mastering the world of psychology, fifth edition samuel wood | ellen green wood | denise boyd...

Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd

Chapter 5Learning


Overview

• Classical Conditioning– Learning through association of stimuli

• Operant Conditioning• Learning through consequences

• Cognitive Learning– Observational Learning Learning through watching others


Learning

• A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude– acquired through experience – cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or

maturation


Classical Conditioning

• A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another– A stimulus is any event or object in the

environment to which an organism responds

• A type of learning in which a response naturally ELICTED by 1 stimulus comes to be ELICITED by a different, formerly neutral stimulus

LO 5.1


Figure 5.1 The Experimental Apparatus Used in Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning StudiesIn Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies, the dog was restrained in a harness in the cubicle and isolated from all distractions. An experimenter observed the dog through a one-way mirror and, by remote control, presented the dog with food and other conditioning stimuli. A tube carried the saliva from the dog’s mouth to a container where it was measured.


Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning cont…

• Neutral stimulus (NS) – Causes no response

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (US)– Elicits an unconditioned response without

learning

• Unconditioned Response (UCR) (UR)– elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

without learning


Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning cont…

• Conditioned stimulus (CS)– Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing

with UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response

• Conditioned response (CR)– Learned response that comes to be elicited

by a conditioned stimulus


Figure 5.2 Classically Conditioning a Salivation ResponseA neutral stimulus (a tone) elicits no salivation until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food). After many pairings, the neutral stimulus (now called the conditioned stimulus) alone produces salivation. Classical conditioning has occurred.


Changing Conditioned Responses

• Extinction– weakening and disappearance of CR as

a result of repeated presentation of CS without UCS

• Spontaneous Recovery– reappearance of extinguished CR when

organism is exposed to CS following rest period

LO 5.2


Changing Conditioned Responses

• Generalization– tendency to make a CR to a stimulus

that is similar to the original CS

• Discrimination– learned ability to distinguish between

similar stimuli– CR occurs only in response to the

original CS, not to similar stimuli.

LO 5.2


John Watson• Watson and Rayner (1920) "Little

Albert" Study• 3 important findings:

– Humans can be classically conditioned– Fear can be learned.– Fear can be generalized.

LO 5.3


Human Behavior and Classical conditioning

1. Psychological drug dependence2. Music3. Smells4. Can you think of others??


Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

• Why can diet soda make people hungry?– The sweet taste of soda becomes a CS.

elicits insulin increase (UCR) leads to feelings of hunger

– The pancreas pumps out insulin (lowers blood sugar) in response to any sweet taste such as diet soda.

LO 5.6


Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

• Why can diet soda make people hungry?– Without real sugar, insulin causes blood

sugar to drop below normal.– Insulin drop causes the body to signal to

the brain to eat.

LO 5.6


Operant Conditioning: Thorndike Skinner and the Consequences of Behavior

• Law of Effect (Thorndike) Organisms tend to repeat behaviors that

bring about pleasant consequences and ignore those that do not.

– Law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner, and the Consequences of Behavior

LO 5.7



• Operant – voluntary behavior that accidentally

brings about a consequence

• Operant Conditioning– The consequences of behavior are

manipulated to INCREASE or DECREASE the frequency of an existing response or shape a new one.

Learning is influenced by its consequences!!!!

LO 5.7



• Reinforcer

• Anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the probability that it will be repeated

LO 5.7


Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement– A pleasant or desirable consequence that

increases the probability that a response will be repeated

Negative reinforcement– Termination of an unpleasant condition after a

response, which increases the probability that the response will be repeated


Punishment

Punishment is the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response

– Positive punishment Decrease in behavior that results

from an added consequence (usually something person does not want)

– Negative punishment Decrease in behavior that results

from a removed consequence (loss of something desirable)


TABLE 5.1 The Effects of Reinforcement and Punishment


Alternatives to Punishment

1. Removing the rewarding consequences of undesirable behavior may be the best way to extinguish it– Not giving in to a child’s demands during a

tantrum– Ignoring misbehavior that is performed merely

to get attention and giving attention to more appropriate behaviors

2. Using positive reinforcement can make good behavior more rewarding


Making Punishment More Effective

1. Punishment is most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possible

2. Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior

3. To be effective, punishment must be applied consistently


Applications of Operant Conditioning

1. Behavior modification – Changing behavior based on the learning

principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning

– Has been used to change self-injurious behavior in children and adults with autism

2. Token economy– A program that motivates socially desirable

behavior by reinforcing it with tokens


Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared


Observational Learning

1. Albert Bandura: Many behaviors are acquired through observational learning– Learning by observing the behavior of

others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation Model is the individual who

demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated (effectiveness of model related to status, competence, and power)


Learning from Television and Electronic Games

1. Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies– Children imitate aggressive behavior of an

adult model seen on film

2. Recent research– Individuals who watch the most violence as

children are more likely to engage in acts of violence as adults

3. Children also imitate prosocial behavior– As seen on shows such as Sesame Street


Learning from Television and Electronic Games

Recent research suggest that playing violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent images

But, like television, video games can also teach positive messages and skills

– Can teach teenagers to drive more safely– Can enhance spatial cognitive skills


Learning from Media: Effectsof the Multitasking Environment

• More time spent multitasking may leave a subject less capable of managing thought processes when not multitasking.

• May reduce ability to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information

LO 5.17


Learning from Media: Televisionand Other Entertainment Media

• Recent Research– brain imaging: patterns of neural

activation develop by watching violent media

• Children also imitate prosocial behavior.– Media may teach children not to engage

in aggressive acts.

LO 5.17


Learning from Media: Electronic Games

• Recent research suggests that playing violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent images.

• Games can also teach positive messages and skills.– Games often played in male peer groups

may be essential for social development.

LO 5.17


Learning from Media: Electronic Games

• Games can also teach positive messages and skills.– can teach safe driving skills– can enhance women's spatial cognitive

skills

LO 5.17


Figure 5.8 “Gamers” in Four Age GroupsResearchers at the Pew Internet & American Life Project track all kinds of media use among children and adults in the United States. One of their findings is that younger adults are more likely to play video games at least occasionally than those who are older. However, older adults who play are more likely to do so every day than younger adults are.Source: Data from Lenhart, A., Jones, S., & Macgill, A. (2008).


Learning from Media: The Internet

• Educators should not assume that Internet-based instruction is more effective than conventional approaches (Mayer, 2010).

• Physical manipulations of the computer distracts online readers.– hinders ability to comprehend and

remember what they are reading

LO 5.17


Learning from Media: The Internet

• Younger children using Web-based materials are more likely to be distracted by ads than older children.

• Conventional classroom lectures and textbooks are just as useful for learning complex material as multimedia presentations.

LO 5.17

mastering the world of psychology, fifth edition samuel wood | ellen green wood | denise boyd...

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