population parameter. Hypothesistesting helps to secede on the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population

is likely to be true or false. Statisticians have developed several tests of hypothesis (also known

as tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as:

• Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis ;

• Non Parametric test or distribution – free test of the hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw

samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large,

assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variants etc must hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are situation when the researcher cannot or does not want

to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing hypothesis which

are called non parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumption about the



parameters of parent population. Besides, most non-parametric test assumes only nominal or

original data, where as parametric test require measurement equivalent to at least an interval

scale. As a result non-parametric test needs more observation than a parametric test to achievethe same size of Type I & Type II error.

Q3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship & correlation ,with an example of

each. What are the possible reasons for correlation between two variables?

Ans:- Economic & business variables are related. For instance, demand & supply of a

commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls. Demand for a

commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand & price are inversely related or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity when its price rises. Supply of the

commodity decreases when its price falls. We say supply & price are directly related or

positively co-related. Thus, correlation indicates the relationship between two such variables inwhich changes in the value of one variable is accompanies with a change in the value of other

variable.

According to L.R.Connor, “ if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that movements in the

one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the others(s) they are said to be

correlated.

W.I.King defined “Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there exists

some casual connection.”

The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of relationship between

two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which studies the relationship between

two variables. If two variables are said to be correlated, change in the value of one variableresults in a corresponding change in the value of the other variable. Heights & weights of a group

of people, age of husbands & wives etc., are examples of bi-variant data that change together.

Correlation and Causation

Although, the term correlation is sued in the sense of mutual dependence of two or more

variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause & effect relation. Even a high degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a cause & effect relationship

between them

There are a number of different ways in which correlation and causation can become confused.One is called the "Neglect of Common Cause." Also sometimes called "Joint Effect," this occurs

when someone assumes that one event caused another when, in fact, they are both really effects

of some third event. This third event is the "common cause" of the other two. For example:

1. Every time I eat chocolate, it gives me acne.



The speaker above observes a strong correlation between eating chocolate and suffering from

acne, drawing the conclusion that the former causes the latter. What is ignored, however, is the

possibility that both are caused by something else - perhaps this person suffers from anxiety andstress. The stress causes him to eat chocolate, but at the same time causes acne to break out. This

will lead to the two occurring very close in time, even though one isn't actually causing the other.

Many times a fallacy like the one in the statement above occurs in assertions based upon

statistical evidence, for example:

2. Recent studies have proven that watching too much violence on television leads to people

being violent in real life.

Although it may indeed be true that viewing acts of violence can make a person more susceptible

to committing violence, the above statement ignores crucial factors which might have a causal

influence on both. For example, both increasing violence on television and increasing violence insociety might be caused by changing economic circumstances or something else entirely. Thus,

the above cannot be regarded as a sound position until other such possible common causes have

been ruled out first (which, incidentally, may have indeed been done as part of the study, but this

would have to be made explicit for the statement to be valid).

Here is another, more amusing instance where such an error can be made:

3. Researchers at the Aabo Akademi found that Finns who speak the language of their

Nordic neighbors were up to 25 percent less likely to fall ill than those who do not.

Should we conclude from this that learning how to speak Swedish will help improve our health?

Or perhaps that it is only Finns who can receive health benefits from speaking Norwegian?

Nonsense - there is nothing about the Swedish language which can make a person healthier.What we need to look for are common causes of both being multilingual and of having better

health - at least in Finland.

The neglect of Common Cause can be found in many political debates as well:

4. Most drug use occurs among the poor - this is because poverty causes people to engage in

risky behavior, like abusing narcotics.

Now, perhaps the above position is true or at least has a grain of truth in it, but it fails to addressthe possibility that a third factor is responsible for both of those listed. One might be able to

effectively argue that racial discrimination makes a person feel hopeless - this, in turn, may not

only increase the chances of that person being poor, but might also incline them to seek escape in

drugs.



This fallacy has also found a home in quite a few religious debates:

5. Morality in this nation has worsened at the same time that adherence to traditional

Christian beliefs has declined. Obviously, the latter has caused the former, so encouraging

Christianity will ensure a return to traditional moral standards.

In the above example, it is assumed that the correlation between dropping standards of morality

and weakening adherence to traditional Christianity means that the latter is the cause of the

former. This position ignores, however, the possibility of some third event being the cause for both. Thus, for example, it may be that growing diversity in society has weakened the bonds of

all traditional institutions - including both religion and moral standards. Simplistic explanations

like the above make it easy to propose simplistic solutions, but they cannot be accepted untilalternatives like possible common causes have been addressed.

