master english grammar. write better

Master English grammar.Write better prose.

Jonathan Rogers, PhD

LECTURE NOTES & QUIZZES

Author of The Wilderking Trilogy & The World According to Narnia

LectureNotes&Quizzes

Dr.JonathanRogers

Copyright©2019CompassClassroom,LLC

Allrightsreserved.Thisbookoranyportionthereofmaynotbereproducedorusedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithouttheexpresswrittenpermissionofthepublisherexceptfortheuseofbriefquotationsinabookreview.

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SecondPrinting,2021v5

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TableofContents

UsingGrammarforWriters..................................................................................................................................1

Module1,Lesson1:Introduction......................................................................................................................5

Module1,Lesson2:TheMainLine..................................................................................................................7 Quiz 1.2: The Main Line ......................................................................................................................................... 11

Module1,Lesson3:IdentifyingVerbsandSubjects...............................................................................13 Quiz 1.3: Identifying Verbs and Subjects ................................................................................................................ 17

Module1,Lesson4:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements................................................................21 Quiz 1.4 A: Identifying Objects and Complements ................................................................................................. 25 Quiz 1.4 B: Identifying Objects and Complements (Challenge) .............................................................................. 27

Module1,Lesson5:TheFiveClausePatterns...........................................................................................31 Quiz 1.5 A: The Five Clause Patterns ...................................................................................................................... 35 Quiz 1.5 B: The Five Clause Patterns (Challenge) ................................................................................................... 37

Module1,Lesson6:ActorsandActions,SubjectsandVerbs.............................................................41 Quiz 1.6: Actors and Actions, Subjects and Verbs .................................................................................................. 45

Module1,Lesson7:WhatisPassiveVoice?...............................................................................................49 Quiz 1.7: What is Passive Voice? ............................................................................................................................ 53

Module1,Lesson8:UsesofthePassiveVoice..........................................................................................57 Quiz 1.8 A: Uses of the Passive Voice ..................................................................................................................... 59 Quiz 1.8 B: Uses of the Passive Voice (Challenge) .................................................................................................. 61

Module1,Lesson9:Nominalization..............................................................................................................65 Quiz 1.9: Nominalization ........................................................................................................................................ 69

Module1,Lesson10:StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbs............................................................................73 Quiz 1.10: Strong Verbs vs. Precise Verbs .............................................................................................................. 77

Module1,Lesson11:KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbs.........................................................................79 Quiz 1.11: Keeping Subjects Close to Verbs ........................................................................................................... 81

Module1,Lesson12:CompoundsontheMainLine...............................................................................85 Quiz 1.12: Compounds on the Main Line ............................................................................................................... 89

Module1,Lesson13:VerbTenses..................................................................................................................93 Quiz 1.13: Verb Tenses ........................................................................................................................................... 97

Module1,Lesson14:Review............................................................................................................................99

Module2,Lesson1:Introduction.................................................................................................................101

Module2,Lesson2:AdjectivesandAdverbs..........................................................................................105 Quiz 2.2: Adjectives and Adverbs ......................................................................................................................... 109

Module2,Lesson3:What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?...........................................................................113 Quiz 2.3: What’s So Bad About Adverbs? ............................................................................................................ 115

Module2,Lesson4:PrepositionalPhrases(Part1)............................................................................117

Module2,Lesson5:PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)............................................................................121 Quiz 2.5: Prepositional Phrases (Part 2) ............................................................................................................... 125

Module2,Lesson6:Participles.....................................................................................................................129

Module2,Lesson7:ParticipialPhrases....................................................................................................131 Quiz 2.7: Participial Phrases ................................................................................................................................ 135

Module2,Lesson8:InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrases.......................................................................137 Quiz 2.8: Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases ........................................................................................................... 139

Module2,Lesson9:SubordinateClauses(Introduction).................................................................143

Module2,Lesson10:AdjectiveClauses....................................................................................................145 Quiz 2.10: Adjective Clauses ................................................................................................................................ 149

Module2,Lesson11:AdverbClauses........................................................................................................151 Quiz 2.11: Adverb Clauses .................................................................................................................................... 157

Module2,Lesson12:MoreonSubordinateClauses............................................................................161 Quiz 2.12: More on Subordinate Clauses ............................................................................................................. 167

Module2,Lesson13:MisplacedModifiers..............................................................................................169 Quiz 2.13: Misplaced Modifiers ........................................................................................................................... 171

Module2,Lesson14:Review.........................................................................................................................173


Module3,Lesson2:NounClauses...............................................................................................................179

Quiz 3.2 A: Noun Clauses ..................................................................................................................................... 181 Quiz 3.2 B: Noun Clauses ..................................................................................................................................... 185

Module3,Lesson3:GerundsandInfinitives..........................................................................................187 Quiz 3.3: Gerunds and Infinitives ......................................................................................................................... 191

Module3,Lesson4:Appositives...................................................................................................................195 Quiz 3.4: Appositives ............................................................................................................................................ 197

Module3,Lesson5:EssentialandNon-EssentialElements.............................................................201 Quiz 3.5: Essential and Non-Essential Elements .................................................................................................. 205

Module3,Lesson6:Review............................................................................................................................207 Quiz 3.6: Review ................................................................................................................................................... 209


Module4,Lesson2:Subject-VerbAgreement........................................................................................215 Quiz 4.2: Subject-Verb Agreement ....................................................................................................................... 217

Module4,Lesson3:PronounsandAntecedents...................................................................................219 Quiz 4.3: Pronouns and Antecedents ................................................................................................................... 223

Module4,Lesson4:ConnectingClauses(Part1).................................................................................225 Quiz 4.4: Connecting Clauses (Part 1) .................................................................................................................. 227

Module4,Lesson5:ConnectingClauses(Part2).................................................................................231 Quiz 4.5: Connecting Clauses (Part 2) .................................................................................................................. 235

Module4,Lesson6:Parallelism....................................................................................................................239 Quiz 4.6: Parallelism ............................................................................................................................................ 245

Module4,Lesson7:NominativeAbsolutes.............................................................................................249 Quiz 4.7: Nominative Absolutes ........................................................................................................................... 251

Module4,Lesson8:CourseWrapUp.........................................................................................................253

QuizAnswers........................................................................................................................................................255

1

UsingGrammarforWriters

GrammarforWritersisavideo-basedcourseconsistingofforty-twolessons.Eachlessonincludesavideolectureapproximatelytenminutesinlength,aswellaslecturenotes,whichsummarizeandrestatetheimportantpointsfromthelesson.Mostofthelessonsalsoincludeaquiz(andafewincludetwoquizzes).Werecommendthatyouwatchtheshortlectureswithyourstudentsoratleastreadthroughthelecturenotesinordertobebetterpreparedtohelpyourstudentsthroughthequizzes.TheQuizzesInthistextbookyouwillfindthequizzesafterthelessonstowhichtheycorrespond.Theanswerstoeachquizcanbefoundinthelastsectionofthebook.Itisimportantthatbothstudentandinstructorunderstandthatthequizzesaremoreinstructiveanddiagnosticthanevaluative.Thatistosay,thequizzesareakeypartofthelearningprocess,notameansofevaluatingthestudentafterthelearningprocess.Thequizquestionsgivethestudentanopportunitytoapplyandpracticetheprinciplesdiscussedinthelecture.Youwillnoticethattheexplanationsintheanswerkeyarerobust.TheseexplanationsareanimportantpartoftheinstructionaldesignofGrammarforWriters.Itisimportantthatyouwalkthroughthoseexplanationswithyourstudents,oratleastallowyourstudentstowalkthroughtheexplanationsontheirown.Manyofthequestionsandanswersareframedsothattherecanbemultiple“correct”answers.Oneimportantgoalofthiscourseistogivewritersthetoolstodistinguishbetweengoodwritingandbetterwriting,evenwithintherealmof“correct”writing.TheScheduleGrammarforWritersisself-paced.However,wehaveprovidedascheduleforlearnerswhowishtospendasemesterwiththecourse:

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Week LessonorQuizTitle Completed/ScoreWeek1 Lesson1.1–Module1Introduction

Lesson1.2–TheMainLineQuiz1.2Lesson1.3–IdentifyingVerbsandSubjectsQuiz1.3

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Week2 Lesson1.4–IdentifyingObjectsandComplementsQuiz1.4AQuiz1.4BLesson1.5–TheFiveClausePatternsQuiz1.5AQuiz1.5B

