material & processes for ndt part 3

7/25/2019 Material & Processes for NDT Part 3

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2/5

10

Materials

and Processes

for NDT

Technology

materials

and

the

processes

that

are

used

to

shape

them

or change

their

properties to a

more

usable

form.

HISTORY

The

growth

of

industry

in the United

States

is typical

of

industrial

development

throughout

the world.

Early

settlers

were concerned

primarily with

food and

shelter.

Most

manufactured

goods

were

imported

but

some

manufacturing

was

done

in the

family units.

Eventual-

ly,

as conditions

were stabilized,

efficiency

improved

and

excess

goods

were

available

for sale and

trade.

The

factory form

of industry

finally

resulted,

under

control

of

single

families.

Some

of

these

still

exist

but

most

have changed

to corporate

enterprises

under

ownership

of

many

individuals.

Early

Manufacturing.

The first

manufacturing

was

devoted

mainly to agricultural

and

military

needs. One

of the earliest

industrial

operations

to

grow

to

large

size

was the

reduction of ore

to

metal.

By

its very

nature,

particularly

for

ferrous metals,

this

process

is

not

adaptable

to very small

operations.

The

trend

in

this

in-

dustry

to increasing

size

has continued

to

the

present.

A few very

large corporations

produce nearly all

of

the

basic

metals, even

though

there are

many small

fabrica-

tors.

Interchangeability.

The

Civil

War

and

the

expand-

ing

frontier created

much incentive

for

the

manufacture

of

firearms.

Many

will

remember

that

the

first

example

of

true interchangeability

and

the development

of

bet-

ter transportation

following

the

Civil

War

resulted

in

rapid

growth

of

production

goods.

Many

of

the

pro-

ducts were

considered

luxuries

at

the time

but

since

have

become

necessities

to

the

modern

life

style.

Importance

of

Manufacturing.

Manufactured

pro-

ducts

are an

integral

part

of everyone's

life,

but

most

persons

do

not

realize the

great

amount

of

investment

and

labor

that

makes those

products

possible.

Realiza-

tion

comes

with

thought

that almost

every

activity,

re-

gardless

of

field,

is

in

some

way dependent

on

hardware

produced

by

the

manufacturing

industry.

Approxi-

mately

25Vo

of

the

gross

national

income

is

spent

for

manufactured

goods

and about

the

same

proportion of

the United States'

working

force

is employed

in

the

manufacturing

industry.

INDUSTRIAL

RELATIONSHIPS

COMPETITION

IN INDUSTRY

In

the

American

way

of

life, the

profit

motive

is

the root

of

most

business,

including

manufacturing.

The system

presumes

direct

competition,

so

that

if

a

number

of

companies

are

engaged

in the

manufacture

of

similar

products,

the

sales volume

will

be

in

pro-

portion

to

the

product

quality,

promotional

activi-

ties,

service

policies,

and

price.

The

cost

of manu-

facturing therefore

becomes of

prime importance,

for

the

company

that

can

produce

at the

lowest cost

and

maintain

quality

can

spend

more

for

sales activities,

can'sell

at

a

lower

cost,

or can

make

a

larger

profit

per

sale

than

competitors

in

a

less

fortunate

position.

For

this

reason

industry

is continually

engaged

in

a

battle

to

Iower

production

costs

and

to

gain

this

favored

position.

Direct Competition

Limited.

Because

of

the

complexity

of

the

overall

manufacturing operation,

many

decisions

are,

of

necessity,

rather

arbitrary.

For

nearly

all

products, there

are

many

altematives

of

design,

materials,

and

processing that

will

satisfy

the

function

the

product

is

to

have.

For

many

products,

direct

sales-price

comparisons

are

not adequate,

for

different demands

for

similar

products made

of

dif-

ferent

materials

or

having different

designs

may

exist.

The

purchaser

is

truly

the

final

decision-maker,

which

makes

advertising

and

sales

promotion a most

impor-

tant

phase

of the

business.