Correlation between two variables can be due to following reasons:

• Cause & effect relationship: Heat & temperature are cause & effect variable. Heat is the

cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the temperature.

• Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For instance, price of

rice & price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may not be any cause & effect

relation between price of rice & price of sugar.

• Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is either a

cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases when price rise

due to increased demand.

• The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show correlation between wages & productivity. That is higher wage leading to lower productivity. In real

life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to chance.

• There might be a situation of nonsense or spurious correlation between and two variables.

For instance, relationship between number of divorces & television exports may be

correlated. There cannot be any relationship between divorce & exports of television.

The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship & it does not

necessarily signify a cause & effect relationship between the variable.

Q4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique. What are

the characteristics of a good sample?

Ans:- The decision process of sampling is complicated one. The researcher has to first identifythe limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance the conflicting factors.



Factors that affect choice of sample

• The size of the population: If the population to be studied is quite large, sampling is

warranted. However, the size is a relative matter. Whether a population is large or small

depends upon the nature of the study, the purpose for which it is undertaken, and the timeand other resources available for it.

• Amount of funds budgeted for the study: Sampling is opted when the amount of

money budgeted is smaller than the anticipated cost of census survey.

• Facilities: The extent of facilities available – staff, access to computer facility and

accessibility to population elements – in another factor to be considered in deciding tosample or not. When the availability of these facilities is limited, sampling is preferable.

• Time: The time limit within the study should be completed in another important factor to

be considered in deciding the question of sample survey. This, in fact, is a primary reason

for using sampling by academic and marketing researchers.

Characteristics of a good sample

The characteristics of a good sample are described below:

• Representative ness: A sample must be representative of the population. Probability

sampling technique yield representative sample.

• Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample.

An accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population.

• Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by standard

error.

• Size: A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable

Q5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary

sources to gather the required information.



Ans:- For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and secondary

sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources of data

collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data related to human beingsconsist of:

1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social

class, religion, marital status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the

household life style etc.2. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc.

3. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership,

objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.4. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics, resource endowment,

population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial

divisions like villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and the nation.

The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, nospecific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination

or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy

and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study.

Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the factsand figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed with

statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of significance

provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific process of measurements,analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy.

Hence, the importance of data for any research studies.

The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.

Primary Sources of Data

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have

not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand

awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a

sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first hand information collectedthrough various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.

Advantage of Primary Data

• It is original source of data• It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.

• It flexible to the advantage of researcher.

• Extensive research study is based of primary data

Disadvantage of Primary Data

• Primary data is expensive to obtain



• It is time consuming

• It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled.

• It is difficult to administer.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data: Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely

according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he

needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several

types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and theyhave to be directly gathered from the primary sources.In such cases where the available data are

inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socio

economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities,sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership

studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys,

knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management

studies etc. There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the

method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a)

observation, (b) interviewing,(c)mail survey,(d)experimentation,(e) simulation and (f) projectivetechnique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the later

chapters.

Secondary Sources of Data: These are sources containing data which have been collected and

compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already

compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical

statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives andRegional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey

Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations such as

UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished

records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms and

organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members,minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.

Features of Secondary Sources

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have certain

common characteristics.

First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing

tools and administering them.



Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and

classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others. Clearly,this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.

Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using themneed not have been present when and where they were gathered.

Use of Secondary Data

The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information

from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical

information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc., may be taken from published reports and

quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative

credit societies in a selected district/state.

Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research may

be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the nationalaverages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the

corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.

Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project.

Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit

allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like,

depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government departments,

report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve asmajor data sources for such research studies

Advantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources have some advantages:

• Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of

documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even

the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks toXeroxing facilities.

• Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost.Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researcher’s space and time reach.

• The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations

can be made.

• Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.



• The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primarydata. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not

wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.

• The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific needs. Thedefinitions adopted by those who collected those data may be different; units of measure

may not match; and time periods may also be different.

• The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we need to

know how the data were collected.

• The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census data are

published tow or three years later after compilation, and no new figures will be available

for another ten years.

• Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social

scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility depends primarilyon proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations are

located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of researchers based in

far off places.

Evaluation of Secondary DataWhen a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before

deciding to use them.