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Week3 Lesson1.6–ActorsandActions,SubjectsandVerbsQuiz1.6Lesson1.7–WhatisPassiveVoice?Quiz1.7Lesson1.8–UsesofthePassiveVoiceQuiz1.8AQuiz1.8B

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Week4 Lesson1.9–NominalizationQuiz1.9Lesson1.10–StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbsQuiz1.10Lesson1.11–KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbsQuiz1.11

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Week5 Lesson1.12–CompoundsontheMainLineQuiz1.12Lesson1.13–VerbTensesQuiz1.13Lesson1.14–Module1Review

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Week6 Lesson2.1–Module2IntroductionLesson2.2–AdjectivesandAdverbsQuiz2.2Lesson2.3–What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?Quiz2.3

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Week7 Lesson2.4–PrepositionalPhrases(Part1)Lesson2.5–PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)Quiz2.5

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Week8 Lesson2.6–ParticiplesLesson2.7–ParticipialPhrasesQuiz2.7Lesson2.8–InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrasesQuiz2.8

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Week9 Lesson2.9–SubordinateClauses(Introduction)Lesson2.10–AdjectiveClausesQuiz2.10

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Week10 Lesson2.11–AdverbClausesQuiz2.11Lesson2.12–MoreonSubordinateClausesQuiz2.12

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Week11 Lesson2.13–MisplacedModifiersQuiz2.13Lesson2.14–Module2Conclusion

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Week12 Lesson3.1–Module3IntroductionLesson3.2–NounClausesQuiz3.2AQuiz3.2BLesson3.3–GerundsandInfinitivesQuiz3.3

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Week13 Lesson3.4–AppositivesQuiz3.4Lesson3.5–EssentialandNon-EssentialElementsQuiz3.5Lesson3.6–Module3ReviewQuiz3.6

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Week14 Lesson4.1–Module4IntroductionLesson4.2–Subject-VerbAgreementQuiz4.2Lesson4.3–PronounsandAntecedentsQuiz4.3

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Week15 Lesson4.4–ConnectingClauses(Part1)Quiz4.4Lesson4.5–ConnectingClauses(Part2)Quiz4.5

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Week16 Lesson4.6–ParallelismQuiz4.5Lesson4.7–NominativeAbsolutesQuiz4.7Lesson4.8–CourseWrap-Up

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5

LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson1:IntroductionFormanywriters,thekeytobetterwritingisn’tnewskillssomuchasclearingawaytheclutterofbadhabitstogetbacktofundamentalskillsthathavebeenthereallalong.Humanlanguagegivesyoucountlesswaystoinsertmoreandmoreinformationintoasentence—nominativeabsolute,nounclauses,adjectiveclauses,participialphrases.Subordinatingconjunctionsconveyallkindsoflogicalrelationshipsbetweenideas.Ifyou’reolderthanaboutsevenyearsold,youcanalreadyuseallofthesegrammaticalconstructions.Youareprobablyquitegoodatcramminglotsofinformationintoasentence.However,atitsheart,good,vividlanguage—whetherwrittenorspoken—isn’tjustaboutconveyinginformation.Itisn’taboutweedingoutthegrammarandstyleerrorsfromyourprose.It’saboutrenderingexperience.Thatissomethingthatyouunderstoodwhenyouwereatoddler,evenifyouhavesinceforgottenit.Whenyoulearntotalk,youstartwithconcretenouns—thingsyoucanseeandhearandtouch:Mama,Daddy,kitty,milk,car.Prettysoonyouaddverbs:Kittysaysmeow.Milkspilled.Daddyisfunny.Cargoesfast.

Asyougrow,youlearntouseincreasinglycomplicatedgrammaticalstructures.Throughmostofyoureducation,yourparentsandteachersencourageyoutoexpressmoreandmorecomplexideaswithmoreandmorecomplexgrammaticalstructures.Yougetrewardedforshowingthatyoucanthinkinabstractterms.YouDOneedtobeabletothinkabstractly,andyouneedtomasterthegrammaticalcomplexitiesthatallowyoutocommunicateabstractideas.Abstractthinkingisanimportantpartoftheeducationalprocess.Inthiscourse,however,Iamgoingtoworkfromtheassumptionthatyouarealreadyfullycapableofabstractthought—thatyouhavenothingtoproveinthatregard.Good,vivid

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writingtendstomovetowardtheconcrete,pullingbigideasandconceptsdownfromtherealmoftheabstractandintotheworldwhereweliveandmoveandhaveourbeing.SointhisfirstmoduleofGrammarforWriters,we’regoingtogoallthewaybacktothesimplest,moststraightforwardwaysofrenderingexperience:Subjects.Verbs.Objects.Complements.WHODIDWHAT?Or,WHODIDWHATTOWHOM?Writingthatconnectswithareaderhastobesolidatthatlevel.That’sthewayinformationcomestousintherealworld.Weseewhodidwhattowhom.Writingthatisstrongattheverysimplelevelofsubject,verb,object,andcomplementfeelstruetoyourreader.Inthismodule,we’restrippingawayallthemodifiers,allthesubordinateclauses,everythingbutthemainactionthatasentencedepicts:whodidwhat?We’regoingtobuildbackallthoseotherconstructionsinthesubsequentmodules,butfornow,we’regoingallthewaybacktosomeofthefirstthingsyoulearnedtodowithlanguagewhenyouwereatoddler.Therearetwelvelessonsremaininginthisfirstmodule.Hereiswhatyoucanexpecttogetfromthoselessons:

• Toolsforidentifyingtheverbandthesubjectofaclause.• Toolsforfindingdirectobjectsandindirectobjects.• Toolsforidentifyingpredicatecomplementsandseeingthedifferencebetween

actionverbsandlinkingverbs.• Thefivepossiblepatternsforthestructureofaclause.• Passivevoice—howtoidentifyit,whytoavoidit,andwhenit’sgoodtouseit.• Nominalization—thepracticeofturningverbsintoabstractnouns(andwhyitisa

dangerouspractice).• Strongverbs—andwhythatadvice“USESTRONGVERBS”canbemisleading.

Wewilldevotealotofattentiontoaligningtheactionofasentencewiththegrammarofthesentencebymakingsurethatactionsgetexpressedasverbs,andtheactorsarethesubjectsofthoseverbs.That,really,isthecentralideaofthiswholemodule.Everythingelseinthismoduleisjustaspecificand/ortechnicaloutworkingofthatideaofturningactorsandactionsintosubjectsandverbs.Onceyougraspandapplythatidea,yourwritingwillbetransformedimmediately.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson2:TheMainLine

Everysentencehasamainclause.Itmayhavealotofotherthingstoo,butitalwayshasamainclause.Themainclauseanswersthequestion,WHODIDWHAT?Eachofthesesentencesconsistsofonemainclause.

• Thebearslept.• Lindakickedaball.• Persimmonsgivemeabellyache.• Thatcakesmellsdelicious.• TerencecalledRosariaagenius.

Insentencediagramming,themainclauseisrepresentedonthemainline.Ineachofthesediagrams,thereisonlyamainline,withnothing(exceptonearticlepersentence)branchingfromtheline.

ThefivepatternsrepresentedinthesefivediagramsaretheonlypossibleclausepatternsintheEnglishlanguage.WewilllookmuchmorecloselyatthesepatternsinLesson5ofthismodule.

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Many(ifnotmost)sentencesyouwritewillbeconsiderablymorecomplicatedthanthesamplesentencesabove.Thediagramsforthosesentenceswillhavelinessproutingoffthemainlineandbranchingindifferentdirections,asinthissentence:

Unconcernedbytheraucousactivityjustoutsidehiscave,thebearsleptlikeababy.

Everythingthatbranchesoffthemainlineisamodifier.Modifiersinclude(butarenotlimitedto)adjectives,adverbs,prepositionalphrases,participles,infinitives,andadverbialandadjectivalclauses.Adverbialmodifiersanswerquestionsabouttheaction:

• How?• When?• Where?• Why?

Adjectivalmodifiersanswerquestionsaboutnouns:

• Whatkind?• Whichone?• Howmany?

Thismoduleofthecourseisallaboutthemainline—themainclause,thatmainquestion:WHODIDWHAT?Mostoftherestofthecourseisabouteverythingthatbranchesoffthemainline.SkillstoworkoninthislessonareidentifyingthatmainlineandSEPARATINGitfromallthemodifiers.Considerthissentence:Theraccoonrattledthetrashcan.