Adequate

time

is often

not

available

to

study

the

effect

of a

design

on

the

market

or

to

investigate

all

the

possible

processes

of

manufacture, particularly

for

new

products.

Sometimes,

to

determine

the

exact

material

that

would

serve

best

even

for

a

fixed

design

is too

time

consuming.

In

any

case, reasonable

deci-

sions

must

be

made,

and when

absolute

knowledge

is

not

available,

they

are

based

on

past

experiences

of

similar

nature.

Because

of

the

interrelationships

exist-

ing

in

manufacturing,

accurate

decisions

will

depend

not

only

on exact

knowledge

of

a

specific

area

but

also on

knowledge

of

interaction

from

related

areas.

PERSONNEL

Several

kinds

of

workers

are

needed

in

any

manu-

facturing operation.

Some

work

directly

with

the

product,

and some

are

only

indirectly

connected

with

the

product

but

are more

concemed

with

the organi-

zation

producing the

goods.

Those

directly

connected

with

the

product

include

the designer,

those

respon-

sible

for

choosing

the

processes,

establishing

control

over

the

operation,

and

supervising

the manufactur-

ing,

and

the

machine

and

equipment

operators

who

perform

the

actual

work

of converting

raw

material

into

useful

objects.

Each

of

these,

to

function

ef-

fectively

in

his

job,

must

have

varying

defrees

of

knowledge concerning

the

product

requirements, the

material

properties,

and

the

equipment

limitations.

Most

jobs

directly

connected with

the

product

call

for specific

knowledge

in

depth

concerning

certain

phases

of

the work

and

more

general

knowledge

of

related

areas.

Products,

from

the simplest

single

part

items to

the

most

complex

assemblies

costing

millions

of

dollars

each,

go

through

a

series

ofchosen

steps

ofmanufacture

as

they

proceed from

raw material

to completed

useful

products.

In order

to

conserve

energy,

material,

time,

effort, and to

reduce cost,

it is

necessary at

each

stage

of


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4/5

12

Materials

and

Processes

for NDT Technology

erties of

an element may

be changed

by the

adclition

of

even

small

parts

of

another

element.

In many

cases

the

properties

obtained

from the combination

will

be

better than

those

of

either element

alone.

In

a

similar

manner,

the

properties

of elements

or

combinatious

can be

varied

by

the

type

of

treatment

given

the

material.

The

treatments

that

affect

properties

are

often intentionally

selected

for this

purpose. How-

ever,

the

properties are

no

less

affected,

often

in

an

undesirable way,

by the

processes

being used

with

the

objective

of shaping the

material.

Sufficient

knowl-

edge of

the

relationship

between

the

properties

and

the

processing

of

materials may

permit

the

improve-

ment

of the

properties

as a natural

result

of

the

processing for a

different

main

objective.

Reducing

the

cross-sectional

size

during the

shaping

of most

metals

results

in

an

increase

in hardness

and

strength

that may

be

undesirable

if

the

metal

must

undergo

further

deformation

processing.

In many

cases,

this

increase in

hardness and

strength that

occurs

as a

result

of

the

processing can

be beneficial and part

of

the

product

design.

PROCESSES

Manufacturing consists of

converting

some

raw

material,

which

may

be

in

rough, unrefined

shape,

into

a usable

product.

The

selection

of

the

material

and the

processes

to

be used seldom can

be

separated.

Although

in a few cases

some unusual

property

requirements dictate

a

specific material,

generally

a

wide choice exists

in the combination

of material

and

processing

that

will

satisfy

the

product

requirements.

The

choice usually

becomes one

of economic

com-

parison.

In

any

case,

a

material

is

usually

selected

first,

sometimes rather

arbitrarily, and

a

process

must

then

be choscn. Processing

consists

of

one

or

many

separate

steps

producing

changes

in shape or

proper-

ties, or

both.

Shape Changes.