1. Data Pertinence

The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available

secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions should be

considered.

• What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent ?

• What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conformto the requirements of our research?

• What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does thiscoverage fit the needs of our research?



On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand

should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his

research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data.

2. Data QualityIf the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to

examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and

completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the

organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. What is theauthority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is

capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualified investigators? The

answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an

immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the

cautionary ands other comments that were made in the original source.

3. Data Completeness

The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on themethodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the methodology

sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate? Answers to these

questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the

original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to

promote the organization’s own interest? How the study was conducted? These are importantclues. The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and

sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the

researcher’s study.

Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading

Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain

reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study, define the research problem and

the objectives or questions to be answered by the study.

Ans:- Generally, there is a significant relationship between the race or ethnic group and the

language medium of the newspapers. Generally, Kannada newspapers are mostly read by thekannadigas respondents, Tamil newspapers by the tamilians etc. However, there is no significant

relationship in the readership of English newspapers whereby they are read by all the ethnic

groups.

Title:

Reader’s habits and interests in Bangalore

Research Problem:

To ascertain the reader habits and interests and to increase news paper circulation in Bangalore

City

Objectives or questions to be answered:



1. Have you read an entire book in the last 12 months?

a. Yes. b. No.

2. How much time do you spend reading web pages each day?

a. I don’t read web pages.

b. Less than two hours.c. Two to four hours.

d. Five or more hours.

3. Where do you read? Check all that apply.

a. In school.

b. On the bus.c. In a car or truck.

d. In bed.e. At the computer.f. In the bathroom.

g. In the kitchen or family room.

h. At the library.

4. Have you ever pretended that you read a book when you hadn’t?

a. Yes. b. No.

5. Why do you usually read a book?

a. Because I think I should.

b. Because it was assigned to me.c. Because I am interested in the topic or author.d. I don’t read books.

6. Have you ever pretended that you read a web page when you hadn’t?

a. Yes.

b. No.

7. What is the last book that you read? If you haven’t read a book, write “Not

Applicable.”

a. Yes.

b. No.

8. Is being able to read is important?

a. Yes.

b. No



Q 1.Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of

distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study.

Ans:-There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They

are:

(1) Personal delivery:

(2) Attaching questionnaire to a product

(3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine, and

(4) News stand insets

1) Personal delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to the

potential respondents, with a request to complete them at their convenience. After a day or two,the completed questionnaires can be collected from them. Often referred to as the self-

administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview and the

mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in person and the respondentsmay return the completed questionnaires through mail.

2) Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test marketing a product may attach a

questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm. A giftor a discount coupon usually rewards the respondent.

3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine: The questionnaire with the

instructions for completion may be advertised on a page of a magazine or in a section of newspapers. The potential respondent completes it, tears it out and mails it to the advertiser. For

example, the committee of Banks Customer Services used this method for collecting information

from the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for large-scale

studies on topics of common interest.

4) News stand insets: This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a newspaper or

magazine.

The significance of questionnaire method is that it affords great facilities in collecting data fromlarge, diverse, and widely scattered groups of people. It is used in gathering objective,

quantitative data as well as for securing information of a qualitative nature. In some studies,



questionnaire is the sole research tool utilised but it is more often used in conjunction with other

methods of investigations. In questionnaire technique, great reliance is placed on the

respondent’s verbal report for data on the stimuli or experiences which is exposed as also for data on his behavior.

Advantages of Questionnaires

The advantages of mail surveys are:

• They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same through out

the country, irrespective of distance.• They can cover extensive geographical areas.

• Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are

difficult to reach in any other way.

• The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their convenience.

• Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal interviews.• Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewer’s bias, as there is no personal contact

between the respondents and the investigator.

• Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail

questionnaire.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

The disadvantages of mail surveys are:

1. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of

literacy is very low.2. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be a

representative one.

Distinction between schedules and questionnaires

Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent whereas schedules are carried by the investigator

himself. Questionnaires can be filled by the respondent only if he is able to understand the

language in which it is written and he is supposed to be a literate. This problem can be overcomein case of schedule since the investigator himself carries the schedules and the respondent’s

response is accordingly taken. A questionnaire is filled by the respondent himself whereas the

schedule is filled by the investigator.

Q 2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and

measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and

dispersion?

Ans:- Measures of Central tendency:



Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of thenumbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population.

The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below: m=ΣX

N

Where ΣX is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the number of

numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8=

20

5

=4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from

the population.

