aircraft material and processes

8/19/2019 Aircraft Material and Processes

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Aircraft Construction,

Repair, and Modication()*+

Aircraft Materia's and Processes- Met%ods

and Tec%ni.ues in Repair and Modication inAccordance /it% Ci0i' A0iation Re"u'ation-

Manufacturin", Production Processes and1ua'it Assurance


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IV. AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR,

AND MODIFICATION

A. Objective: To determine the basic knowledge of the Examinees on Aircraft

Materials, Constrction !e"air,and Modification

#bject Contents:

$. Aircraft Materials and %rocesses

a. %h&sical and Chemical %ro"erties of 'erros

Metals and Allo&s, (on)'erros Metals and

Allo&s, (on)Metals *+ood, 'iberglass, others

b. -dentification of Metals

c. eat Treatment "rocesses

d. 'orming/#ha"ing and 'orging

e. 0oining of Metals

1. Aircraft ardware, Cables, and Tools,E2i"ment

a. 3olts, (ts, #crews, !ivets, others

b. Control Cables and Cable Assemblies

c. Tools and 'abrication/!e"air E2i"ment

http://var/www/apps/conversion/Desktop/HANDTOOLS%20AND%20MEASURING%20DEVICES.dochttp://var/www/apps/conversion/Desktop/HANDTOOLS%20AND%20MEASURING%20DEVICES.doc


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#bject Contents:

4. Constrction, !e"air, and Modification

a. Aircraft #trctral Com"onents

b. Metal #trctres

c. (on)Metal #trctres

d. Com"osite Materials

5. Testing and -ns"ectiona. Testing of Metals ) ardness Tests

b. (on)6estrctive Test and -ns"ection

7. Corrosion %rotection and Controla. T&"es of Corrosion

b. Corrosion %rotection and !emoval


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8. Aircraft +eight and 3alance

a. +eighing %rocedre

b. +eight and 3alance Com"tations

c. +eight and 3alance Extreme Conditions Most

'orward and !earward C9 %ositions

C. !eferences:

$. Aircraft Materials and %rocesses ) Titterton

1. Aircraft -ns"ection and !e"air ;# %rinting Office

4. Maintenance and !e"air of Aeros"ace


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%h&sical and Chemical %ro"erties of

Ferrous Meta's and A''os,

Non2Ferrous Meta's and

A''os, Non2Meta's (/ood, Fiber"'ass,ot%ers


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* Ma3or Stresses to 4%ic% a''Aircraft Sub3ected

TENSION is the stress that resist a force tends to nll

a"art.

COMPRESSION is the stress that resist a crshing

force.

TORSION is the stress that "rodce twisting. SHEAR is the stress that resists the force tending to

case one material to slide over an adjacent la&er.

BENDING is a combination of com"ression and

tension.

> STRESS is an internal force of a sbstance which o""oses or

resist deformation can case strain.

> STRAIN is the deformation of a material or sbstance.


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* Ma3or Stresses to 4%ic% a''Aircraft Sub3ected


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5 Major Stresses to whichall Aircraft Subjected


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PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

HARDNESS - The "ro"ert& of a material that enables it to resist

"enetration, wear, or ctting action or "ermanent distortion.

BRITTLENESS is the "ro"ert& of a metal which allows little

bending or deformation withot shattering.

MALLEABILITY "ro"ert& of metals which allows them to be bent

or "ermanentl& distorted withot r"tre.

STRENGTH - The abilit& of a material to resist deformation.

PLASTICITY - The ca"abilit& of an object or material to be

stretched and to recover its si?e and sha"e after its deformation.

DUCTILITY - The "ro"ert& which allows metal to be drawn, bent or

twisted into varios sha"es withot breaking. ELASTICITY "ro"ert& which enables a metal to retrn to its

original sha"es when the forces which cases the change of sha"e

is removed.


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TOUGHNESS a material which "ossesses toghness will

withstand tearing or shearing and ma&be stretched or otherwise

deformed withot breaking.

DENSITY the weight of a nit volme of the materials.

FUSIBILITY the abilit& of a metal to become li2id b& the

a""lication of heat.

CONDUCTIVITY the abilit& of a metal which enables to carr& heator electricit&

THERMAL EXPANSION Contraction abilit& of metals to shrink when sbjected to cooling.

Expansion ex"and "on the a""lication of heat.


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Aircraft Meta's

Two Main 9ro" of Aircraft Metals:

NON-FERROUS METALS the term that

describes metals which are have elements other

than -ron as their base. Alminm, Co""er,Titanim, and Magnesim are some of the

common non)ferros metals sed in Aircraft

Constrction and !e"air.

FERROUS METALS an& allo& containing ironas its chief constitent, most common ferros

metal in aircraft strctre is steel, an allo& of iron

with a controlled amont of carbon added.


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NON-FERROUS METALS:1. ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

> ) %re alminm lacks sfficient strength to be sed in aircraft @enching

> constrction. owever, its strength increases considerabl& when it is

AOBE6, or mixed with com"atible metals.

TB%E# O' A;M-(;M AOB#:

$. Cast All!s those sitable for casting in sand, "ermanent mold or die

casting.1. "#$%&t All!s those which ma& be sha"ed b& rolling, drawing or

forging. These are the most widely used in aircraft construction, being

sed for stringers, blkheads, skin, rivets, and extrded sections.

9E(E!A CA##E# O' +!O;9T A;M-(;M AOB#:

1. Non-Heat Treatale Alloy the mechanical "ro"erties obtained b& cold

working are destro&ed and an& sbse2ent heating cannot restore it

exce"t b& additional cold working.

!. Heat Treatale Alloy allo& which res"onds readil& to heat treatment

which reslts in considerable im"rovement of the strength characteristics.

9reater strength is obtained and sed for strctral "r"oses.


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.

'. MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS Magnesim allo& are sed for cast and wroght form available in sheets, bars, tbing,

and extrsions. Magnesim is one of the lightest metals having sfficient strength and

sitable working characteristics for se in aircraft hardware. owever, it is ssce"tibleto corrosion and tends to crack.

(. TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS Titanim and its allo&s are light metals with ver& high strength. -t has an excellent

corrosion resistance characteristics, "articlarl& to the effects of salt water.

). NIC*EL AND ITS ALLOYS (ickel is the base element for most of the higher tem"eratre heat)resistant allo&s.

+hile it is mch more ex"ensive than iron, nickel "rovides an astenitic strctre that

has greater toghness and workabilit& than ferros allo&s of the same strength.

"#NE$ contains abot 8 D nickel and 1D co""er, along with iron and

manganese. -t works well in gears and "arts that re2ire high strength andcorrosion resistance at elevated tem"eratre.

INC#NE$ high strength, high tem"eratre allo&s containing a""roximatel&

abot FD nickel, $5 D chromim, and small amonts of iron and other

elements.


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FERROUS METALS:1. IRON

-s like a chemical which is fair& soft, malleable and dctile in its "re form. -t is silver&

white in color and is 2ite heav&, having a densit& of G. grams "er cbic centimeter.

'. STEEL To make steel, "ig iron is re)melted in a s"ecial frnace. %re ox&gen is the forced

throgh the molten where it combines with carbon and brns. A control amont of

carbon is then "t back into the molten. The molten steel is then "ored into molds

where it solidifies into ingots. The ingots are then "laced in a soaking "it where the& are

heated to a niform tem"eratre of abot 11FF degrees '. The& are then taken from the

soaking "it and "assed throgh steel rollers to form late or sheet metal.


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a. CARBON Carbon is the most common allo&ing element fond in steel. +hen mixed with iron

core com"onds of iron carbides called CEMET-TE form. -t is the carbon in steel

that allows the steel to be heat treated to obtain var&ing degrees of hardness,strength and toghness. The greater the carbon content, the more rece"tive steel

is to heat treatment and therefore, the higher its tensile strength, and hardness.

owever, higher carbon content decreases the malleabilit& and weldabilit& of steel.

LO" CARBON STEELS contains between F.$F and F.4F "ercent carbon. %rimaril&

sed in safet& wire, cable bshing, and threaded rod ends.

MEDIUM CARBON STEELS contains between F.4F and F.7F "ercent carbon.

HIGH CARBON STEELS contains between F.7F to $.F7 "ercent carbon and are

ver& hard. %rimaril& sed in s"rings, files, and some ctting tools.

. SILICON +hen it is allo&ed with steel it acts as a hardener. +hen sed in small 2antities, it

also im"roves dctilit&.

. PHOSPHOROUS !aises the &ield strength of steel and im"roves low carbon steelHs resistance of

atmos"heric condition. owever, no more than F.F7 "ercent is normall& sed in

steel, since higher amonts case the allo& to become brittle when cold.


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. NIC*EL Adds strength and hardness to steel and increase &ield strength. -t also slows the

rate of hardening when steel is heat treated, which increases the steels contains 4D

nickel and F.4FD carbon, and sed in "rodcing aircraft hardwired sch as bolts,nts, rod end and "ins.