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Thisisastraightforwardclausewithasubject(raccoon),averb(rattled),andadirectobject(trashcan).Whodidwhattowhom?Theraccoonrattledthetrashcan.Here’sthediagram:

Now,considerthissentence:

TheraccoonthatIwastellingyouabout,withthemissingearandtheunusuallybushytail,rattledthetrashcanbehindmygaragewithaninsistencethatborderedonobsession.

Ifweweretodiagramthissentence,itwouldlooklikethis:

Comparedtothefirstraccoonsentence,thisoneisimpressivelycomplicated.Butperhapsthemostimpressivethingaboutthesetwodiagramsistherealizationthatthemainlineisexactlythesame.Whodidwhat?Theracoonrattledthetrashcan.Thisistrueforthefirst,simpleraccoonsentence,anditistrueforthesecond,complicatedraccoonsentence.Themainlineisfivewords(ifyoucountthetwothe’s).Inthesecondsentence,theother25wordssproutingoffthemainlineareallmodifiers.Theytelluswhichraccoon.Theytellwhichtrashcan.Noticealsothatsomepartsofthemodifiershavetheirownmodifiers.Onceyougetoffthemainline,languageallowsforinfinitecomplexity.Butonthemainline,theoptionsareNOTinfinite.Infact,thereareonlyfivepatterns,andtheyareeasytomemorize,andwithalittlepractice,youcangetgoodatrecognizingthem.

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Quiz1.2:TheMainLine

I.Ionceworkedataplumbingcompany.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?II.Ihavegreatadmirationforplumbers.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?III.Plumbersconfrontproblemsthatmostofusrunawayfrom.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?

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IV.Icannotimagineacivilsocietywithoutindoorplumbing.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?V.Nevertheless,myplumberfriendswerenotalwayssocivil.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?VI.Plumbersconductanongoing,oftenbitterfeudwithroofers.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?VII.Ifyouseeaplumber,youshouldhughisorherneck.Whatisthemainlineofthemainclauseinthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson3:IdentifyingVerbsandSubjects

Aclauseisaunitofgrammarthatdescribesabitofaction.AclauseALWAYSincludesasubjectandaverb.Itmayalsoincludeotherthings,likeadirectobject,anindirectobject,apredicatenominative,apredicateadjective,oranobjectivecomplement.Thisistrueofeveryclause,whetherit’samainclause(independentclause)orasubordinateclause(dependentclause).Whenyouanalyzethegrammarofasentence,startbyfindingtheverb(orverbs).Verbsexpressactionorastateofbeing.TheVerbFinderprovidesaruleofthumbthatwillhelpyoufindtheverb(s)inanyclause.Theverbofanyclausewillfitintooneormoreoftheseblanksandformagrammaticallycorrectsentence:

I__________.YOU________.HE/SHE/IT__________.

Inthesentence,Lindakickedtheball,onlyonewordfitsintheVerbFinder:

ILinda.Ikicked.Ithe.Iball.

Ikickedisasentence.Theotherthreecombinationsarenonsensical.

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NotethatifI_________doesn’tyieldaverb,YOU________orHE/SHE/IT_________should,asinthisexample:

Thecakesmellsdelicious.Ithe. YOUthe. HE/SHE/ITthe.Icake. YOUcake. HE/SHE/ITcake.Ismells. YOUsmells. HE/SHE/ITsmells.Idelicious. YOUdelicious. HE/SHE/ITdelicious.

TheVerbFinderworksforalltenses,includingthemorecomplextenses,likepast-,present-,andfuture-progressiveandpast-,present-,andfuture-perfect.TheVerbFinder,however,isnotfool-proofifyoudon’tapplysomecommonsense.EveryverbwillfitintheblankoftheVerbFinder,butsometimesnon-verbswillalsofitintheblank.Consideroursentencefromthelastlesson:

Theracoonrattledthetrashcan.WhenyouapplytheVerbFinder,youquicklyseethatrattledisaverb:

Irattled.YOUrattled.HE/SHE/ITrattled.

Butthewordcanalsofitsintheverbfinder:

Ican.YOUcan.HE/SHE/ITcan.

Itonlytakesalittlecommonsensetoseethat,althoughcansometimesservesasaverb,itisnotservingasaverbinthissentence.Here’sasomewhatharderexample:

Rattledbymyexperiencewiththealligator,Igaveupwaterskiing.Rattledlooksverymuchlikeaverb(indeed,itwasourverbinthepreviousexample),anditfitsintheVerbFinder,buthereit’sactuallyaparticiple,averbthathasbeenturnedintoamodifier.Theactualverbhereisgaveup,which,ofcourse,alsofitsintheVerbFinder.

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AWordAbouttheToBeVerbThemostcommonverbinanylanguageisthetobeverb.It’sagoodideatomemorizetheformsoftobe:

AM WAS BEARE WERE BEINGIS BEEN

Anytimeyouseeoneofthesewords,youhavefoundtheverb.Itmaybethewholeverb,asin

Fernandoisadeepseadiver.Oratobeverbmaybeahelpingverb,asin

Fernandowasswimmingwiththesharks(partofthepastpresentformwasswimming).

Or,

Fernandowasstungbyjellyfish(partofthepassiveverbwasstung).IdentifyingSubjectsOnceyouhaveusedtheVerbFindertoidentifytheverbs,youcanusetheSubjectFindertoidentifythesubject.TheSubjectFinderisasimplequestion.HavingusedtheVerbFindertoidentifytheverb,droptheverbintotheblankofthisquestion:

WHOORWHAT__________?Theanswertothatquestionisyoursubject.Considerthefollowingsentence:

Lindakickedtheball.Theverbiskicked,sotheSubjectFinderisthequestion“Whokicked?”Lindakicked.Lindaisthesubject.

Thatcakesmellsdelicious.Whatsmells?Cakesmells.

Youareasweetheart.Whoare?Youare.

OneofthebonusfeaturesoftheSubjectFinderisthatitcanhelpyoudiscoverifyouhavemistakenlyidentifiedaverb.If,inthesentenceTheraccoonrattledthetrashcanyouweretomistakenlysaythatcanisaverb,youwillseeyourproblemonceyouapplytheSubjectFinder.Whocan?Well,nobodycan.That’snotwhatthesentenceisabout.

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Toreview:

• EveryclausehasBOTHasubjectandaverb.• YoucanidentifytheverbusingtheVerbFinder:

I_______.You_______.He/She/It_________.

• Theverbofaclausewillalwaysfitinthatblank.• Unfortunately,someotherwordsmayfitintheblanktoo,soyouhavetobecareful.• Onceyou’vefoundyourverb,youcanplugthatverbintotheSubjectFinderto

identifythesubject:Whoorwhat______________.

• Aclausealwayshasaverbandsubject,anditmayhaveanobjectoracomplement.Identifyingtheseelementswillbethesubjectofournextlesson.

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Quiz1.3:IdentifyingVerbsandSubjects

I.Theangrymobchasedthepirate.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.angry B.mob C.chased D.pirateII.Manyyears'roughwisdomshonefromhisonegoodeye.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.years’ B.rough C.wisdom D.shone E.good F.eyeIII.Manyyears'roughwisdomshonefromhisonegoodeye.WhatistheSUBJECTinthissentence? A.many B.years’ C.rough D.wisdom E.shone F.good G.eye

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IV.JohnBarber,frightenedbythepossuminhisdriveway,criedlikeasmallchild.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.frightened B.possum C.criedV.Thepiratewaschasedbytheangrymob.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.pirate B.was C.chased D.waschased E.angry F.mobVI.Thepiratewaschasedbytheangrymob.WhatistheSUBJECTinthissentence? A.pirate B.angry C.mobVII.Chasingcarsismydog'sfavoriteactivity.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.chasing B.cars C.is D.dog’s E.favorite F.activityVIII.Chasingcarsismydog'sfavoriteactivity.WhatistheSUBJECTinthissentence? A.chasing B.cars C.is D.dog’s E.favorite F.activity

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IX.Iarrangemymashedpotatoesjustso,andyoudestroyitallwithyourspoon.Acompoundsentencewillhaveatleasttwomainsubjectsandtwomainverbs.Whatarethetwomainsubject/verbcombinationsinthesentenceabove? A.Imashed,youdestroy B.Iarrange,youdestroy C.Iarrange,destroyitall D.mashedpotatoes,withyourspoon

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson4:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements

Grammarisaboutrelativelysimpleunitsorganizedininfinitelycomplexways.Aclauseisoneofthoserelativelysimpleunits.(Iamspeakinghereofthemainlineofaclause,notitsmodifiers.)Aclausetellswhodidwhat.Ithasasubjectandaverb.AnditmayhaveTWO(andonlytwo)otherthings:OBJECTSandCOMPLEMENTS.AnOBJECTisaNOUN—aperson,placeorthingthatRECEIVEStheactionofaverb.ThesubjectPERFORMStheaction,theobjectRECEIVEStheaction(atleastinanactiveconstruction;passiveconstructions,aswewillsee,areadifferentmatter).