The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown

by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of

touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m=

ΣX

N

=

634

31

=20.4516

37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23

22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20

19 19 18 18 18 18 16 1514 14 14 12 12 9 6

Table 1: Number of touchdown passes

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometric mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is

the arithmetic mean, the geometric mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the

arithmetic mean.

Median

The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. For the data in the

table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th

score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile.

Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously

in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.

http://cnx.org/content/m11061/latest/#table1



http://cnx.org/content/m10805/latest/











Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3

You 3 3 3

John's 3 4 2

Maria's 3 4 2

Shareecia's 3 4 2Luther's 3 5 1

Table 2: Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4.

Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class.

Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median andtherefore in the upper half of the distribution.

Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply themiddle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of

numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 2,4, 7, 12 is

4+7

2

=5.5.

Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown

passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of

touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, thefrequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of

continuous variables). Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from agrouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a groupedfrequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest

frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650).

Range Frequency

500-600 3

600-700 6

700-800 5

800-900 5

900-1000 0

1000-1100 1

Table 3: Grouped frequency distribution

Measures of Dispersion: A measure of statistical dispersion is a real number that is zero if all

the data are identical, and increases as the data becomes more diverse. It cannot be less than zero.






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number








Most measures of dispersion have the same scale as the quantity being measured. In other

words, if the measurements have units, such as metres or seconds, the measure of dispersion has

the same units. Such measures of dispersion include:

• Standard deviation• Interquartile range

• Range

• Mean difference• Median absolute deviation

• Average absolute deviation (or simply called average deviation)

• Distance standard deviation

These are frequently used (together with scale factors) as estimators of scale parameters, in

which capacity they are called estimates of scale.

All the above measures of statistical dispersion have the useful property that they are location-invariant, as well as linear in scale. So if a random variable X has a dispersion of SX then alinear transformation Y = aX + b for real a and b should have dispersion SY = |a|SX.

Other measures of dispersion are dimensionless (scale-free). In other words, they have no units

even if the variable itself has units. These include:

• Coefficient of variation

• Quartile coefficient of dispersion• Relative mean difference, equal to twice the Gini coefficient

There are other measures of dispersion:

• Variance (the square of the standard deviation) — location-invariant but not linear in

scale.

• Variance-to-mean ratio — mostly used for count data when the term coefficient of

dispersion is used and when this ratio is dimensionless, as count data are themselves

dimensionless: otherwise this is not scale-free.

Some measures of dispersion have specialized purposes, among them the Allan variance and theHadamard variance.

For categorical variables, it is less common to measure dispersion by a single number. Seequalitative variation. One measure that does so is the discrete entropy.

Sources of statistical dispersion

In the physical sciences, such variability may result only from random measurement errors:instrument measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible. One may assume that

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_measurement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(statistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_difference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_absolute_deviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_absolute_deviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_standard_deviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_factor


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_parameter


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_variable

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_variance


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_variable

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_measurement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interquartile_range

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(statistics)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_difference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_absolute_deviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_absolute_deviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_standard_deviation


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimator


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_variable

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile_coefficient_of_dispersion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_mean_difference


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance-to-mean_ratio

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_variable


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the quantity being measured is unchanging and stable, and that the variation between

measurements is due to observational error .

In the biological sciences, this assumption is false: the variation observed might be intrinsic to

the phenomenon: distinct members of a population differ greatly. This is also seen in the arena of manufactured products; even there, the meticulous scientist finds variation.The simple model of

a stable quantity is preferred when it is tenable. Each phenomenon must be examined to see if it

warrants such a simplification.

Q 3. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Explain how the research

design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and

diagnostic studies.

Ans:- Characteristics of a Good Research Design

1. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction.2. It reduces wastage of time and cost.

3. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization.

4. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when thestudy progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and

insight into the study deepens.

5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants.6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits

Different Research Designs

Research design in case of exploratory research studies

Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose

of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developingthe working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is

on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies

must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problemunder study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem,

broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory

studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data.

Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are

talked about:

1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method

of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis

stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests

new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_error





already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his

task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it.

Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one’s area of interest mayas well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also

make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contextsto the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be looked into by the

researcher.2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with

the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the

relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such

a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully

selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. Therespondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must

prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the

interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed toraise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered.

Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few

hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to bediscussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the

respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at

the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experiencesurvey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the

formulation of the research hypothesis. This, survey may as well provide information

about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.3. Analyses of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting

hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experienceto serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the

phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if nay, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may

be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the

researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the mainfeatures which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights. Now,

what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut answer to it.

Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances are more

appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of ‘insight-stimulating’ casessuch as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of

individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individualsfrom different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of

hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which

merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlinedabove is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so



that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and

come to the notice of the researcher.

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing thecharacteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, where as diagnostic research studies

determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The

studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are the example of diagnosticresearch studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of

facts and characteristics concerning individual, group of situation are all examples of descriptive

research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of viewof the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements

and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as

in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and

must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population hewants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies,

the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough

provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability. With due concern for theeconomical completion of the research study, the design in such studies must be rigid and not

flexible and must focus attention on the following:

1. Formulating the objective of the study

2. Designing the methods of data collection

3. Selecting the sample

4. Collecting the data

5. Processing and analyzing the data6. Reporting the findings.

In a descriptive / diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient

precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may

not provide the desired information. Then comes the question of selecting the methods by whichthe data are to be obtained. While designing data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards

against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Which ever method is selected, questions must be

well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour.

More often than not, sample has to be designed. Usually, one or more forms of probabilitysampling or what is often described as random sampling, are used. To obtain data, free from

errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely thestaff of field workers as they collect and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure that

the data collecting staffs performs their duty honestly and without prejudice. The data collected

must be processed and analyzed. This includes steps like coding the interview replies,observations, etc., tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations.



Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of communicating the

findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner.

Q 4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific

examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research.

Ans:- Case Study as a Method of Business Research

In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set

of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to

unravel the complexities. For instance, an in-depth study of a firm’s top sales people andcomparison with the worst sales people might reveal characteristics common to stellar

performers. The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity and willingness to

deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry, might provemore productive

A case is written description of a business related problem or situation and often contains

organizational and financial data specific to the situation or problem. This may also have

external data and facts about social, economic or other micro economic circumstances impingingupon that business situation. Case offers student highest possible realism in management study

(as compared to experimentation or hands-on projects in engineering or science) as it brings

before student real situation and facts surrounding it. How things actually happen in business.

Example to illustrate above points:

Let us consider example of a currently popular topic of real estate business in India that is

undergoing complex situation of demand recession, high costs and public criticism. A companyXYZ Developer is faced with the situation of 3 projects under various stages of completion. In

the nearing-completion project out of the three with a cost of Rs 20 lacs per flat, only 25% flatscould be booked so far while other two projects have attracted only 10% bookings, each. The

two remaining projects are scheduled for completion in 2012 and 2013 respectively, subject to

cash flow availability as projected in previous year i.e. 2008 for next 5 years. There are 40similar projects competing in market, which are at various stages of execution with average

booking status of 40%. Obviously the XYZ Company is lagging behind the industry average.

The company has raised debt from financial institutes @ 14% floating rate PA and the repayment plan is enclosed with this write up. All the three projects have considerably slowed down and

may affect the possession schedule of even the booked customers. Company is finding it difficult

to carry on construction work and make repayments as per schedule. There are several optionsfor Company to follow.

The HODs of various functions like marketing, finance and land acquisition have obviously

different objectives and conflicting goals. The Board of Directors have called for an elaborate

meeting of all concerned to evolve a plan of action which may include several possibilitiesincluding drastic rebates in the prices. Should it be done or not and in what mode and over what



time frame could be one major decision problem. The real estate industry outlook over short term

of next 1-3 years is not clear with Union general elections due after 4 months. The financial year

is closing after two months.

The complexity of above situation is very clear and the limited information available in the caseas well as in real business situation especially on macro-economic front as far as real estate

industry is concerned. Any decision to slash prices may severely affect the profitability of the

company and may not yield expected outcomes. These outcomes desired are yet to be defined inthe proposed meeting. Hence we can seer that a number of factors have to be evaluated, various

options have to be listed and defined and their financial consequences and the effect on company

reputation and goodwill also have to be factored in. The company's future projects may also getaffected. The main point is when company can expect a turn around of demand situation and

how company can control costs. Forecasting of both price and demand factors is a difficult

proposition in current macro-environmental situation. What solutions can the Financial andMarketing heads offer and what the Project managers have to say?

Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data

collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or

interviewing would be more appropriate.( 10 marks).

Ans:- Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematicviewing of a specific phenomenon on its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data

for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study.