/. CHROMIUM Allo&ed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as im"rove its wear

and corrosion resistance. -t is sed in balls and rollers of anti)friction bearings.

0. STAINLESS STEEL -s a classification of CORROSION-RESISTANT STEEL CRES2 that contain largeamont of chromim and nickel. Their strength and resistant to corrosion make than

well sited for high)tem"eratre a""lications sch as firewalls and exhast s&stem

com"onents. -t contains $D chromim and D nickel. -t is referred as 13-3.

A'STENITIC STEE$S refers to 1FF and 4FF series stainless steel. ardened onl&

b& cold)working.

(ERRITIC STEE$S contains no carbon. The& do not res"ond to heat treatment.

"ARTENSITIC STEE$S ) the 5FF series of stainless steel. These are magnetic and it

becomes extremel& hard if allowed to cool ra"idl& b& cooling from an elevated

tem"eratre.


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%. CHROME 4 MOLYBDENUM 5/-5l!2 STEELS Commonl& sed allo& in aircraft. Making it an ideal choice for landing gear

strctres and engine monts.

&. VANADIUM +hen combined with chromim, vanadim "rodces a strong, togh, dctile steel

allo&s. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of chrome)vanadim steel.

6. TUNGSTEN as an extremel& high melting "oint and adds this characteristics to steel when it

is allo&ed. T&"icall& sed for breaker contacts in magnetos and for high s"eedctting tools.


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AOB#


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AOB#


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'. SOFT"OOD come from coniferos trees with needle like or

scale like leaves.

a. SITA S+R'CE most common wood sed in aircraft strctres. -t isrelativel& free from defects, has a high strength to weight ration and available in large

si?e. 'AA chosen #itka #"rce as the reference wood for aircraft constrction.

. )#'$AS (IR the strength "ro"erties exceed those of s"rceI however, it

is mch heavier. 'rther more, it is more difficlt to work than s"rce, and has a

tendenc& to s"lit.

c. N#%$E (IR slightl& lighter than s"rce and is e2al or s"erior to s"rce

in all "ro"erties exce"t hardness and shock resistance. -t is often sed for strctral

"arts that are sbject to heav& bending and com"ression loads sch as s"ars, s"ar

flange, and has tendenc& to s"lit.

d. %A$SA an extremel& light wood. 3alsa lacks of strctral strength, it is

often sliced across its grain for se as a core material for sandwich)t&"e "anels that

re2ires lightweight and rigidit&.


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7UALITY OF "OOD:#ome of the categories a woods 2alit& is based on inclde how straight

the grain is, the nmber of knots, "itch "ockets, s"lits and "resence of

deca&.1. GRAIN DEVIATION regardless of the s"ecies of wood sed aircraft constrction, it mst

have a straight grain. This means all of the woods fiber mst be oriented "arallel to the

materials longitdinal axis. A maximm of deviation of $:$7 is allowed. -n other words, the

grain mst not slo"e more than $ inch in $7 inches.

'. *NOTS it identifies where a branch grew from the tree trnk.

(. PITCH POC*ETS small o"ening within the annal rings of a tree can fill resin and form

"itch "ocket. -t slightl& weaken the "iece of wood.). CHEC*S, SHA*E AND SPLITS

CHECS a crack that rns across the annal rings of a board and occrs dring the

seasoning "rocess.

SHAE a crack or se"aration that occrs when two annal rings se"arates along

their bondar&.

S+$ITS a lengthwise se"aration of the wood cased b& the wood fibers tearing a"art.

+. STRAINS AND DECAY

#T!A-(# -t is cased b& deca& sall& a""ears streaks in the grain. #trains that niforml&

discolor the annal rings are evidence of deca&.

6ECAB is cased b& fngi that grow in dam" wood, and is "revented b& "ro"er seasoning

and dr& storage. A sim"le wa& of identf&ing deca&ed wood is to "ick at a ss"ected area with

the "oint of a knife. #ond wood will s"linter, while a knife "oint will bring " a chnk of

deca&ed wood.


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PLASTICS OR RESINS1. THER"#SETTIN RESINS it hardens or set when heat of the

correct vale is a""lied. -t cannot softened and resha"ed afterhaving been solidified.

!. THER"#+$ASTIC RESINS can be soften b& heat and

resha"ed or reformed man& times withot changing com"osition,

"rovided that the heat a""lied is held with "ro"er limits.

T!8/s 0 T&/#58last6 Mat/#6al $s/ 0# A6##a0t "69s&6/l

a9 S6/ "69s: 1. CE$$'$#SE ACETATE trans"arent and lightweight. -t has a tendenc& to

shrink and trn &ellow. +hen a""lied with acetone it softens.

!. ACR,$IC identified b& trade names as cite or %lexiglas or in 3ritain

%ers"ex. -t is stiffer than celllose acetate. More trans"arent and for all "r"oseis colorless. -t brns with a clear flame and "rodces a fairl& "leasant odor. -f

acetone is a""lied to acr&lic it leaves a white reside bt remains hard.


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TE!MO%A#T-C !E#-(#:

$. CE;O#E ACETATE

1. %OBETBE(E is made in low and high)densit& 2alities. ow)densit& "ol&eth&lene is made in thin, flexible sheet or film and is sed for

"lastic bags, "rotective sheeting and electrical inslation. igh)densit&

"ol&eth&lene is sed for containers sch as fel tanks, large drms and

bottles.

4.


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C58s6t/

ABBREVIATIONS:

A'!% ) Aramide 'ibre !einforced %lastic

C'!% ) Carbon 'ibre !einforced %lastic

9'!% ) 9lass 'ibre !einforced %lastic

O3E ) one&comb before Ex"ansion

M#6# ) Material #afet& 6ata #heet

(6T ) (on 6estrctive Testing

(TM ) (on 6estrctive Testing Manal

%re"eg ) %re im"regnated 'abric#!M ) #trctral !e"air Manal


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A;a9ta%/ Com"osite materials are mainl& sed to redce weight, that means if

weight can be saved, more cargo, fel or "assengers can be carried.

More advantages are:

high strength to weight ratio

redcing of "arts and fasteners

redcing wear

corrosion resistance

D6sa;a9ta%/6isadvantages are:

general ex"ensive

not eas& to re"airI that means &o need well trained staff, tools,e2i"ment and facilities to re"air com"osite com"onents


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El/5/9ts 0 C58s6t/ St#$t$#/

R/690#69% Mat/#6als C#/ Mat/#6als

Mat#6


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ircraft Fabric


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Aircraft Fabric Co0erin"

A6##a0t 0a#6 ;/#69% is a term sed for both

the material sed and the "rocess of covering

aircraft open structures. -t is also sed for

reinforcing closed "l&wood strctres Earl& aircraft sed organic materials sch as

cotton and celllose do"e, modern fabric

covered designs sall& se s&nthetic materials

sch as (&lon and bt&rate do"e for adhesive,this method is often sed in the restoration of

older t&"es that were originall& covered sing

traditional methods.


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Aircraft 6o"e

A6##a0t 8/ is a "lasticised lac2er that is

a""lied to fabric)coated aircraft. -t tatensand stiffens fabric stretched over airframes

and adheres and "rotects fabric a""lied to

other skin material.

T&"ical do"ing agents inclde nitrocelllose,

celllose acetate and celllose acetate

bt&rate. i2id do"es are highl& flammableI

nitrocelllose, for instance, is also known asthe ex"losive "ro"ellant JgncottonJ. 6o"es

will often inclde coloring "igments to

facilitate even a""lication.


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Prob'e5 Areas

a. 6eterioration

'abric deteriorates onl& b& ex"osre

to ltraviolet radiation as sed in an

aircraft covering environmentb. Tension

Most 'abrics obtains maximm

tension on an airframe at 47F degrees'ahrenheit and will not be excessive on

aircraft originall& covered and do"ed


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Aircraft Fabric Snt%etic

a. #TC a""roved covering material

6ifference in fabric ma& be denier, tenacit&,

thread cont, weight, shrink, tension and

weave st&leKtenacit&) cstomar& measre of strength of a

fiber or &arn.

K denier is a measre of the linear densit&, the

tenacit& works ot to be not a measre of force"er nit area, bt rather a 2asi)dimensionless

measre analogos to s"ecific strength


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b. %ol&ester 'ilaments

Manfactred b& "ol&meri?ation of varios

select acids and alcohols, then extrding thereslting molten "ol&mers throgh s"innerets

to form filaments


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c. Covering %rocedres

Coating t&"es, covering accessories and

covering "rocedres also ma& var&Itherefore, the covering "rocedres given in

the "ertinent manals mst be followed to

com"l& with the #TC.

d,. -nstallation

-nitial installation of "ol&ester fabric is

similar to natral fabric. The fabric is installed

with as little slack as "ossible, consideringfittings and other "rotrsions. Kslack)not

sing de diligence, care, or dis"atch


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Aircraft Fabric2Natura'

%h&sical #"ecifications and minimm

strength re2irements for natral fabric

fiber, cotton and linen, sed to recover

or re"air com"onents of an aircraft.