Lindakickedtheball.

Lindaisthesubject—shedidthekicking.Theballistheobject.Itgotkicked.ItRECEIVEDthekick.FindingDirectObjectsJustaswehadaVerbFinderandaSubjectFinder,thereisalsoaDirectObjectFinder.Onceyouhavefoundyourverbandyoursubject,youplugthemintothisquestion:

SUBJECTVERBwhoorwhat?

Ifthatquestionhasananswer,theanswerisyourdirectobject.InthecaseofLINDAKICKEDTHEBALL,theDirectObjectFinderisthequestion,

Lindakickedwhat?Theball.Ballisthedirectobject.

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InthecaseofAgoatatemycellphone,theDirectObjectFinderisthequestion,Goatatewhat?Mycellphone.

Cellphoneisthedirectobject.FindingIndirectObjectsIFyouhaveadirectobject,youmayALSOhaveanindirectobject—anothernounthatdoesn’tdirectlyreceivetheaction,butFORWHOMorTOWHOMtheactionisperformed.Thisindirectobjectalwaysappearsimmediatelybeforethedirectobject.Solet’slookatthissentence:Iwillpouryouaglassofwater.First,usetheDirectObjectFinder:Iwillpourwhat?Becarefulhere:don’tsayYOU.I’mnotpouringYOU.Iwillpouraglassofwater.Nowthatwe’vefoundtheDirectObject,wecanapplytheIndirectObjectFinder.TheIndirectObjectFinder,liketheSubjectFinderandtheDirectObjectFinder,isafill-in-the-blankquestion:

SUBJECTVERBDIRECTOBJECTtoorforwhom?Iwillpouraglassofwatertoorforwhom?You.

Youistheindirectobject.

GrandpareadCindyabook.

Grandpareadabooktoorforwhom?Cindy.

Cindyistheindirectobject.DirectandIndirectObjectReview

• Anobjectisalwaysanounoranounequivalent.• Youcan’thaveanindirectobjectwithoutadirectobject.• Theindirectobject,ifyouhaveone,alwayscomesimmediatelybeforethedirect

object.• Anindirectcanalwaysberephrasedasaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithtoor

for.KengaveBarbieflowers=KengaveflowerstoBarbie.GrandpareadCindyabook=GrandpareadabooktoCindy.

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PredicateComplementsAcomplementeitherrenamesthesubject,ordescribesthesubject.Thefollowingsentencescontainpredicatecomplements:

• Myheroeshavealwaysbeencowboys.(Heroesrenamescowboys.)• Youareasweetheart.(Sweetheartrenamesyou.)• Mydogislazy.(Lazydescribesmydog.)• Mydogsmellsfunny.(Funnydescribesmydog.)

Apredicatenominativeisanounthatrenamesthesubject.Apredicateadjectiveisanadjectivethatdescribesthesubject.Theverbthatconnectsorlinksthesubjectandthecomplementiscalledalinkingverb.Thinkofalinkingverbasan‘equalsign’:

• Myheroes=cowboys• You=sweetheart• Mydog=lazy• Mydog=funny(asregardsherodor)

Themostcommonlinkingverb(byfar)istobe:AM,IS,ARE,WAS,WERE,BE,BEING,BEENThereareotherlinkingverbs:

• YouLOOKlovely.• LutherSMELLSstrange.• ThattestPROVEDdifficult.

Thereisnoreasontotrytomemorizeallthelinkingverbs.Ifthenounafteraverbrenamesthesubject,orifanadjectiveafteraverbdescribesthesubject,thatverbisservingasalinkingverb.DistinguishingObjectsfromComplementsWhat’sthedifferencebetweenanOBJECTandaCOMPLEMENT?Anobjectisanounthatisseparatefromthesubject.Thesubjectdoessomethingtoorfortheobject.AcomplementISthesubject(or,rather,itISthesubjectifit’sanoun,itDESCRIBESthesubjectifit’sanadjective).

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Considerthesetwosentences:

• Mydogsmellsfunny.• Mydogsmellsahamburger.

Thesesentenceslookalotalike,butoneofthemhasadirectobject,andoneofthemhasacomplement.Toputitanotherway,inoneofthesesentences,SMELLSisanactionverb,andinoneofthesesentences,smellsisalinkingverb.Inthefirstsentence,funnyisacomplement.Itdescribesthedog.Sosmellsisoperatingasalinkingverb.Inthesecondsentence,hamburgerisaDIRECTOBJECT.Thedogisnotahamburger.Inthiscase,smellsisanactionverb;ittellssomethingthatthedogisdoingTOthehamburger.Toreview:

• Onthemainlineofaclause,youMUSThaveasubjectandaverb,andyouMAYhaveanobject(possiblytwo—directandindirect)oracomplement.

• Therearetwokindsofobjects.Thedirectobjectreceivestheaction.Theindirectobjectistheentitytowhomorforwhomtheactionisperformed.

• Therearetwotypesofcomplements:predicatenominatives(nounsthatrenameasubject)andpredicateadjectives(adjectivesthatdescribeasubject).

• Acomplementrenamesordescribesthesubject,butanobjectisanounthatisseparatefromthesubject.

• Alesscommontypeofcomplement,theobjectivecomplement,renamesordescribesadirectobject,justasapredicatecomplementrenamesordescribesthesubject.Wewillseeexamplesofobjectivecomplementsinthenextlesson.

Incredibly,wehavenowlookedateverythingthatcanhappenonthemainlineofaclause:subjects,verbs,objects,complements.Theseelementscanonlyoccurincertaincombinationsandincertainorders.Thereareonlyfivesuchcombinations—thefiveclausepatternsofthenextlesson.

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Quiz1.4A:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements

I.ThemostfascinatingyearofVincent’scareerwasthelastyearofhislife.Identifythesubject,verb,andpredicatecomplementforthissentence.II.Animportantsteptowardrecoveryofhealthyself-esteemisdeeperself-awareness.Thisquestionhastwoparts:a)Whatisthegrammaticalsubject?b)Isself-awarenessadirectobjectorapredicatecomplement?III.Iwonderediftheyweretalkingaboutme.Doesthissentencehaveadirectobject?Ifso,whatisit?(Hint:You'reprobablygoingtoneedtousetheDirectObjectFinderforthisone.)

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IV.InfrontofherwasanoldmanwhoturnedouttobeGeorgeJones.Whatarethesubjectandverbofthissentence?(You'regoingtoneedtouseyourSubjectFinderonthisone.)

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Quiz1.4B:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements

(Challenge)I.Mikeleanedforwardontherailthatseparatedtheporchfromthedescendinghillside.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?II.Hemakeshisslow,gloatingtrotaroundthemisshapendiamondsqueezedintothebackyard.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?III.MyfamilymovedtoPhoenixfromChicagowhenIwasseven.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?

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IV.Thetruckhasbeensittinginmydrivewayformonths.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?V.Goingwest,myfamilytradedtornadosfortumbleweedsandtheoccasionalaftershockofanearthquake.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?VI.TheyhadnottouchedthebirdfeederIhungtwoweeksago.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?VII.Asthemistsofmydullnessgraduallycleared,thetruthbrokewithalightthatpiercestothisday.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?

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VIII.Theworstwaterwasinthemiddleofthechannel,butthatwasalsothesafestplace.Thissentenceisacompoundsentence.Ithastwoindependent(main)clauses.Identifythesubjectandverbforeachofthetwoindependentclauses. IX.Itwasourthirddayout,andwehadcampednearby,severalmilesfromwhereourtripbegan.Thissentenceisacompoundsentence.Ithastwoindependent(main)clauses.Identifythesubjectandverbforeachofthetwoindependentclauses.X.Fiveofthemboundtogetherattheirbasewherethestemholdsthemtogether,overlapping.Anupside-downcup.Likethebackofmygrandmother’shands,thedelicateveinsarevisible.Onethickpurplelineextendingfrombasetotipwithdozensofthinneronesstretchingoutfromcentertoedges.Inthatgroupoffour"sentences,"onlyoneisactuallyasentence,withasubjectandaverb.Whichoneisit?