The prerequisites of observation consist of:

• Observations must be done under conditions, which will permit accurate results. The

observer must be in vantage point to see clearly the objects to be observed. The distance

and the light must be satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in good

working conditions and operated by skilled persons.

• Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the cases.

• Recording should be accurate and complete.

• The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain number

of cases can be observered again by another observer/another set of mechanical devicesas the case may be. If it is feasible two separate observers and set of instruments may be

used in all or some of the original observations. The results could then be compared to

determine their accuracy and completeness.

Advantages of observation

• The main virtue of observation is its directness it makes it possible to study behavior as it



occurs. The researcher needs to ask people about their behavior and interactions he can

simply watch what they do and say.

• Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in

their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researchedsituation for instance in interview the respondent may not behave in a natural way. Thereis no such artificiality in observational studies especially when the observed persons are

not aware of their being observed.

• Observations in more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate

meaningfully e.g. studies of children, tribal animals, birds etc.

• Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of

behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior

through observation. The validity of what men of position and authority say can be

verified by observing what they actually do.

• Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only

observation can be providing an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management representatives.

• Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their conductthan questioning.

• It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning.

• Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate data

and also of making continuous observations over longer periods.

Interviews are a crucial part of the recruitment process for all Organisations. Their purpose is to

give the interviewer(s) a chance to assess your suitability for the role and for you to demonstrateyour abilities and personality. As this is a two-way process, it is also a good opportunity for you

to ask questions and to make sure the organisation and position are right for you.

Interview format

Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance what

format the interview will take.

• Competency/criteria based interviews - These are structured to reflect the

competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a particular job, which willusually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The interviewer is looking

for evidence of your skills and may ask such things as: ‘Give an example of a time you

worked as part of a team to achieve a common goal.’



The organisation determines the selection criteria based on the roles they are recruiting

for and then, in an interview, examines whether or not you have evidence of possessing

these.

• Technical interviews - If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical

knowledge, it is likely that you will be asked technical questions or has a separatetechnical interview. Questions may focus on your final year project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove yourself, but also to

admit to what you do not know and stress that you are keen to learn. Do not worry if you

do not know the exact answer - interviewers are interested in your thought process andlogic.

• Academic interviews - These are used for further study or research positions. Questions

are likely to center on your academic history to date.

• Structured interviews - The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks all thecandidates the same questions.

• Formal/informal interviews - Some interviews may be very formal, while others will

feel more like an informal chat about you and your interests. Be aware that you are still being assessed, however informal the discussion may seem.

• Portfolio based interviews - If the role is within the arts, media or communications

industries, you may be asked to bring a portfolio of your work to the interview, and tohave an in-depth discussion about the pieces you have chosen to include.

• Senior/case study interviews - These ranges from straightforward scenario questions

(e.g. ‘What would you do in a situation where…?’) to the detailed analysis of ahypothetical business problem. You will be evaluated on your analysis of the problem,

how you identify the key issues, how you pursue a particular line of thinking and whether

you can develop and present an appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of interview

The Screening Interview

Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification

requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates.

(This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume center for

help.) Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often havehoned skills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position.

Remember-they does not need to know whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether

you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps

in your employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will wantto know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.

Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:

• Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications.



• Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the screener as

verifying your qualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your

winning personality for the person making hiring decisions!

• Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving

specifics by replying, "I would be willing to consider your best offer."• If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital

information sitting next to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you

sleeping or vacuuming the floor, you will be able to switch gears quickly.

The Informational Interview

On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informationalinterview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers

who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Job seekers

ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current

or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. Employersthat like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are

often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel

flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During aninformational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one

another better without reference to a specific job opening.

This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:

• Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company.

• Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be comfortable

if you contact other people and use his or her name.• Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume.

• Write a thank you note to the interviewer.

The Directive Style

In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly.

Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviews; wheninterviewers ask each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare the

results. Directive interviewers rely upon their own questions and methods to tease from you what

they wish to know. You might feel like you are being steam-rolled, or you might find the

conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they have dominanceissues, although you should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your

supervisor.

Either way, remember:

• Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead.



• Do not relinquish complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does not ask you

for information that you think is important to proving your superiority as a candidate,

politely interject it.

The Meandering Style

This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the

discussion. It might begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which you can use to

your advantage. The interviewer might ask you another broad, open-ended question beforefalling into silence. This interview style allows you tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that

best serves

The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly important when

interviewers use a non-directive approach:

• Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills, qualities andexperiences. Do not rely on the interviewer to spark your memory-jot down some notesthat you can reference throughout the interview.

• Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's seat and go

in any direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's role. If he or she

becomes more directive during the interview, adjust.• Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape

the interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that

you run the risk of missing important information about the company and its needs.

Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leadingNewspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain

reader habits and interests. What type of research report would be most appropriate?

Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections.(10 marks).

Ans:- There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review:

1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item a good literature review is led by your own critical thought processes - it is not simply a catalogue of what has been written.

Once you have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each group in turnand really think about what you want to achieve in presenting them this way. This is your

opportunity for showing that you did not take all your reading at face value, but that youhave the knowledge and skills to interpret the authors' meanings and intentions in relation

to each other, particularly if there are conflicting views or incompatible findings in a

particular area.



Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgment in the literature surrounding a

topic is a gradual process of gaining familiarity with the concepts, language, terminology

and conventions in the field. In the early stages of your research you cannot be expectedto have a fully developed appreciation of the implications of all findings.

As you get used to reading at this level of intensity within your field you will find it

easier and more purposeful to ask questions as you read:

o What is this all about?

o Who is saying it and what authorities do they have?

o Why is it significant?

o What is its context?

o How was it reached?

o How valid is it?

o How reliable is the evidence?

o What has been gained?o What do other authors say?

o How does it contribute?

o So what?

2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body through your reading and discussionswith your supervisor during the searching and organising phases of the cycle, you will

eventually reach a final decision as to your own topic and research design.

As you begin to group together the items you read, the direction of your literature review

will emerge with greater clarity. This is a good time to finalise your concept map,grouping linked items, ideas and authors into firm categories as they relate more

obviously to your own study.

Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your own

intentions and conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to convey willhelp you decide the most appropriate structure.

A review can take many forms; for example:

o An historical survey of theory and research in your field

o A synthesis of several paradigms

o A process of narrowing down to your own topic

It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these.

As with all academic writing, a literature review needs:

o An introduction

o A body



o A conclusion

The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be explored.

The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections andsubsections. The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major authors inassociation with their main ideas and areas of debate. The section then expands on these

ideas and authors, showing how each relates to the others, and how the debate informs

your understanding of the topic. A short conclusion at the end of each section presents asynthesis of these linked ideas.

The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from each of

your sections and this is then used to build the framework for your own study. Later,

when you come to write the discussion chapter of your thesis, you should be able to relateyour findings in one-to-one correspondence with many of the concepts or questions that

were firmed up in the conclusion of your literature review.

3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct quoting,

paraphrasing and summarizing)

You can treat published literature like any other data, but the difference is that it is not

data you generated yourself.

When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present the results with

reference to their source, for example:

o 'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty subjects responded positively.'

When using published data, you would say:

o 'Positive responses were recorded for 80 per cent of the subjects (see table 2).'

o 'From the results shown in table 2, it appears that the majority of subjects

responded positively.'

In these examples your source of information is table 2. Had you found the same results

on page 17 of a text by Smith published in 1988, you would naturally substitute the name,

date and page number for 'table 2'. In each case it would be your voice introducing a fact

or statement that had been generated somewhere else.

You could see this process as building a wall: you select and place the 'bricks' and your

'voice' provides the ‘mortar’, which determines how strong the wall will be. In turn, this

is significant in the assessment of the merit and rigor of your work.

There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own voice:



o Direct quote

o Paraphrase

o Summary

In each method, the author's name and publication details must be associated with thewords in the text, using an approved referencing system. If you don't do this you would

be in severe breach of academic convention, and might be penalized. Your field of studyhas its own referencing conventions you should investigate before writing up your

results.

Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:

o 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith 1988, page 27).

If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to enclose it, and

it must be an identical copy of the original in every respect.

Overuse or simple 'listing' of quotes can substantially weaken your own argument by

silencing your critical view or voice.

Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the author's intendedmeaning:

o As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be indicated by the

presence of cloud in the sky.

Paraphrasing allows you to organize the ideas expressed by the authors without beingrigidly constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the original. You retain adegree of flexibility as to whose voice comes through most strongly.

Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by restating the

main points in your own words and in the order in which you found them. The originalwriting is 'described' as if from the outside, and it is your own voice that is predominant:

o Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988) predicted the

likelihood of rain.

o Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be expected as the

result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted the findings of Jones (1986).4. Using appropriate language

Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are dealing withthe subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature.