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Reco0erin" Aircraft

!ecover or re"air aircraft with a fabric of e2al

2alit& and strength to that sed b& the original

aircraft manfactrer

Knote:

recovering or re"airing aircraft with an& t&"e fabricand/or coating other than the t&"e sed b& the

original aircraft manfactrer is considered a major

alteration. Obtain a""roval form from then 'AA on

fabric and installation data. Cotton and linen riblacing cord, machine and hand sewing thread, and

finishing ta"es shold not be sed with "ol&ester

and glass fabric covering


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Reinforcin" tape

!einforcing ta"e shold have a

minimm 5F lbs. resistance withot

failre when static tested in shear

against a single rib lace, or a "llthrogh resistance when tested against

a single wire cli", rivet screw, or an&

other t&"e of fabric to rib attachment.


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Finis%in" tape

#ometimes referred as srface ta"e, shold have

the same "ro"erties as the fabric sed to cover

the aircraft

Us69% t&/ '= Da#9 st#a6%&t0696s&69% ta8/, 5/as$#/ a9 $t

st#68s 0 t&/ ta8/ t / l9% /9$%&

t ;/#la8 t& t&/ l/a69% a9

t#a6l69% s8a#s.


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Lacin" Cord

#hold have a minimm breaking

strength of 5F lbs.. !ib lace cord shold

have a micro)cr&stalline fngicidal wax,

"araffin free wax, or beeswax coating, orother a""roved treatment to "revent

wearing and fra&ing when "lling

throgh the strctre


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%i % d d d


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Mac%ine T%read and 6andse4in" T%read

Machine Thread)#hall have a minimm breakingstrength of 7 lbs

and sewing Thread)#hall have a minimm breaking

strength of $5 lbs

Ha9 S/69% T/a *'AA a""roved

%ol&ester cord. !e"laces cotton.


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F'utter Precautions

+hen recovering or re"airing control

srfaces, es"eciall& on high "erformance

air"lanes, make sre that d&namic and

static balances are not adversel&affected. +eight distribtion and mass

balance mst be considered to "reclde

to "ossibilit& of indced fltter

Kfltter) To wave or fla" ra"idl& in an

irreglar manner:

i f % f


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Preparation of t%e structure forco0erin"

a. 3atter& 3ox Treatment

An As"haltic, rbber based acid)"roof coating

shold be a""lied to the strctre in the area of a

batter& b& box, b& brsh, for additional "rotectionfrom batter& acid

b. +orn holes

Oversi?ed screw holes or worn si?e 5 self ta""ing

screw holes throgh ribs and other strctres

sed to attach fabric ma& be redrilled a minimm

$)$/1 hole diameter distance from the original

hole location with a L 55 *F.F8 drill bit.


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Fairin" Precautions

Alminm leading edge re"lacement fairings

installed in short sections ma& telesco"e

dring normal s"ar bending loads or from

thermal ex"ansion and contraction. Thisaction ma& case a wrinkle to form in the

fabric, at the edge of the la" joint. Trailing

edges shold be ade2atel& secred to

"revent movement and wrinkles.


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Dope Protection

#olvents fond in nitrate and bt&rate do"e

will "enetrate, wrinkle, lift, or dissolve most)

one "art wood varnishes and one)"art metal

"rimers. All wood srfaces that come incontact with do"ed fabric shold be treated

with a "rotective coating sch as alminm

foil, celllose ta"e, or do"e "roof "aint to

"rotect them against the action of the

solvents in the do"e


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SEALANT COMPO7ND

SEALANTS sed to contain fel, maintain cabin

"ressre, redce fire ha?ards, exclde moistre,

"revent corrosion, and fill ga"s and smooth

discontinities on the aircraft exterior.

SEALING is a "rocess that confines li2ids andgases within a given area or "revents them from

entering areas from which the& mst be exclded.


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Cat/%#6/s 0 C58$9s

#ealing com"onds are divided into two categories, silicone and nonsilicone.

1.Silicone compounds are sall& white, red, or gre& in color and are sed in

general where heat resistance is re2ired.

!.Nonsilicone compounds can be an& color and are sed where heat

resistance is not re2ired.

S8/606at69 > Class606at69

The classification s&stem for sealants in 3oeing material s"ecifications *3M#.s is

as follows:

Class A / %rus0coat Sealant. *Thinned with solvent to "rovide viscosit&

sitable for brshing.

Class % / (illetin Sealant. *!elativel& heav& consistenc& with good thixotro"ic

*low)slm" "ro"erties.

Class C / (ayin Surface Sealant. *Medim consistenc& for goods"readabilit&.

Class ) / Hole-(illin Sealant. *#imilar to Class 3 bt with ver& low slm".

Classes E and ( / Sprayale sealant


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Identication of Meta's

asic !esi"#atio# for $rou"ht


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asic !esi"#atio# for $rou"hta#d Cast Alu%i#u% Allo&s 'AA(Nu%beri#" S&ste%)"#$%&t All!s

Allo& (mber Major -dentif&ing Elements

$ %re Alminm *.FFD minimm alminm

1 Co""er 4 Manganese

5 #ilicon

7 Magnesim

8 Magnesim and #ilicon

G Ninc

Other elements

;nsed series


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Cast All!s

Allo& (mber Major -dentif&ing Elements

$ .FF D minimm alminim

1 Co""er

4 #ilicon with added co""er and/or magnesim

5 #ilicon

7 Magnesim 8 ;nsed series

G Ninc

Tin

Other elements


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Al$569$5 All!s

T!8/ 0 All! Class606at69

%re *D above $xxx

Co""er 1xxx

Manganese 4xxx

#ilicon 5xxx

Magnesim 7xxx

Magnesim #ilicon 8xxx

Ninc Gxxx

Other Element xxx

T D i ti f 6 t T t b'


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Te5per Desi"nation for 6eat Treatab'eA''os T$ Cooled from an elevated tem"eratre sha"ing "rocess and natrall&

aged to a sbstantiall& stable condition T1 Annealed

T4 #oltion heat treated and cold worked.

T5 #oltion heat treated and natrall& aged.

T51 #oltion heat treated from F tem"er to demonstrate res"onse toheat treatment b& the ser, and natrall& aged to a sbstantiall& stable

condition T7 Cooled from an elevated tem"eratre sha"ing "rocess and artificiall&

aged

T8 #oltion heat treated and artificiall& aged.

T81 #oltion heat treated from F ' tem"er to demonstrate res"onse toheat treatment b& the ser, and artificiall& aged

TG #oltion heat treated and stabili?ed

T #oltion heat treated, cold worked, and artificiall& aged

T #oltion heat treated, artificiall& aged, and cold worked

T$F Cooled from an elevated tem"eratre sha"ing "rocess, coldworked, and artificiall& aged

A'u5inu5 Association Nu5berin"


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A'u5inu5 Association Nu5berin"Sste5


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A'u5inu5 C'addin" #everal alminim allo&s as for exam"le 1F15 and GFG7 are ver&

ssce"tible tocorrosion. #heets of sch material are clad with a thin

la&er of "re alminim with $ D ?inc on both sides as a means ofcorrosion "rotection. These la&ers are "ermanentl& welded to thebase material in a rolling "rocess at high tem"eratre. Other thanelectro"lated stock, clad material can be formed. T0e t0ic2ness oft0e clad layers is aout 3 or 4 5 of t0e material t0ic2ness. Anink "rint on ;# sheet metal that reads Aclad, Clad or AC

indicates that sch sheet is clad.

Stee' Nu5berin"


66/392

Stee' Nu5berin"Sste5

Stee' Nu5berin"


67/392

Stee' Nu5berin"Sste5

T!8/ 0 St//l Class606at69

Carbon $xxx

(ickel 1xxx

(ickel Chromim 4xxx

Mol&bdenm 5xxx

Chromim 7xxx

Chromim


68/392

Te5per Desi"nation Sste5 Bas6 T/58/# D/s6%9at69

' As fabricated

O Annealed

#train hardened *(on heat treatable "rodcts onl&

+ #oltion heat treated

T eat treated to "rodce stable tem"ers other than ', O, or

T/58/# D/s6%9at69 0# N9 H/at T#/atal/ All!s

$ #train hardened "rodced b& cold working the metal to the desireddimension.

1 #train hardened, then "artiall& annealed to remove some of the hardness.

4 #train hardened, then stabili?ed.

The degree of hardening is indicated b& a second digit following one of theabove designations:

1 ) $/5 hard 5 ) $/1 hard

8 ) 4/5 hard

) fll hard

) extra hard

A third digit ma& be sed to indicate a variation of a two digit nmber.


69/392

Te5per Desi"nation Sste5

'abricated *' 6enotes that the metal has been

fabricated to ordered dimensions withot an& attem"ton the "art of the "rodcer to control the reslts ofeither strain hardening o"erations or the thermaltreatments. There are no mechanical "ro"ert& limit,

and the strength levels ma& var&. Annealed *O) A""lies to wroght that have ndergone a

thermal treatment to redce their mechanical "ro"ert&levels to their minimm. Often describe as soft deadmetal.