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XI.ThetwoofusstandinginhertinykitchenwiththeavocadoandpumpkinhuedaccentsandstainedTupperwarecupsthatmademesqueamisheverytimeIhadtodrinkfromone.Whatisthemainline(subject,verb,andobject(s)orcomplement)ofthissentence?

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson5:TheFiveClausePatternsAswesawwiththetrash-can-rattlingraccoonfromafewlessonsago,onceyoustartaddingmodifierstothemainclauseofasentenceandmodifierswithinmodifiers,youcanquicklyhaveaverycomplicatedsentence.ThepossiblevariationsforthestructureofanEnglishsentenceareeffectivelyinfinite.However,thepossiblevariationsforthestructureofaclauseareactuallyVERYlimited.Thereareonlyfivepossiblepatternsforaclause.LearningthesefivepatternswillgetyouaLONGwaytowardmasteryofEnglishgrammar.Youcan’tbegintomasterEnglishgrammarwithoutthem.Thesefiveclausepatternsareworththetroubletomemorize:

• SUBJECT-VERB• SUBJECT-VERB-DIRECTOBJECT• SUBJECT-VERB-INDIRECTOBJECT-DIRECTOBJECT• SUBJECT-VERB-DIRECTOBJECT-OBJECTIVECOMPLEMENT• SUBJECT-LINKINGVERB-PREDICATECOMPLEMENT

Theelementsofthesesentencepatternsalwaysappearintheorderabove(withafewexceptionsmentionedbelow).WordorderisextremelyimportantinEnglish.EnglishisanSVOlanguage.SVOstandsforsubject-verb-object.Inagivenclause,thesubjectcomesbeforetheverb,andtheverbcomesbeforetheobject.Themeaningofthesentencedependsontheorderofthewords.ThehunterstalkedthepanthermeanssomethingverydifferentfromThepantherstalkedthehunter.Asalways,thereareexceptionstotheSVOrule.Herearethetwobiggest:

• Exception1:Whenyouformaquestion,youmovepartoftheverbinfrontofthesubject.InsteadofIdowanticecream,yousay,DoIwanticecream?

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• Exception2:Certainkindsofdependentclausesmonkeywiththewordorder.Wewillgettothoseinsubsequentmodules.

TheFiveClausePatternsPattern1:S-V.Subject-Verb,NOobjectsorcomplements.

• Charlesiseating.• Wendyslept.• Thesquirrelwasclimbing.• Thecardied.• Mydogsmells.

Youcanattachmodifierstoanyitemonthemainline,soasentencecanbequitelongandstillbeanS-Vsentence—thatis,havenothingmorethanasubjectandverbonthemainline.ThissentenceisactuallyanS-Vsentence:

Exhaustedbyalongday’shikeontheAppalachianTrail,Wendysleptlikeababyintheraggedyoldtentthatsheborrowedfromherbrother.

WhenyouapplytheVerbFinder,youseethattheonlyverbsinthislongsentencearesleptandborrowed.Borrowedispartofanadjectiveclause(thatwillmakesenseinafewlessonsifitdoesn’trightnow).SothemainlineofthatsentenceissimplyWendyslept.Andsleptdoesnothaveadirectobject.SothisisanS-Vsentence.Hereisthediagram:

Youcanaddthiskindofcomplexitytoanyofthefiveclausepatterns.(I’mnotgoingtokeepdoingitfortheotherfourpatternsinthislesson,butbearinmindthatyoucould.)Pattern2:S-V-DO.Subject-Verb-DirectObject.

• Thehunterstalkedthepanther.• Thepantherstalkedthehunter.• Thesquirrelclimbedthetree.• Charlesiseatingboiledpeanuts.

Ineachoftheseexamples,thesubjectisdoingsomethingtosomethingelse.

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PATTERN3:S-V-IO-DOSubject-Verb-IndirectObject-DirectObject.

• KengaveBarbieflowers.• Pleasepourmeaglassofwater.

IfyouhaveTWOnounsaftertheverb,youmayhaveanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobject.Thereisnosuchthingasasentencethathasanindirectobjectbutnodirectobject.There’snosuchthingasasentenceinwhichanindirectobjectcomesafterthedirectobject.(Thereare,however,sentencesinwhichaprepositionalphraseidentifiestheentityforwhomortwowhomtheactionisperformed.PleasepourmeaglassofwatercanbephrasedasPleasepouraglassofwaterforme.Logicallyspeaking,thereisnodifferencebetweenthetwosentences.Grammatically,however,inthefirstsentencemeisanindirectobjectappearingbeforethedirectobject,andinthesecondsentencemeistheobjectoftheprepositionFORandappearsafterthedirectobject.)Pattern4:S-V-DO-OC.Subject-Verb-DirectObject-ObjectiveComplement.Thispatternisalittlelesscommonthantheothers.Rememberfromthelastlessonhowapredicatecomplementrenamesordescribesthesubject?Anobjectivecomplementrenamesordescribesthedirectobject.Itmightbeanounrenamingthedirectobject,oritmightbeanadjectivedescribingthedirectobject.Considerthesentence,Wepaintedthetownred.UsingtheDirectObjectFinder—Wepaintedwhoorwhat?—itiseasytoseethattownisthedirectobject.Butwhatdowetowithred?Reddescribestown.It’sanobjectivecomplement.

• WeelectedMiriamclasspresident.(Classpresident=Miriam)• WejudgedJohnaGrade-A-Rat.(Grade-A-Rat=John)

Afewthingstoknowaboutobjectivecomplements:

• Theymaybenouns,ortheymaybeadjectives.• TheyalwayscomeimmediatelyAFTERthedirectobject.• Youcan’thaveanobjectivecomplementwithoutadirectobject

Soifyou’vefoundyourdirectobjectandthere’sanothernounoradjectivelurkingaroundafterit,askwhetherthatnounoradjectiverenamesordescribesyourdirectobject.Ifso,youhavefoundanobjectivecomplement.Pattern5:S-V-PC.Subject-Verb-PredicateComplement.ThepredicatecomplementcomesAFTERtheverb,anditrenamesordescribesthesubject.Thisisprobablythemostcommonofthefiveclausetypes.Wethinkofverbsasbeingwordsthatdescribeactions,butjustasimportantly,verbsdescribestatesofbeing.

• Roslynisamail-carrier.(Roslyn=mail-carrier)• Thispopsicletastesfunny.(Popsicle[‘sflavor]=funny)• Allenhasbeenkind.(Allen=kind)

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TheverbinthissentencepatterniscalledalinkingverbbecauseitLINKSthesubjecttothepredicatecomplement.ThesefivepatternsaccountforEVERYgrammaticallycorrectclauseintheEnglishlanguage.Fourelements—subjects,verbs,objectscomplements—canappearinfivecombinations,andeachofthosefivecombinationshastobeinaspecificorder.Soonwewillstartcombiningclausesandmodifiersinwaysthatwillgetverycomplex.Butfornow,celebratethetruththatthegrammaticalpiecesthemselvesareshockinglysimple.Therigidityofonlyfourelementsarrangedinonlyfivecombinations,eachwithaveryspecificorder,isahugegift.Languageiscomplicatedandflexibleenough.WecanmakesenseofthatcomplexityandflexibilityONLYbecausehereatthislevel,languageissimpleandrigid.