Shape

changing

of

most

materials

can be accomplished with

the

material

in

one

of

sev-

eral different

forms

or

states: liquicl, solid,

or

plastic.

Melting

of

a material and

control of

its shape while

it

solidifies

is

referred

to as

casting.

Reshaping

of

the

material

in the

plastic

or

semisolid

form

is called

molding,

forging,

pressworhing,

rolling, or

extrusion.

Shaping

by

metal

removal

or

separation

in

t]-re

solid

state

is

comtnonly

performed

to

produce

product

shapes. If the

removed rnaterial

is

in

chip

form,

the

process

is

machining.

The

joining

of solid

parts by

welcling

usually

involves

small

localized

liquid

areas

that are allowed to

soliclify to

produce

a

con-Iplete

union between

solicl

parts.

Energy

Form.

The

materiai

condition

and

the

energy

form used

to

effect

these

shape

changes

may

vary.

As

noted,

the

material may

be in

a

liquid,

solid,

or

plastic

form. The energy may

bc supplied

in

the

form of

heat, mechanical

power,

chemical

reactiou,

electrical

energy,

or, as

iu one

of the

newest

proce-

dures,

Iight.

In

nearly every

instance,

one

prir-rcipal

objective

is

shape

changes,

bub usually

part

of thc

energy

is

consumcd

in

property

changes,

particuiarly

in

those

processes

involving

state

changes or

solici

deformation.

Different

materials

react

differently

to

the

same energy system,

and

the same materials

react

differently

to different

energy

systems.

Process

Effect on Properties.

Many

concepts

and

fundamentals

in

reference

to

materials

are

common

to

different

kinds

of

processes.

Wl-ren studied

in con-

nection

with

the

material,

these

concepts,

then,

can

be applied regardless

of

tl-re

kind

of

process

by which

the

material

is treated. The

metallurgical

changes

that

take

place

during

solidification

during casting

are

of

the

same

nature

as those

that

take

place

in

fusiorl

welding.

Auxiliary Steps.

The

completion

of

a

product for

final

use

generally

includes

the

various

finishing

pro-

cedures

apart

from

basic

shape-changing

processes.

The

dimensions and properties

that

are

produced by

any

process

are subject

to

variation, and,

in

practi-

cally

all cases,

some

inspection

of

nondestructive

type

is

necessary for

controlling

the

process

and

for assuring

that the

final

product

meets certain specifications

as

to

size

and other

properties. As one of

the

final

steps,

or

sometimes

as

an

intermediate

step,

control of

prop-

erties by

heat treatment

or other

means

may

be

necessary.

Tl-re

final steps

may

also require

surface

changes

for appearance,

wear

properties, corrosion

protection,

or other

uses.

These

steps

may

involve

only the

base

material

or may require

the addition

of

paints, platings,

or

other

coatings.

Few

finished

products

are

constructed

of

single

pieces

of

material

because

of

the

impracticality

of

producing

them

at

a reasonable

cost. Also,

it

is

fre-

quently

necessiuy

that

properties

that

can be ob-

tained

only

from different

materials

be

combined

into a

single

unit.

The

result is that

most

manu-

factured articles

consist of assemblies

of a

number

of

separate

parts.

The

joining

of these

parts

can

be

accomplished

in

many ways,

with

the

best

method

being

dependent

on

all

the

factors

of

shape, size,

and

material

properties

involved

in

the

particular

design.

ECONOMICS

The

private

ownership

systems

of

business

and

industry

in the

United

States

are

profit

motivated.

In

a

competitive

market,

the

manufacturer

who

makes

the

most

profit

will

be

the

one who

has the

best

combination of design,

materials

choice,

and

manu-

facturing

processes.

lJltimately,

most

decisions

become

a compromise

between

the

most

desirable

from

a

design,

life,

and

function standpoint

and the

most

practical

from

a

production

and

cost

stand-

point.


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material & processes for ndt part 3

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