#train ardened *) a""lies to those wroght "rodctswhich have had an increase in strength b& redctionthrogh strain hardening or cold working o"erations. is followed b& two or more digits


70/392

Te5per Desi"nation Sste5

Thermall& Treated * T %rodce tem"er otherthan ',O, . A""lies to those "rodcts whichhave had an increase in strength de tothermal treatments, with or withot

s""lementar& strain hardening o"erations. Tis alwa&s followed b& two or more digits.

#oltion eat Treated * + An nstabletem"er a""l&ing to the certain of the *Gxxx

heat treatable allo&s that, after heattreatment s"ontaneosl& age harden at roomtem"eratre. Onl& when the "eriod of natralaging is indicated

Mat/#6als Ca#9 C9t/9t


71/392

Mat/#6als Ca#9 C9t/9t

+roght iron Trace to F.FD

ow carbon steel F.FD to F.4FD

Medim carbonsteel

F.4FD to F.8FD

igh carbon steel F.8FD to 1.1D

Cast iron 1.4D to 5.7D


72/392

6eat Treat5ent


73/392

6eat Treat5entProcessesMETAL"OR*ING PROCESSES

Ht-#?69%

> F#%69%

> Rll69%P#/ss69%

Ha55/#69%

Cl "#?69%> Cl Rll69%

Cl D#a69%E


74/392

6eat Treat5ent Processes forA'u5inu5

HEAT TREATMENT 4 6s a s/#6/s 0 8/#at69s 69;l;69% t&/ &/at69% a9l69% 0 5/tals 69 t&/6# sl6 stat/. Its 8$#8s/ 6s t 5a?/ t&/ 5/tal 5#/

$s/0$l, s/#;6/al/ a9 sa0/ 0# a /0696t/ 8$#8s/.

S#$'TI#N HEAT TREAT"ENT 4 6s t&/ 8#/ss 0 &/at69% /#ta69

al$569$5 all!s t all t&/ all!69% /l/5/9ts t 56< 6t& t&/

as/ 5/tal.

6'ENCHIN 4 #a86 l69% ! 5/a9s 0 at/#, 6l, #69/, /t.

S#AIN or H#$)IN 4 &/l t&/ t/58/#at$#/ 6t&69 a$t 8l$s# 569$s 1@ /%#//s Fa/9&/6t 0 t&6s t/58/#at$#/ a9 t&/ as/

5/tal $9t6l t&/ all!69% /l/5/9ts 6s $960#5 t$%&$t.

NAT'RA$ AIN 4 &/9 a9 all! 6s all/ t l at #5

t/58/#at$#/ a9 a9 ta?/ s/;/#al &$#s # //?s.

ARTI(ICIA$ AIN 4 a/l/#at69% t&/ a%69% 8#/ss ! l69% at

a9 /l/;at/ t/58/#at$#/.

ANNEA$IN 4 6s t&/ 8#/ss t&at s0t/9s a 5/tal a9 /#/as/

69t/#9al st#/ss/s.

STRAIN HARDENING also referred to as C#$) *#RIN or

*#R HAR)ENIN . This re2ires mechanicall& working of metal

*stretches, com"resses, bends, drawn, etc. below its critical range


75/392

Steps of 6eat Treat5ent

The heat treatment takes "lace in three ste"s.

#te" $: #oltion heat treat, that is heating of the material to

a s"ecified tem"eratre and holding it there for a s"ecified

time.

#te" 1: @enching

#te" 4: Age hardening *"reci"itation at room tem"eratre

or elevated tem"eratre

The 2enching mst occr ra"idl&. After 2enching the material

initiall& is soft and dctile.

Met%ods of 6eat


76/392

Met%ods of 6eat Treat5ent

*EAT TREATMENT FOR STEE+S,


77/392

*EAT TREATMENT FOR STEE+S,

ANNEALING is a form of heat treatment that softens steel and

relieves internal stress. -t is heated abot 7F degrees ' above its

critical tem"eratre, soaked for s"ecified time then cooled.

NORMALIING the "rocess of forging, welding, or machining

sall& leave stresses to the steel that cold lead to failre. Tonormali?e, it is heated abot $FF degrees ' above its critical

tem"eratre and held there ntil the metal is niforml& heat soaked,

then removed from the frnace and allowed to cool in still air.

HARDENING is heated above its critical tem"eratre so carbon can

dis"erse niforml& in the iron matrix.

TEMPERING redces the ndesirable 2alities of martensitic steel.-t is heated to a level considerable below its critical tem"eratre and

held there ntil it becomes heat soaked, then allowed to cool to room

tem"eratre in still air.

CASE HARDENING TREATMENTS


78/392

CASE HARDENING TREATMENTS:

1. CARBURIING forms a thin la&er of high carbon steel on

the exterior of low carbon steel. +AC CAR%'RI&IN is done b& enclosing the metal in a fire)cla&

container and "acking it with a carbon)rich material sch as charcoal.

The container is then sealed, "laced in frnace, and heated.

AS CAR%'RI&IN is similar to "ack carbri?ing exce"t the carbon

monoxide gas combines with gamma iron and forms a high)carbon

srface. $I6'I) CAR%'RI&IN "rodces a high)carbon srface when a "art is

heated in a molten salt bath of sodim c&anide or barim c&anide.

'. NITRIDING differs from carbri?ing in that a "art is first

hardened, tem"ered and then grond to its finished

dimensions before it is case hardened.(. CYANIDING is a fast method of "rodcing srface

hardness on an iron)based allo& of low carbon content.

d i f Al i All


79/392

ardening of Alminm Allo&s


80/392

For5in"8S%apin" and


81/392

For5in"8S%apin" andFor"in"

9endin" La out


82/392

9endin" La2out


83/392

$ i i f M t '


84/392

$oinin" of Meta's

Ai ft / 'di


85/392

Aircraft /e'din"

F$s69 welding is the blending of com"atible moltenmetals into one common "art or joint. 'sing of

metals is accom"lished b& "rodcing sfficient heat

for the metals to melt, flow together and mix. The

heat is then removed to allow the fsed joint tosolidif&.

N9-0$s69 welding is the joining of metals b&

adhesion of one metal to another. The most"rominent non)fsion welding "rocesses sed on

aircraft are bra?ing and soldering, which are covered

in detail later in this section.


86/392

';#-O( +E6-(9 %!OCE##E#

The three "rinci"al methods of fsion welding are

gas, electric arc, and electrical resistance. 'sion

welding reslts in s"erior strength joints becase

the metal "arts are melted together into a singlesolid object. #ince fsion)welded joints are sed

extensivel& in high)stress a""lications, their failre

is likel& to have catastro"hic conse2ences. To

fll& a""reciate the level of detail that mst be

exercised when ins"ecting welded com"onents,&o mst be aware of the characteristics that

define a 2alit& fsion)welded joint.


87/392

OBACETBE(E +E6-(9

Ox&acet&lene welding, often referred to as gaswelding, gets its name from the two gases, ox&gen and

acet&lene, that are sed to "rodce a flame. Acet&lene

is the fel for the flame and ox&gen s""orts

combstion and makes the flame hotter. The

combination of these two gases reslts in sfficientheat to "rodce molten metal. The tem"eratre of the

ox&acet&lene flame ranges from 7,8FF to 8,4FF '


88/392

EECT!-C A!C +E6-(9

Electric arc welding incldes shielded metal arc

welding, gas metal arc welding, and tngsten inert

gas T-9 arc welding. Althogh T-9 welding is the

method that is "redominantl& sed in aircraft fabri

cation and re"air, a technician is also re2ired to

nderstand the other methods.


89/392

#-E6E6 META A!C +E6-(9

-n #MA+ welding, a metal wire rod, which is com"osed

of a""roximatel& the same chemical com"osition as the

metal to be welded, is clam"ed in an electrode holder. This

holder, in trn, is connected to one terminal of the T! "ower

s""l& b& a heav& gage electrical cable. The metal to be

welded is attached to the other terminal of the "ower s""l&

throgh another electrical cable sall& e2i""ed with a

s"ring clam".


90/392

9A# META A!C +E6-(99as metal arc welding *9MA+, formerl& called Metal -nert

9as *M-9 welding, is sed "rimaril& in large volme "rodctionwork. An advantage of 9MA+ over stick welding is that no slag is

de"osited on the weld bead. An ncoated filler wire acts as the

electrode. -t is connected to one terminal on the "ower s""l&, and

fed into the torch. An inert gas sch as argon, helim or carbon

dioxide flows ot arond the wire to "rotect the weld ?one from

ox&gen. The metal to be welded is connected to the other terminalof the "ower s""l&. +hen "ower is s""lied to the electrode, and it

is broght into contact with the work, it "rodces an arc, which

melts the metal and the filler wire.