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Quiz1.5A:TheFiveClausePatterns

I.JohnBarberismynemesis.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCII.JohnBarbersoldmeafakeelevatorpass.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCIII.IcalledJohnBarberasneakymonkey.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC

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IV.JohnBarberslappedmewithaglove.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCV.Icouldnotignoretheinsult.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVI.Wefoughtinthevestibule.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVII.IvanquishedJohnBarbereasily.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC

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Quiz1.5B:TheFiveClausePatterns(Challenge)

I.MickeyMantlejusthitanotherhomeruninthebottomoftheninthintheSundayafternoongame.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCII.Sheistwenty-nine-yearsoldwithboxblondehairpulledintoasidebraid.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCIII.Runningbearsareanoddsight,buttheyarefast.Thissentenceconsistsoftwoindependentclauses.Thesetwoclauseshappentoconformtothesameclausepattern.Whichclausepatternisthat? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC

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IV.Onecaretakerwithaverykindfaceandshoulder-lengthblackhairshowedmehowtochangethebedsheetsandclothdiapersofthechildren,manyofwhomweredisabledordisfigured.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCV.Whenhereachedthetrail,heturnedupandawayfromme.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVI.Theirhomequicklybecamethegatheringplacefordozensofnephewsandnieceseverysummer.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVII.UncleJimlaughedmorethananyadultinmylife.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC

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VIII.MyAuntNancytoldmeasecretthatIhaveneverforgotten.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCIX.Thepiratecalledtheship-captainablackguard.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCX.Wendellbuilthisdaughterahouse.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC

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LectureNotesModule1,Lesson6:ActorsandActions,Subjectsand

Verbs

Wegotprettytechnicalinthoselastfewlessons,andwehaveafewtechnicallessonsaheadofus,sointhislessonwearetakingastepbacktotalkaboutoneortwobig-pictureprinciplesthatinformeverythingwearedoinginthisunit.Theseprinciplescoveramultitudeofsins.Evenifyoudon’tgetsomeofthetechnicalities,oryouforgetsomeofthetechnicalities,you’llbefineifyourememberacoupleofprinciples.Thebigoneisthis:

Everytimeyouwriteasentence,thinkaboutwheretheactionisinthatsentence.Whatistheaction,andwhoistheactor?WHODIDWHAT?

Onceyouhavedeterminedtheactionandtheactor(oractionsandactors)yourdefaultsetting—yourhabit—shouldbetoexpresseachactionasaverb,withtheactorasthesubjectofthatverb.IsayDEFAULTandHABITbecausethereareplentyofsituationsinwhichitmakessensetoexpressactioninotherways.Butyourfirstgo-toshouldbetoexpressactionasverbsandactorsassubjects.InthislessonIwanttoapplythisprincipleinafewexamplesusingaslittletechnicallanguageaspossible.Insubsequentlessons,we’llputthetechnicaltermstotheseideas,butfornow,I’mgoingtotrytosticktocommon-senselayman’sterms.EXAMPLE1Thiscomesfromastoryaboutsiblingsridinginthebackseatonalongcarride:

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Anyaimlesswanderingpastthecenterlineofthebackseatwasgroundsforanelbowtothechestorakicktotheleg.

Whatarethethreeactionsinthissentence?

• Onekidwanderspastthecenterlineofthebackseat.• Onekidelbowsanotherkidinthechest.• Onekidkicksanotherkid.

Butwhataretheverbs?(Remember,anactionisn’tthesamethingsasaverb.)

• Theonlyverbis“was.”Youcanseethemismatchherebetweentheactionofthesentenceandthegrammarofthesentence.

• Therearethreeactions.• Thereisoneverb,andthatverbhasnothingtodowithanyofthethreeactions.

Howdoyoubegintoalignthegrammarwiththeaction?Thereismorethanonecorrectanswer,butIwantyoutoseewhathappenswhenyoustartthinkingintermsofactorsandactionsandsubjectsandverbs.

• Aimlesswanderingisaverbthathasbeenturnedintoanabstractnoun.It’snottoohardtoturnitbackintoaverb:wandered.

• Nowthatyouhaveaverb,youneedasubject.WHOwandered?Wecan’tactuallyknow,thoughthewriterwouldknow.Forthepurposesoftheexample,wewillsay,Iwandered.(Asyoucansee,thinkingintermsofverbsandsubjectsforcestheissue;itmakesyouconsiderWHOisdoingwhat.)

• Inthesameway,changing“elbow”and“kick”backintoverbsforcesthewritertothinkaboutWHOiselbowingandkicking.

Obviously,onlythewritercangetthisright.Sincenoneofuswasinthecarwiththeseunrulychildren,wedon’tknowwhowasdoingwhat.Butaversionthatalignsactorsandactionswithsubjectsandverbsmightlookmorelikethis:

AnytimeIwanderedoverthecenterlineoftheseat,mysisterputanelbowinmychest.Andeverytimemysisterputanelbowinmychest,Ikickedher.

Therearetimes,ofcourse,whenthat“abstractified”versionofthings—Anyaimlesswanderingpastthecenterlineofthebackseatwasgroundsforanelbowtothechestorakicktotheleg—mightbeagoodwaytoexpresstheidea.ItneedstobeyourDEFAULT,yourHABIT,toalignactorsandactionswithsubjectsandverbs.Ifyoutrythatalignedversionandchooseinsteadtodosomethingelse,that’sfine.

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EXAMPLE2

Iwassix,andthiswasthebeginningofquestioningtheexistenceofSantaClaus.Whataretheactionshere?

• Somebodyissix.(Thisisnottechnicallyanactionsomuchasastateofbeing.)• Thissix-year-oldpersonbeginstoquestionsomething.• SantaClausexists(orfailstoexistasthecasemaybe).

Whataretheverbs?

-was(Iwassix.)-was(Thiswasthebeginning)

Thesearenotveryinterestingverbs.Actually,thereisnothingwrongwiththefirstwas.There’snobetterwaytoexpressIwassix.Butwhataboutthatsecondclause?

…thiswasthebeginningofquestioningtheexistenceofSantaClaus.

Inthatoneclausetherearethreeabstractnouns—beginning,questioning,existence.Allthreeoftheseabstractnounsstartedoutlifeasverbs.Thereisnogoodreasontoturnthesethreeactionsintoabstractnounsandusetheanemic“was”astheoneverb.Howcouldyoumakethisclausemore“verbish”?Here’soneway:

WhenIwassix,IbegantoquestiontheexistenceofSantaClaus.or,ifyoureallywanttobestrictaboutbeingas“verbish”aspossible,withnoabstractnouns:

WhenIwassix,IbegantowonderwhetherSantaClausereallyexisted.Overthenextfewlessons,we’regoingtoputsometechnicallanguagetosomeoftheseideas,butthebig,non-technicalpictureisthis:

Everysingletimeyoucomposeasentence,thinkaboutwheretheactionis—WHODIDWHAT?—andmakeityourhabittoexpressthatactionintheformofaverb,andmaketheactorthesubjectofthatverb.

Thereareplentyofreasonstobreakthatrule,tostrayfromthathabit.Butbeconsciouswhenyoubreaktherule,andhaveagoodreasonfordoingso.

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Quiz1.6:ActorsandActions,SubjectsandVerbs

I.Ifyouplayedonthefloornearhim,hewouldreachhisfootoverandpinchyouwithhislongtoes,thenlaughwhenyouyelped.Irenewouldcallout"Jimmy,stopit!"whichjusttriggeredmorelaughter.Howisthegrammarinthesecondsentenceoutofalignmentwiththeactionitdepicts?Howmightyoubringthesubjectsandverbsinlinewiththeaction?II.Finefurniture,qualityclothing,privateeducationmadeherwillingtostretchourlimitedmeanssothintheysometimesdisappearedaltogether.Thesentenceisaboutamotherwhosometimesspenttoomuchmoneyonherchildren.Howmightyoureworkthesentencetobringthegrammarofthesentenceintoalignmentwiththeactionthesentencedepicts?

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III.Stabbedthroughbothfrontpawsarewoodenskipoles.Oneskipoleisstillfirmlygrippedinthebear’sleftpaw.Therightskipolesnappedoffatsomepointandneverreattachedisnowpresumedlosttothetundra.Inthepassageabove,thewriterdepictsafigurineofasnow-skiingbearwithabrokenskipole.Havealookatthatlastsentence.Whataretheactions?Whatis(are)theverb(s)?Howmightyoubringsubjectsandverbsinlinewithactorsandactions?IV.Themomentprecedingeverysneezefilledwiththedreadofthesurgeofpainthatwasabouttoensue.Whatarethesubjectsandverbs?Whataretheactionsandactors?Rewritethissentencesothatthegrammaralignsmorecloselywiththeaction.V.Buttherewasascarcityoftheseeventsandvenuesinourtown,sothecostofaroadtriptothecitywasapricemymothergladlypaid.Whataretheactorsandactions(orstatesofbeing,asthecasemaybe)?Whatarethesubjectsandverbs?Reworkthissentencesothatthesubjectsandverbsalignmorecloselywiththeactorsandactions.

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VI.Herimmediateandenthusiastic,“Yes!”wasn’tsurprisingwhenasa7thgraderIbeggedtogoseeaplayattheTivoliTheatre.Thisisthesamemotheranddaughterfromtheprevioussentence.Again,whataretheactionsandactors,whatarethesubjectsandverbs,andhowcanyoubringthegrammarofthesentenceintocloseralignmentwiththeactionofthesentence?

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson7:WhatisPassiveVoice?