Once you have established a good structure with appropriate headings for your literature

review, and once you are confident in controlling the voice in your citations, you should



find that your writing becomes more lucid and fluent because you know what you want to

say and how to say it.

The good use of language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the writing, and

on the context of the writing. You need to conform to discipline-specific requirements.However, there may still be some points of grammar and vocabulary you would like to

improve. If you have doubts about your confidence to use the English language well, you

can help yourself in several ways:

o Ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and academics

o Look for specific language information in reference materials

o Access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be available on your

campus

Grammar tips - practical and helpful

The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful.

Which tense should I use?

Use present tense:

o For generalizations and claims:

The sky is blue.

o To convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the time of

reading:

I think therefore I am.

o For authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be compared onequal terms with others:

Smith (1988) suggests that...

o In referring to components of your own document:

Table 2 shows...

Use present perfect tense for:

o Recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to the present:

Several studies have attempted to...

Use simple past tense for:

o Completed events or actions:

Smith (1988) discovered that...

Use past perfect tense for:



o Events which occurred before a specified past time:

Prior to these findings, it had been thought that...

Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:

o Convey degrees of doubt

This may indicate that ... this would imply that...

Other language tips

o Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use an intellectual

tone for the sake of it, and do not rely on your reader to read your mind!o Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a point.

o Use compound (joined simple) sentences to write about two or more ideas which

may be linked with 'and', 'but', 'because', 'whereas' etc.o Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas or those that

show the interaction of two or more complex elements.

o Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information more densely

than verbs.

o Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are highlighting the 'doer'

or the 'done to' of the action.o Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of complex

sentences in order to keep subject, verb and object in clear view.

o Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.

The total process

The story of research study

Introduction

I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to investigate

something in particular.

Review of literature

So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and what had previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would fit into the big

picture, and began to realise at this stage how my study would be different from anything done

previously.



Methodology

I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research question clearly in

mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known research methods (and perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the broad decision about which research

paradigm I would work within (that is, qualitative/quantitative, critical/interpretive/ empiricist).Then I devised my research instrument to get the best out of what I was investigating. I knew Iwould have to analyse the raw data, so I made sure that the instrument and my proposed

method(s) of analysis were compatible right from the start. Then I carried out the research study

and recorded all the data in a methodical way according to my intended methods of analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my preferred form of classification) to

manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs, categories, etc). It was then that I began to

realise what I had found.

Findings/results

What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be pinned

down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from these records, but inwriting my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly significant to make sure my readersdid not miss it. For each display of results, I wrote a corresponding summary of important

observations relating only elements within my own set of results and comparing only like with

like.

I was careful not to let my own interpretations intrude or voice my excitement just yet. I wantedto state the facts - just the facts. I dealt correctly with all inferential statistical procedures,

applying tests of significance where appropriate to ensure both reliability and validity. I knew

that I wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky clean as possible. They would carry a

great deal more credibility, strength and thereby academic 'clout' if I took no shortcuts and

remained both rigorous and scholarly.

Discussion

Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find in theresults that answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had some answers?

What about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the results correctly?

Could there have been any other factors involved? Were my findings supported or contested by

the results of similar studies? Where did that leave mine in terms of contribution to my field?Can I actually generalise from my findings in a breakthrough of some kind, or do I simply see

myself as reinforcing existing knowledge? And so what, after all? There were some obvious

limitations to my study, which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't become over-

apologetic about the things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the fascinating byways sadlyleft behind. I have my memories...

Conclusion

We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How did Iend up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few clear, succinct

sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap up with whatever



generalizations I can make, and whatever implications have arisen in my mind as a result of

doing this thing at all. The more you find out, the more questions arise. How I wonder what you

are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do we all go from here?

Three stage of research

1. Reading

2. Research design and implementation

3. Writing up the research report or thesis

Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft.

Establishing good practice

1. Keep your research question always in mind.

2. Read widely to establish a context for your research.3. Read widely to collect information, which may relate to your topic, particularly to your

hypothesis or research question.

4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records.5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need.

6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of mind, changes of

mind, reactions to experimental outcomes etc.7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others.

8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other research data,remembering to date each entry, and noting any discrepancies or unexpected occurrences

at the time you notice them.9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you have frameworks

to fit findings into straightaway.

10. Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the start.1Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead about the way you will

consider and store new information as it comes to light.

mb0034 research methodology fall 10

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