91/392

T;(9#TE( -(E!T 9A# +E6-(9

Tngsten inert gas welding *T-9 is the form of electric arc

welding that is sed most in aircraft maintenance. T-9 welding

ses a tngsten electrode that does not act as filler rod. The

electrode is connected to an AC or 6C electrical "ower s""l&

to form an arc with the metal being welded. The arc is

concentrated on a small area of the metal, raising its

tem"eratre to as high as $$,FFF ', withot excessivel& heatingthe srronding metal. The base metal melts in the area of the

arc and forms a "ddle into which the filler rod is added.

EECT!-C !E#-#TA(CE +E6-(9


92/392

Man& thin sheet metal "arts for aircraft, es"eciall& stainless steel "arts,

are joined b& one of the forms of electric resistance weldingI either s"ot

welding or seam welding.

#%OT +E6-(9

+hen s"ot welding, two co""er electrodes are held in the jaws of a

vise)like machine and the "ieces of metal to be welded are clam"ed

between them. %ressre is a""lied to hold the electrodes tightl&

together while electrical crrent "asses between the electrodes.

#EAM +E6-(9

+hile it wold be "ossible to create a seam with a series of closel&

s"aced s"ot welds, a better method is to se a seam welder. This

e2i"ment is commonl& sed to manfactre fel tanks and other

com"onents where a continos weld is needed.

TB%E# O' +E6E6 0O-(T#


93/392

# O 0O #

"/l 69s8/t69


94/392

8

A good weld is niform in width, witheven ri""les that ta"er off smoothl& into

the base metal. There shold be no brn

marks or signs of overheating, and nooxide shold form on the base metal

more than $/1 inch from the weld.

'rthermore, a good weld mst be free

of gas "ockets, "orosit&, and inclsions

"/l 69s8/t69


95/392

8

%enetration is the de"th of fsion in aweld, and is the most im"ortant

characteristic of a good weld. %enetration

de"ends on the thickness of the materialto be joined, the si?e of the filler rod, and

welding techni2e. A t&"ical btt weld

shold "enetrate $FF "ercent of the

thickness of the base metal, while a filletweld mst "enetrate 17 to 7F "ercent

"/l 69s8/t69


96/392

8

P%oor welds dis"la& certain telltale characteristics. 'or exam"le, toomch acet&lene makes the molten metal boil, casing bm"s along

the center and craters along the weldQs edge. A cold weld has irreg

lar edges and considerable variation in de"th of "enetration, while

excessive heat "rodces a weld with "itting along its edges and

long, "ointed ri""les. -f a "art is cooled too 2ickl& after being

welded, cracks often a""ear adjacent to the weld. +henever awelded joint dis"la&s an& of these defects, all of the old weld mst

be removed and the joint rewelded


97/392


98/392

Aircraft ardware, Cables,and Tools, E2i"ment


99/392

A-!C!A'T !-


100/392

RI&ETS

Ri0et 6ead St'e


101/392

Ri0et 6ead St'e


102/392

Ri0et 6ead Mar:in"s


103/392

Ri0et 6ead Mar:in"s


104/392

C R $.7 6

( R F.7 6

(OTE:

As a rle of thmb, to determine

fastener diameter to be sed will be

4x the thickness of the thickest

sheet.


105/392

518 Contersnk

ead

*$FF degrees

5GF ;niversal ead

The 1$$G)T rivet is designated as an

SA6 i t d h di l th


106/392

SA6 rivet, and has a dim"le on the

head. A S3 designation is given to a

rivet of 7F78 material and is markedwith a raised cross on the rivet head.

Each t&"e of rivet is identified b& a "art

nmber to allow the ser to select thecorrect rivet. The nmbers are in series

and each series re"resents a "articlar

t&"e of head.

C$9t/#s$9? &/a #6;/ts MS'@)'

s"ersedes A(518 $FF degree are sed where


107/392

s"ersedes A(518 $FF)degree are sed where

a smooth finish is desired. The $FF)degree

contersnk head has been ado"ted as thestandard in the ;nited #tates. The niversal

head rivet *A(5GF s"erseded b& M#1F5GF has

been ado"ted as the standard for "rotrding)

head rivets, and ma& be sed as a re"lacement

for the rondhead, flathead, and bra?ier headrivet. These rivets can also be "rchased in half

si?es b& designating a SF.7 after the main length

*i.e., M#1F5GF A65)4.7.

-dentification marking of


108/392

de t cat o a g o

rivet

M# 1F5GFA64)7 Com"lete "art nmber

M# Militar& standard nmber

1F5GF ;niversal head rivet

A6 1$$G)T alminm allo&

4 4/41nds in diameter

7 7/$8ths in length


109/392


110/392


111/392

9u'bed C%err'oc:


112/392

Ri0ets#One of the earlier t&"es of mechanical)lockrivets develo"ed were 3lbed Cherr&lock blind

rivets.

These blind rivets have as their main

advantage

the abilit& to re"lace a solid shank rivet

si?e for si?e.


113/392


114/392


115/392

T%e C%errMa;


116/392

T%e C%errMa;U-t ses one tool to install three standard rivet

diameters and their oversi?e conter"arts.

UThis makes the se of Cherr&Max rivets ver&

"o"lar with man& small general aviation re"airsho"s.

UThe Cherr&Max rivets consists of five "artsI

blbed blind header, hollow rivet shell, locking*foil collar, driving anvil, and "lling stem.


117/392

An O'5pic2Lo:


118/392

An O'5pic Lo:

Uis a light three)"iece mechanicall&

locked,

s"indle)t&"e blind rivet. -t carries its stem

lock

integral to the manfactred head.


119/392

6uc: ri0ets


120/392

6uc: ri0ets

The ck rivet has the abilit& to tightl&

draw)" two or more sheets of metal

together while being installed.


121/392

Co55on pu''2tpe Pop ri0ets


122/392

Co55on pu'' tpe Pop ri0ets

%rodced for nonaircraft related

a""lications, are not a""roved for se on

certificated aircraftstrctres or com"onents.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


123/392

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

GENERAL PURPOSE BOLTS

T&/ &/< &/a AN ( THROUGH AN '@ 6s a9 all8$#8s/ st#$t$#al lt $s/ 0# %/9/#al

a88l6at69s 69;l;69% t/9s69 a9 s&/a#

las &/#/ a l6%&t #6;/ 06t 6s 8/#56ss6l/.

Fa#6at/ 0#5 SAE '((@ 96?/l st//l a9

a56$5 8lat/. I/9t606/ ! a #ss #

ast/#6s?

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


124/392

A( 3OT EA6

-6E(T-'-CAT-O(

9E(E!A %;!%O#E ) C!O## O!

A#TE!-#=

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

EX. AN)-3AEX. AN)-3

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


125/392

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

GENERAL PURPOSE BOLTS

T&/ AN ( - AN 31 MS'@@(-MS'@@)2 #6ll/&/a lt 6s s656la# t t&/ sta9a# &/< lt,

$t &as a //8/# &/a t&at 6s #6ll/ t #//6;/

6#/ 0# sa0/t!69%. T&/ AN(-AN'@ a9 AN(-

AN31 s/#6/s lts a#/ 69t/#&a9%/al/.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


126/392

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS

T&6s t!8/ 0 lt 6s 5a&69/ 5#/ a$#at/l!t&a9 t&/ %/9/#al 8$#8s/ lt. T&/! a9 /

H/< &/a/ - AN1(-AN132 # &a;/ a

C$9t/#s$9? &/a- NAS3@-NAS32 t&/! a#/

$s/ 69 a88l6at69s &/#/ a t6%&t #6;/ 06t 6s#/$6#/ t&/ lt 6ll 9l! 5;/ 69t 8s6t69

9l! &/9 st#$? 6t& a 1'-1) $9/ &a55/#2

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


127/392

A( 3OT EA6 -6E(T-'-CAT-O(

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

A( 3OT EA6 -6E(T-'-CAT-O(CO#E TOE!A(CE ) C!O## O! A#TE!-#= -(#-6E

A T!-A(9E

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


128/392

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

CLASSIFICATION OF THREADS

NC 4 A5/#6a9 9at69al a#s/NF 4 A5/#6a9 9at69al 069/

UNC 4 A5/#6a9 sta9a# $9606/ a#s/

UNF 4 A5/#6a9 sta9a# $9606/ 069/

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


129/392

C O S

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

THREAD /s6%9at69

T/as a#/ /s6%9at/ ! t&/ 9$5/# 0 t65/st&/ 69l69/ t/as2 #tat/s a#$9 a 1 69&

l/9%t& 0 %6;/9 6a5/t/# lt # s#/.

EX. )-'3 t/a 696at/s t&at a 6a. Blt

&as '3 t/as 69 1 0 6ts t/a l/9%t&.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


130/392

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2THREAD /s6%9at69

T/as a#/ /s6%9at/ ! t&/ Class 06t

tl/#a9/ all/ 69 5a9$0at$#69%2.