I’vebeentalkingaboutmakingitahabit,oradefault,tolineupthegrammarofasentencewiththeactionitdepictsbyexpressingthatactionasaverbandmakingtheactororagentthegrammaticalsubjectofthatverb.Onesentencestructurethatdeviatesfromthisdefaultisthepassivevoice.Andtheparticularwaythatitdeviatesisbymovingtheactorofanactionoutofthesubjectpositionandmovingadirectobject(orperhapsanindirectobject)intothesubjectposition.Technicallyspeaking,youdothisbywayofthesesteps:

• Moveanobject(eitherdirectorindirect)intothesubjectslot.• Changetheverbtothefourthprincipalpart(ate,eat,orwilleatàeaten;wanted,

want,orwillwantàwanted)• Stickatense-appropriateformofto-beinfrontofthefourthprincipalpart(was

eaten,iseaten,willbeeaten,hadbeeneaten,isbeingeaten,abouttobeeaten,willhavebeeneaten,etc.)

• Maketheactortheobjectofa“by”phrase(or,ifyouprefer,losetheactoraltogether).

Ifthereisasecondobject,therearerulesforwhattodowiththat,butI’mnotgoingtogetintoitbecauseyouhaveknownhowtoformthepassivevoicesinceyouwereachild.Evenifyoudon’tknowwhatafourthprincipalpartis,evenifyoudon’tevenknowwhatadirectobjectis,youdon’thaveanyproblemgettingfromIbrokethelamptoThelampwasbroken.Toreturntoasentenceyouhaveseenbefore:

KengaveBarbieflowers.Thissentenceisinactivevoice.Kenistheactor—theonegivingtheflowers—andKenisthegrammaticalsubjectofthesentence.

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• Subject=KEN• Verb=GAVE• DirectObject=FLOWERS• IndirectObject=BARBIE.

Intheactiveformofthissentence(KengaveBarbieflowers),thesubjectisperforminganaction(giving)andtheobjects(flowers,Barbie)arereceivingthataction.ButEnglishgrammardoesn’tREQUIREthattheactorbethegrammaticalsubject.Ifyouwant,youcanmoveBarbietothesubjectposition:

BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.Youcanevenmaketheflowersthegrammaticalsubjectifyouwantto:

FlowersweregiventoBarbiebyKen.Youcandothiswithanysentencethathasadirectorindirectobject.

Itookthebullbythehorns.àThebullwastakenbythehornsbyme.Marthaatethecake.àThecakewaseatenbyMartha.

Youdon’thaveanytroublemakingthisswitchfromactivetopassive.Youdon’thavetothinkaboutto-beverbsorfourthprincipalparts.Ifyougetinthehabitofthinkingintermsofactionsandactors,andifyouclearlydistinguishbetweentheactorandthegrammaticalsubject(whichmayormaynotbethesame),it'srelativelyeasytomovebackandforthbetweenactiveandpassivevoice.THEPROBLEMSWITHPASSIVEVOICEGoodwritingislargelyamatterofmanagingyourreader'sexpectations.Thatdoesn'tmeanyoualwayshavetomeetthoseexpectations;infact,goodwritingrequiresthatyouoftensurpriseyourreader.Butyouneedtobeawarethatanyword,phrase,orclausethatdoesn'tmeetyourreader'sexpectations(includingunconsciousexpectations),attractsherattention.PROBLEM1:EXTRAWORKFORTHEREADERWhenyoudon’tmeetyourreader’sexpectations,youcauseextraworkforthereader.Ourbrainsarewiredtoexpecttheactortositinthesubjectpositionofasentence.Whentheactoristhesubject,wefeelthatthingsaremovingrightalong.Wefeelthatthegrammarisguidingustowardthatburningquestion,“Whodidwhat?”Thereader,ofcourse,isfullycapableofmentallyflippingapassivesentencebacktoactiveandknowingwhodidwhat.Inspiteofthegrammardifferences,everybodyknowsthatthefollowingthreesentencesalldescribethesameaction,thesameactor,andthesamerecipientsoftheaction:

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(A)KengaveBarbieflowers.(B)BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.(C)FlowersweregiventoBarbiebyKen.Butyouneedtobeawarethatifyouphrasethatsentenceaseither(B)or(C),yourreaderhastotranslateitbackto(A)inordertodecodethesentence.Ifyouaskyourreadertogotothatextratrouble,sheisgoingtowanttoknowwhy(ifonlyatsubconsciouslevel).Granted,it’satinyamountofextratroubleyou’rerequiringofyourreader,andtherecanbegoodreasonstoaskitofher,aswe’llseeinthenextlesson.Butunlessyouhaveaspecificreasontousethepassivevoice,stayintheactivevoice.Savethereader'senergyandattentionforthosemomentswhenyoureallyneedit.PROBLEM2:FUZZYAGENCYLetusreturntothatpassivesentence,BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.AsImentionedabove,Kenisstilltheactor.ButwhereisKeninthissentence?He'stuckedawayinthatprepositionalphraseattheendofthesentence.Theactorisnowalowlyobjectoftheprepositionby.Orwhataboutthisversion?

Barbiewasgivenflowers.Whoistheactorhere?PresumablyKen.Butmaybenot.Wehavenowayofknowingfromthesentence.Kenwenttoalltheefforthere.Hespenthishard-earnedmoney.Hedrovetotheflorist.HewalkedupBarbie'sdrivewayandhandedovertheflowers.Andyetthepassivevoicerelegateshimtoaprepositionalphrase,orperhapseveneraseshimcompletely.ThisiswhatImeanby"fuzzyagency."PROBLEM3:EXTRAWORDSGenerallyspeaking,youdon'twanttoaddword-countwithoutaddingadditionalmeaning.Ittakesmorewordstodescribeanactioninpassivevoicethaninactivevoice.Theactivesentence,KengaveBarbieflowers,isfourwordslong.ThepassivesentenceBarbiewasgivenflowersbyKenissixwordslong.That's50%morewordsfor0%moremeaning.OrconsiderthepassivesentenceBarbiewasgivenflowers.Atfourwords,it'sthesamelengthastheactivesentence,butitconveyssignificantlylessinformation(specifically,itdoesn'tidentifythepersonwhomBarbiehastothankforherflowers).IFYOUASKMOREOFTHEREADER,YOUHAVETOGIVEMORERemember,everytimeyouusethepassivevoice,you’reaskingsomethingofyourreader.You’reaskinghertotakeanextrastepofdecoding.Doyouhaveagoodreasonforaskingyourreadertogotothatextratrouble?Ifso,byallmeansusethepassivevoice.Butifyoudon’t,stickwiththeactive.

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Quiz1.7:WhatisPassiveVoice?

I.Thelargebearenjoyinghisbreakfastofblackberriestwentyfeetawayhadbeaten ushere.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoII.Thepoolwasinsight.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoIII.Whenallelsefails,adogcanbecountedon.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoIV.Aswimmingcreatureissighted—abeaver?Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoV.Hewasstudyingforhiscounselingdegree.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes No

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VI.Whichistrueofthefollowingsentences:Sentence1:JohnBarberwasraisedbywolves.Sentence2:JohnBarberwasraisedinabarn. A.Sentence1andSentence2arebothpassive. B.Sentence1isactiveandSentence2ispassive. C.Sentence1ispassiveandSentence2isactive. D.Sentence1andSentence2arebothactive.V.ThishandkerchiefwasusedbyElvis.Turnthispassivesentenceintoanactivesentence.VI.UncleThurstongaveLindaaglassofwater.Rewritethissentencesothatthatthedirectobjectbecomesthesubjectofapassivesentence.VII.UncleThurstongaveLindaaglassofwater.Rewritethissentenceasapassivesentenceinwhichtheindirectobjectbecomesthegrammaticalsubjectofthesentence.VIII.Twohourslater,afterthesandwicheshadbeeneaten,thethundercame.Thissentencecomesfromadescriptionofapicnic.Revisethesentencewithoutthepassiveconstruction.