Class 1 4 Ls/ 06t Eas6l! t$#9/ ! t&/ 069%/#s2

Class ' 4 F#// 06t A6##a0t S#/s2

Class ( 4 M/6$5 06t A6##a0t Blts2

Class ) 4 Cls/ 06t R/$6#/s a #/9& t t$#9 t&/ 9$t 9ta lt2

Li5its and Fits


131/392

Cl/a#a9/ F6t 4 in this assembl& there is a s"ace between the two "arts. The shaft is

alwa&s smaller than the "art it fits into.

I9t/#0/#/9/ F6t 4 in this assembl& there is no s"ace between the "arts. The shaft isalwa&s larger than the "art it fits into. This means that force is re2ired to assemble the

"arts.

T#a9s6t69 F6t 4 this is a range of fits which can be either clearance or interference. The

shaft can be larger or smaller than the "art it fits into.

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


132/392

AN)-3A

• A( means the bolt is manfactred according to

Air 'orce)(av& s"ecs.• 5 identifies the diameter of the bolt shank in $/$8Jincrements

• identifies the length of the shank in $/Jincrements

• A means the shank of the bolt is n)drilled *noletter here means a drilled shank

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

AIRCRAFT BOLTS


133/392

AN)-H3A

• A( means the bolt is manfactred according to Air

'orce)(av& s"ecs.• 5 identifies the diameter of the bolt shank in $/$8Jincrements

• identifies the head is drilled• identifies the length of the shank in $/J increments• A means the shank of the bolt is n)drilled *no letter heremeans a drilled shank

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2


134/392

Within a given diameter (i.e. 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, etc.) of any AN/MS/NAS erie,a!! "o!t #i!! have the ame thread !ength, no matter ho# !ong the "o!t.

$he thread !ength for each erie "o!t are on the %ecification %rint and in achart &nder the 'Aero%ace o!t nterchange' heading &nder $ech nfo

n a!! MS and NAS erie "o!t, the dah n&m"er i the gri% in 1/1*' (+.+*2')increment, e.g. -18 18 +.+*2' 1.12' 18/1*'.

$h&, to determine the overa!! !ength of a "o!t, im%!y add the thread !engthfor that erie and diameter to the gri% !ength yo& deire, e.g. NAS 13+*-240gri% i 1.+' thread0 +.8' 2.+8' overa!! !ength.

n AN erie "o!t, yo& m&t have a chart or "o!t ga&ge to determine !ength,gri% or %art n&m"er. $ 5AS N6M7S 5 N$ N59A$ $7 :7;S7


135/392

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2


136/392

BOLT GRIP LENGTH CORRECT

BOLT GRIP LENGTH TOO SHORT

BOLT GRIP LENGTH TOO LONG

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2


137/392

COUNTERSUN* HEAD BOLT

INTERNAL "RENCHING BOLT

DRILLED HEX HEAD BOLT

CLEVIS BOLT

T!8/s 0 Blts

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2

AIRCRAFT BOLTS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2


138/392

CLOSE TOLERANCE

STEEL OR ALUMINUM

ALLOY2

ALUMINUM ALLOY

',@@@ P.S.I.2

CORROSION RESISTANT

STEEL 1'+,@@@ P.S.I.2

STEEL 1'+,@@@ P.S.I STEEL 1+@,@@@ P.S.I

HEAD MAR*INGS

T/a/ 0ast/9/#s2


139/392

MACHINE SCRE"

STRUCTURAL SCRE"

SELF-TAPPING SCRE"

CAUTION

S/l0-ta8869% S#/s shold never be

sed to re"lace standard screws, nts,

or rivets originall& sed in the

strctre.

CAUTION

S/l0-ta8869% S#/s shold never be

sed to re"lace standard screws, nts,

or rivets originall& sed in the

strctre.

COUNTERSUN* HEAD

ROUND HEAD

BRAIER HEAD

%#68

l/9%t&

%#68

l/9%t&

%#68

l/9%t&

Certain acce"ted "ractices "revail concerning the

i t ll ti f h d A f f th di


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installation of hardware. A few of these regarding

bolt installation follow:

$. -n determining "ro"er bolt length ) no more than

one thread shold be hidden inside the bolt hole.

1. +henever "ossible, bolts shold be installed"ointing aft and to the center of an air"lane.

4. ;se a tor2e wrench whenever "ossible and

determine tor2e vales based on the si?e of bolt.

5. 3e sre bolt and nt threads are clean and dr&.7. ;se smooth, even "lls when tightening.

8. Tighten the nt first ) whenever "ossible.



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G. A t&"ical installation incldes a bolt, one washer

and a nt.

. -f the bolt is too long, a maximm of threewashers ma& be sed.

. -f more than three threads are "rotrding from

the nt, the bolt ma& be too long and cold be

bottoming ot on the shank.


i t ll ti f h d A f f th di


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$F. ;se n)drilled bolts with fiber lock nts. -f &o

se a drilled bolt and fiber nt combination, be sre

no brrs exist on the drilled hole that will ct thefiber.

$$. -f the bolt does not fit sngl& consider the se of

a close tolerance bolt.

$1. 6onQt make a "ractice of ctting off a bolt that istoo long to fit a hole. That can often weaken the

bolt and allow corrosion in the area that is ct.


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A-!C!A'T

(;T#

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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Aircraft nts sall& have no identification on them

bt the& are made from the same material as bolts.

6e to the vibration of aircraft, nts mst have

some form of a locking device to kee" them in"lace. The most common wa&s of locking are cotter

"ins sed in castle nts, fiber inserts, lockwashers,

and safet& wire.

The aircraft nts &o will most likel& enconter arecastle nts, self)locking nts, and "lain nts. +ing

nts and anchor nts are also sed.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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Castle Nuts

A(4$F and A(41F castle nts are the most commonl& sed

*see 'igre. Castle nts are fabricated from steel and are

cadmim "lated. Corrosion resistant castle nts are also

manfactred *A(4$FC and AC41FC ) remember, when &o

enconter a JCJ it will designate stainless. Castle nts aresed with drilled shank bolts, clevis bolts and e&e bolts. The

slots in the nt accommodate a cotter "in for safet&ing

"r"oses. The thinner A(41F castellated shear nt has half

the tensile strength of the A(4$F and is sed with clevisbolts which are sbject to shear stress onl&. The dash

nmber following the A(4$F or A(41F indicates the si?e bolt

that the nt fits. -n other words, an A(4$F)5 wold fit a $/5

inch bolt.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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A(4$F Cad %lated

Castle Nuts

A(4$F #teel

A(41F #hear Cad %lated

A(41F #hear #teel

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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Self-$oc2in Nuts

#elf)locking nts, as the name im"lies, do not need a locking device.

The most common method of locking is derived from a fiber insert.

This insert has a smaller diameter than the nt itself so that when a boltenters the nt it ta"s into the fiber insert "rodcing a locking action.

This fiber insert is tem"eratre limited to 17F)deg. '.

The designation of these nts is A(487 and A(485.

This brings s to an exam"le of a cross)reference M# nmber. An A(487 is also termed M#1F487 with the A(485 being M#1F485. 3oth of

these nts are available in stainless.

The A(485 is a shear nt not to be sed in tension.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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AN () S&/a# Ca Plat/ AN (+ Ca Plat/

AN (+ St//l

N!l9 I9s/#t

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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Self-$oc2in Nuts

An all metal locking nt is sed forward of the

firewall and in other high tem"eratre areas.-n "lace of a fiber insert, the threads of a

metal locking nt narrow slightl& at one end

to "rovide more friction. An A(484 is an

exam"le of this t&"e of nt. -t is ca"able of

withstanding tem"eratres to 77F)deg. '..

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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MS'1@)+ Ca St//l T#$/ N$t

Ol AN((2

M/tal L?69% N$t

Ml!/9$5 D#!

L$/ )+@ L H/6%&t

H/< L?9$t

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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The dash nmber following self)locking nt defines the

thread si?e. #elf)locking nts are ver& "o"lar and eas& to

se.

T&/! s&$l / $s/ 9 $9-#6ll/ lts. The& ma& be

sed on drilled bolts if &o check the hole for brrs that

wold damage the fiber. One disadvantage,

s/l0-l?69% 9$ts s&$l 9t / $s/ 9 a lt t&at 6s

99/t69% a 5;69% 8a#t. An exam"le might be a clevisbolt sed in a control cable a""lication.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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+lain Aircraft Nuts

%lain nts re2ire a locking device sch as a check

nt or lockwasher. The& are not widel& sed in most

aircraft. A(4$7 is the designation sed for a "lain

hex nt. These nts are also manfactred with a

right hand thread and a left hand thread. The check

nt sed to hold a "lain nt in "lace is an A(4$8. -fa lockwasher is sed a "lain washer mst be nder

the lockwasher to "revent damage to the srface.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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#t0er Aircraft Nuts

There are a nmber of other aircraft nts available.

+ing nts *A(47F are commonl& sed on batter&

connections or hose clam"s where "ro"er tightness

can be obtained b& hand. Anchor nts are widel&

sed in areas where it is difficlt to access a nt.

Tinnerman nts, instrment monting nts, "alnts, ca" nts, etc. are all exam"les of other t&"es

that are sed.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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#hort ; se with T&"e J3J

sheet metal screws

'lat se with T&"e J3J

sheet metal screws

Tinnerman (ts

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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%asics of Aircraft Nut Installation

$. +hen sing a castle nt, the cotter "in hole ma& not

line " with the slots on the nt. The Mechanics

General Handbook states Jexce"t in cases of highl&stressed engine "arts, the nt ma& be over tightened

to "ermit lining " the next slot with the cotter "in

hole.J Common sense shold "revail. 6o not over

tighten to an extreme, instead, remove the nt andse a different washer and then tr& to line the holes

again.

1. A fiber nt ma& be resed if &o are nable to tighten

b& hand.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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4. At least one thread shold be "rojecting "ast the fiber on

a fiber nt installation.

5. (o self)locking nts on moving "art installations.7. 6o not se A(485 or A(487 fiber nts in areas of high

tem"eratre ) above 17FQ '.

8. #hear nts are to be sed onl& in shear loads *not

tension.G. %lain nts re2ire a locking device sch as a lockwasher

or a check nt.

AIRCRAFT NUTS


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. +hen sing a lockwasher, "lace a "lain washer between

the srface of the air"lane "art and the lockwasher.

. #hear nts and standard nts have different tor2evales.

$F.;se wing nts onl& where hand tightness is ade2ate.


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A-!C!A'T

+A#E!#

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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The main "r"oses of a washer in aircraft

installation are to "rovide a shim when

needed, act as a smooth load bearingsrface, and to adjst the "osition of

castle nts in relation to the drilled hole in

a bolt. Also, remember that "lain washersare sed nder a lockwasher to "revent

damage to a srface.

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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A(8F washers are the most common.

The& are manfactred in a reglar

thickness and a thinner thickness *one halfthe thickness of reglar. The dash nmber

following the A(8F indicates the si?e bolt

for which the& are sed.

The s&stem is different from others we haveencontered. As an exam"le, an A(8F)

8$8 is sed with a 4/J bolt.

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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AN@ Ca 8lat/

Sta9a# T&6?9/ss

Flat "as&/#s H/a;!2

A(8F)8/7F

%art (o. #i?e

8

A(8F)/7F

A(8F)$F/7F

A(8F)5$8/7F

A(8F)7$8/7F

A(8F)8$8/7F

A(8F)G$8/7F

A(8F)$8/7F

A(8F)$8

A(8F)$F$8

A(8F)$1$8

4/$8

$/5

7/$8

4/

G/$8

$/1

/$8

7/

4/5

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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AN@ Ca 8lat/ Hal0

T&6?9/ss Flat"as&/#s L6%&t2

A(8F)8/7F

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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AN@C STAINLESS

STEEL Sta9a#

T&6?9/ss Flat"as&/#s H/a;!2

AN@C STAINLESSSTEEL Hal0 T&6?9/ss

Flat "as&/#s L6%&t2

AN@C->+@AN@C-L>+@

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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I9t/#9al Tt& CaPlat/ St//l L?

"as&/#

MS(+(((-( B

I9t/#9al Tt&

Sta69l/ss St//l

L? "as&/#

MS(+(((-@ B

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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Sta69l/ss 1@@

C$9t/#s$9? "as&/#

DD@SS

Sta69l/ss 3' C$8

I9t/#6# F696s&69%

"as&/# FC")

AIRCRAFT "ASHERS


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AN@ Ca

Plat/ La#%/

A#/a "as&/#

Nat$#al Cl#

N!l9 Flat "as&/#

N"-) B


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Control Cables and Cable

Assemblies


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Assemblies

NONFLEXIBLE CABLE

-n areas where a linkage does not "ass over


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-n areas where a linkage does not "ass over

an& "lle&s nonflexible cable can be sed. -t isavailable in either a $ x G or $ x $

configration. The $xG cable is made " of one

strand com"rised of seven individal wires,

whereas the $ x $ consists of one strand

made " of $ individal wires. (onflexible

cable is available in both galvani?ed carbon

steel and stainless steel.

FLEXIBLE CABLE

'lexible steel cable made " of seven strands of seven wires


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'lexible steel cable made " of seven strands of seven wires

each is called G x G or flexible cable,

To check the tension of aircraft control cables a and is available

in $/$8 and 4/41 inch si?es in both galvani?ed carbon steel and

stainless steel. 3oth t&"es are "reformed which means that

when the cable is manfactred each strand is formed into a

s"iral sha"e. This "rocess kee"s strands together when the

cable is wond and also hel"s "revent the cable from s"readingot when ct. 'rthermore, "reforming gives cable greater

flexibilit& and relieves bending stresses when the strands are

woven into the cable.

EXTRA FLEXIBLE CABLE


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EXTRA-FLEXIBLE CABLE

The most widel& sed cable, G x $, is available insi?es from $/ inch ". -t is extra flexible and is made

of $44 individal wires wond in seven strands, each

strand having $ wires. These cables are "reformed

and are available in both galvani?ed and stainlesssteel. 9alvani?ed cable is more resistant to fatige

than stainless steel, bt in a""lications where

corrosion is a factor, stainless steel is sed


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ATTACHING CABLES At one time, most cables were attached to bellcranks,

control srfaces, and flight controls with ;/9 s8l6/s,

sch as the A#5!-Na;! 06;/-t$? s8l6/ or the R/l69%

#ll. 3ecase both t&"es of woven s"lices re2ire a great

deal of hand work and develo" onl& G7 "ercent of the cablestrength, this method of attaching cables has almost been

com"letel& re"laced.

S"AGED TERMINALS

Th bl fitti d t i l i ft


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The cable fittings sed most in large aircraft man

factre are M#)t&"e sa%/ al/ t/#569als. Toinstall these terminals, ct the cable and insert it

into the end of a terminal. Then, se either a hand

or "ower swaging tool to force the metal of the ter

minal down into the cable. This forms a joint that isat least as strong as the cable itself.

To ensre that a terminal is "ro"erl& swaged, a measrement

is made of the swaged terminal with a go/no)go gage. The

swaging "rocess mst decrease the terminalQs diameter to the

extent that the go end of a go/no)go gage "asses over the


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extent that the go end of a go/no)go gage "asses over the

swaged terminal, bt the no)go end does not. As an

ins"ection aid to ensre the cable does not "ll ot of theterminal, a small mark of "aint is "laced over the terminal end

and onto the cable. A broken "aint mark indicates the cable

has sli""ed inside the terminal.

NICOPRESS OVAL SLEEVES

Man& light aircraft se (ico"ress sleeves that are

s2ee?ed onto control cables to form terminal

ends A nico"ress sleeve is made of co""er and


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ends. A nico"ress sleeve is made of co""er and

has two holes to accommodate a control cable.+hen a cable is wra""ed arond an A($FF

thimble and "ro"erl& s2ee?ed with the correct

(ico"ress s2ee?er, the terminal develo"s at least

the strength of the cable.

TURNBUC*LESTrnbckles are a t&"e of cable fastener that

allows cable tension to be adjsted. A

com"lete trnbckle assembl& consists of two


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com"lete trnbckle assembl& consists of two

ends, one with right)hand threads and theother having left)hand threads, with a brass

barrel joining them. Minor cable adjstment is

made b& rotating the trnbckle which

effectivel& lengthens or shortens the cableQs

length.


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Part -

AIRCRAFTCONSTR.CTION/ REPAIR


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CONSTR.CTION/ REPAIR

AN! MO!IFICATION


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Aircraft Structura'Co5ponents Meta' Structures

Non2Meta' StructuresCo5posite Materia's

Structura' Desi"n P%i'osop%ies


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'ail #afe relies "on a d"lication of certain strctral members toensre that if one member failed, the other wold assme the load of the

failed member.

6amage Tolerance re2ires an evalation of the strctreto ensre that shold serios damage, that is cracking or "artial failre, occrwithin the o"erational life of the aircraft, the remaining strctre can withstand

reasonable loads withot failre ntil the damage is detected.

'atige This "henomenon of fractring after a series of c&clic loads,ma&be mch less than the ltimate load.

#afe ife The "eriod dring which it is considered that failre of acom"onent is extremel& nlikel&. ife ma& be ex"ressed in fl&ing hors,

ela"sed time, nmber of flights or nmber of a""lications of load.

AIRFRAME FUSELAGE the main strctre or bod& of the air"lane.

TRUSS is a rigid framework made " of members sch as beams strts


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TRUSS is a rigid framework made " of members sch as beams, strts,

and bars to resist deformation b& a""lied load.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE consist of a framework of vertical and longitdinal

members covered with a strctral skin that carries the large "ercentage of

the stresses.

MONOCOQUE it involves the constrction of a metal tbe or cone withot

strctral member.

> B$l?&/a the vertical members of the fselage frames. #trctral "artitions thatrns "er"endiclar to the longerons.

> F#a5/ ) lateral fselage or nacelle member giving cross)sectional sha"e which is

often circlar. Also known as 'O!ME!# or !-(9# that maintains the niform sha"e

of the strctre.

> St#69%/#s *for semi)monoco2e the longitdinal members serves for stiffening the

metal skin and "revent it from blging or bckling nder severe stresses.

> G$ss/t # G$ss/t Plat/s to reinforce the intersecting strctral members and to

transfer stresses from one member to another.

> L9%/#9 the main longitdinal member of a fselage or nacelle.

> S?69 the smooth oter cover of the aircraft. The materials sed for the skin

covering is sall& sheets alminm allo&.

AIRFRAME C!AC= #TO%%E! ) A reinforcing member normall& "laced at right angles

to the "ath of an antici"ated crack which will redce the rate of frther "ro"agation


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to the "ath of an antici"ated crack which will redce the rate of frther "ro"agation.

AE!O6B(AM-C OA6-(9 ) The loads im"osed on an aircraft inflight.

#TAT-C OA6-(9 ) The loads im"osed on an aircraft when stationar&.

#TAT-O( (;M3E!# ) (mbers allocated to certain com"onents, e.g.frames and ribs, to indicate their "ositions within the strctre. The nmbers ma&

re"resent in inches the distance from a datm "oint which cold be the fselage, nose or

the wing root.


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FUSELAGE


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"ING aerofoil strctre that "rodces lift of an air"lane.> CANTILEVER no external bracing is needed.


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> SEMI-CANTILEVER ses external bracing *strt, wires, etc.

S8a#s it is the "rinci"al strctral members of the wing. R6s sed to give the sha"e of the wing and to transmit the load from the skin to the

s"ars.

"69% T68 smooth ot the wing ti" airfoil to give wing a finish look.

Fa6#69%>F6ll/ts sed to smooth the airflow over the angles formed b& the wings and

other strctral nits with the fselage, sha"ed ronded "anels or metal skin are

attached

T6/ # T/9s69 #2 members taking tensile load.

St#$t members taking com"ression load

EMPENNAGE the com"lete tail assembl& of an aircraft.

HORIONTAL TAIL

H#6J9tal sta6l6J/#s fixed srface El/;at#s movable srface

VERTICAL TAIL

V/#t6al sta6l6J/#s fixed srface *'-(

R$/# movable srface

"ING


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VERTICAL STABILIER


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HORIONTAL STABILIER


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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES !RIMAR" GROU!

> AILERON attached to both wings of an aircraft that goes " and down, ths,

casing the aircraft to roll at lonitudinal axis.

> RUDDER hinged to TE of the vertical stabili?er to trn abot its 7ertical axis.


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RUDDER hinged to TE of the vertical stabili?er to trn abot its 7ertical axis.

> ELEVATOR attached to the TE of the hori?ontal stabili?er se for control on "itch "

and "itch down at its lateral axis.

SECON#AR" or AU$ILIAR" GROU! their "r"ose is to redce the force

re2ired to actate the "rimar& controls, to trim and balance the aircraft in flight,

to redce s"eed or shorten the landing rn and the change the s"eed of the

aircraft flight.>

T#65 tas sed to make fine adjstments to the flight "ath of the aircraft.> Bala9/ tas movement of the main control srface will give an o""osite

movement to the tab.

> S/#; tas referred to as flight tabs.

> Fla8s se to increase area of wing for the "r"ose of increasing lift.

> S86l/#s a device designed to redce the lift of the wing. ;se for s"eed brakes.

> L/a69% /%/ /;6/s a high lift device *#AT# normall& sed on large trans"ort

categor&.

LANDING GEAR - is the assembl& that s""orts the aircraft

dring landing or while resting or moving abot on the grond.

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE


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Repair 9asic


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Structura' Repair Manua' (SRM <ATA C%apters


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The manal is divided into the following cha"ters:

Cha"ter 7$ ) #trctres, 9eneral

Cha"ter 71 6oors

Cha"ter 74 ) 'selage

Cha"ter 75 ) (acelles and %&lons Cha"ter 77 ) #tabili?ers

Cha"ter 78 ) +indows

Cha"ter 7G ) +ings

Structura' Repair Manua' (SRM


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%age 3lock *%3 FF$ -6E(T-'-CAT-O(> %ages $), 'igres $), Tables $)

%age 3lock *%3 $F$ AO+A3E

6AMA9E> %ages $F$)$, 'igres $F$)$, Tables $F$)$

%age 3lock *%3 1F$ !E%A-!#> %ages 1F$)1, 'igres 1F$)1, Tables 1F$)1

Aircraft Maintenance Manua'(AMM


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%age 3lock *%3 FF$ 6escri"tion and O"eration %age 3lock *%3 1F$ Maintenance %ractice

%age 3lock *%3 4F$ #ervicing

%age 3lock *%3 5F$ !emoval and -nstallation

%age 3lock *%3 7F$ Adjstment and Test

%age 3lock *%3 8F$ -ns"ection and Check

%age 3lock *%3 GF$ Cleaning and %ainting

%age 3lock *%3 F$ !e"air %age 3lock *%3 F$ 6eactivation/ Activation

Aircraft =onin" Sste5


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MaK# 9/s> $FF ) ower alf of 'selage

> 1FF ) ;""er alf of 'selage

> 4FF ) Em"ennage and 3od& #ection 5

> 5FF ) %ower %lants and (acelle #trts> 7FF ) eft +ing

> 8FF ) !ight +ing

> GFF ) anding 9ear and anding 9ear 6oors *'ixed

> FF ) 6oors


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TYPES OF MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, AND ALTERATIONS

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE is defined as sim"le or minor "reservation

o"erations and the re"lacement of small standard "arts not involving com"lex

assembl& o"erations. O"erations classed as "reventive maintenance are as

f ll


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follows:> !emoval, installation, and re"air of landing gear tires.

> !e"lacing elastic shock)absorber cords on landing gear.

> #ervicing landing)gear shock strts b& adding oil, air, or both.

> #ervicing landing gear wheel bearings, sch as cleaning and greasing.

> !e"lacing defective safet& wiring or cotter ke&s.

> brication not re2iring disassembl& other than removal of non)strctral items sch as

cover "lates, cowlings, and fairings.> Making sim"le fabric "atches not re2iring rib stitching or the removal of strctral "arts

or control srfaces.

> !e"lenishing h&dralic flid in the h&dralic reservoir.

> !efinishing decorative coating of fselage, wings, tail gro" srfaces *exclding

balanced control srfaces, fairings, cowling, landing gear, cabin, or cock"it interior when

removal or disassembl& of an& "rimar& strctre or o"erating s&stem is not re2ired.

> A""l&ing "reservative or "rotective material to com"onents where no disassembl& of an&"rimar& strctre or o"erating s&stem is involved and where sch coating is not

"rohibited or is not contrar& to good "ractices.

> !e"airing "holster& and decorative frnishings or the cabin or cock"it interior when the

re"airing does not re2ire disassembl& of an& "rimar& strctre or o"erating s&stem or

affect the "rimar& strctre of the aircraft.

> Making small sim"le re"airs to fairings, non)strctral cover "lates, cowlings, and small"atches and reinforcements not changing the contor so as to interfere with the "ro"er airflow.

> !e"lacing side windows where that work does not interfere with the strctre of an& o"erating

s&stem sch as controls, electrical e2i"ment, etc.

> !e"lacing safet& belts.

> !e"lacing seats or seat "arts with re"lacement "arts a""roved for the aircraft, not involving

disassembl& of an& "rimar& strctre or o"erating s&stem


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disassembl& of an& "rimar& strctre or o"erating s&stem.

> Trobleshooting and re"airing broken circits in landing light wiring circits.> !e"lacing blbs, reflectors, and lenses of "osition and landing lights.

> !e"lacing wheels and skis where no weight and balance com"tation is involved.

> !e"lacing an& cowling not re2iring removal of the "ro"eller or disconnecting of flight controls.

> !e"lacing or cleaning s"ark "lgs and setting of s"ark "lg ga" clearance.

> !e"lacing an& nose connections exce"t h&dralic connections.

> !e"lacing "re)fabricated fel lines.

> Cleaning fel and oil strainers.

> !e"lacing batteries and checking flid level and s"ecific gravit&.

> !emoving and installing glider wings and tail srfaces that are s"ecificall& designed for 2ick

removal and installation and when sch removal and installation can be accom"lished b& the

"ilot.

The holder of a "ilot certificate issed nder 'A! %art 8$, ma& "erform "reventive maintenance on

an& aircraft owned or o"erated b& him that is not sed in air carrier service. %reventive maintenance

ma& also be "erformed b& certificated mechanics, re"air stations, re"airmen, air carriers, and othersathori?ed b& the 'AA. A "erson who "lans to "erform "reventive maintenance mst ascertain that

the o"eration falls within this categor& and that he is athori?ed to "erform the wo

aircraft material and processes

Documents