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IX.Curtiscarriedmeinhisarmstowardthepool.HeknewIwouldhavereliefifthewatercouldwashoverme.Iwastossedintothepoolandsurroundedbyfriendswithinseconds.Inthisscene,thenarratorremembersatimewhenshegotattackedbywasps,andanolderboynamedCurtisheroicallyscoopedherupandthrewherinthepooltogetthewaspsoff.Thisquestionhasthreeparts:

• Identifythesentencethatisinpassivevoice.• Explainwhythepassivevoiceisanunfortunatechoicehere.• Rewritethepassivesentenceasanactivesentence.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson8:UsesofthePassiveVoice

EveryproblematicconstructionintheEnglishlanguageexistsbecausetherearetimeswhenit'snotproblematic,butexactlywhatawriterneeds.SowhileIencourageyoutotreattheactivevoiceasyourdefaultmode,thereareplentyofsituationsinwhichyou'llfinditbesttoswitchfromdefaultmodeintothepassivevoice.Inthislessonwewilllookatfourofthosesituations.1.PASSIVEVOICEISPERFECTFOREXPRESSINGPASSIVITY.Maybethisoneisself-evident.Considerthissentence:

Andrewwasbulliedasachild.

Tobeavictimofbullyingistobeinapostureofpassivity.Inthiscase,itdoesn’tmatterwhothebullieswere,evenifthewriterhappenstoknowthebullies'names.TheimportantfigurehereisAndrew.ThepassivevoiceallowsthewritertoputAndrewinthatimportantsubjectslot,eventhoughheisnottheagentinthissituation.AsentencelikePetewasconvictedofperjuryworksinmuchthesameway.ItwasajurythatconvictedPeteofperjury(orwasitajudge?orthestate?).WhatmattersisthatPetewasconvicted,notwhoconvictedhim.Herethepassivevoicehastheaddedbonusofsavingthewriterfromhavingtofigureoutexactlywhoconvictspeopleofperjury.Icallthatabonus,buttherearecertainlysituationsinwhichthis“bonus”leadstolazinessonthepartofthewriter,whoisabletogetawaywithnotquiteknowingwhatheistalkingabout.Asubcategoryofthis“passivity”useofthepassiveistheself-pityinguse.Adeliciouslyself-pityingoldLindaRonstadtsongsaid,

“I’vebeencheated,beenmistreated.WhenwillIbeloved?”

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It’sinterestingthatinthissentence,theproblemisframedpassively(“I’vebeencheated,beenmistreated”),butsoisthesolution(“WhenwillIbeloved?”)!2.THEPASSIVEVOICEISHELPFULWHENYOUDON’TKNOWTHEACTOR.Considerthispassivesentence:

Mybikewasstolenyesterday.Thisisanentirelyappropriateuseofthepassivevoice.Idon’tknowwhostolemybike.IfIdid,I’dbereportingthemtothepoliceinsteadofwritingsentencesaboutthem.IfIamreallybeingasticklerfortheactivevoice,IsupposeIcouldsay,Somejerkstolemybikeyesterday.3.THEPASSIVEVOICEISAWAYTOCONCEALORDENYAGENCY.Thisiswherethepassivevoicecangetnefarious.WhenI'vebrokenalamp,IcansayThelampwasbroken.That'snotalie.It'sjustthatthepassivevoiceallowsmetoleaveoutoneofthemostimportantbitsofinformation.Icallthisthe"Mistakesweremade"useofthepassivevoice.Itistherefugeofobfuscators,politicians,deadbeats,self-pitiers,andthepassiveaggressive.Thisapplicationlargelyaccountsforthepassivevoice'sbadreputation.4.PASSIVEVOICEISAWAYTODIRECTYOURREADER’SATTENTION.Thesubjectofsentenceenjoysaplaceofprivilegeinthereader'smind.Thereaderpaysextraattentiontowhatevernounisinthatslot.Thepassivevoiceallowsyoutobringsomenounbesidestheactorintothatplaceofprominence.WehavealreadylookedatthesentenceAndrewwasbulliedasachild,inwhichAndrew,notthebullies,isthefocusofthesentence.Herearetwosentencesthatdescribethesameaction,thefirstintheactivevoice,thesecondinthepassive:

Active:AnunusuallylargepianoplayerejectedClarencefromthesaloon.Passive:Clarencewasejectedfromthesaloonbyanunusuallylargepianoplayer.

There'snotahugedifferencebetweenthosesentences.Butyoucanfeeladifference,can’tyou?Thefirstsentenceasksyoutogivealittlemoreattentiontothepianoplayer.ThesecondsentenceasksyoutogivealittlemoreattentiontoClarence.Bychangingthegrammaticalsubject,thepassivevoiceallowsyoutochangetheemphasis.Thisisjustnuance.Butthedifferencebetweengoodwritingandgreatwritingislargelynuance.

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Quiz1.8A:UsesofthePassiveVoice

I.Inthepassivevoice,theactorismovedOUTofthe____________position.Circleallthatapply. A.subject B.verb C.directobject D.indirectobject E.predicatecomplementII.Inthepassivevoice,the____________ismovedintothesubjectposition.Circleallthatapply. A.subject B.verb C.directobject D.indirectobject E.predicatecomplementIII.Whataresomeproblemswiththepassivevoice?Circleallthatapply. A.Moreworkforthereader B.Fuzzyagency C.Extrawords D.ToomanyprepositionsIV.Listtwotofouroccasionsinwhichthepassivevoiceisuseful.

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Quiz1.8B:UsesofthePassiveVoice(Challenge)

I.Heholdsalongpaintbrushinhishands,dabblesitinthepaintonhispalette,andbrushesoneslowstrokeatatimeuntilamasterpieceisrendered.Assessthatpassiveclauseattheend—untilamasterpieceisrendered.Isthisausefulpassiveconstruction?Whyorwhynot?II.Thecatalogsweredeliveredinthesametruckthatbroughtthebills.Thissentencecomesfromapassageinwhichthewriterwastalkingaboutafamilywhohadahabitofoverspending.Everydaythemailbroughtunpaidbills,butalsoopportunitiestorackupmorebills.Thiswriterchosetousethepassivevoicetoexpressthisidea.Hecouldhaveeasilyusedanallactivevoice:Thesametruckbroughtthebillsandthecatalogs.Whydoyouthinkthiswriterchosetousethepassivevoiceinstead?Doyouthinkitwasagoodchoice?

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III.Citrustrees,almondtrees,cotton,andgrapesaresuccessfullygrownthankstoirrigation.Thewaterisbroughtdownfromthemountainsthroughanaqueductanddistributedbyacanalsystem.Thesesentencescontainthreepassiveverbforms:

• [crops]aregrown• waterisbrought• [wateris]distributed

Ifyouwererevisingthesesentences,whichofthesethreepassiveconstructionswouldyoukeepandwhichofthemwouldyouturnintoactiveconstructions?Showyourrevision.IV.Heisgluedtothickskisthatsitatopawoodenplank.Thewoodenplankisacanvasonwhichtheartistsethiscedarscene.Intocedarwoodhecarvedatinyfirtreestuntedathalfthebear’sheight.Thisisfromadescriptionofabearfigurinethathasappearedinanearlierquiz.Thefirstsentenceisinpassivevoice(Heisglued...),andafterthatthewritershiftstoactivevoice(theartistsethisscene...hecarvedatinyfirtree...)Ifyouwererevisingthispassage,wouldyoumakeitallpassive?Allactive?Wouldyoukeepthemixofactiveandpassiveas-is?Wouldyoukeepitmixedbutchangethemix?Revisethesentence.

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V.PedroandIhavelittlecontactthesedays,butwhenIthinkbackonourfriendshipI’mtransportedbacktothatredbrickhouseonSpruceStreetwherecreativitywasfosteredandexplored.Thissentencehastwopassiveconstructions:

• I'mtransported• creativitywasfosteredandexplored

Ifyouwererevisingthissentence,whichofthosepassiveconstructionswouldyoukeep,andwhichwouldyouchangetoactiveconstructions?Revisethesentence.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson9:Nominalization

I’vemarkedalotofstudentpapers.I’veaskedforalotofrevisions.Ihavenoticedthatalotofwritingstudentsviewrevisionlargelyasamatterofreplacingwords:Sincetheteacherdidn’tlikethesewords,letmegofindsomedifferentwordstoplugintothosespots.Moreoften,however,whatwritersreallyneedtodoistorethinksentencestructure—togetintothedeeperlogicandask,HowdoImakemyphrasingmatchthedeeperlogicofasentence?Imentionedacoupleoflessonsagothattherearetwobigwaysthatwritersviolatetheactor-action/subject-verbprinciple.Passivevoicewasthefirstofthosetwoways.Thesecondisnominalization.Nominalizationisthepracticeofturningverbsintonouns.Towit:

• Defy–defiance• Discover–discovery

Byturningactionsintoabstractnouns,awritercreatesamismatchbetweenthegrammarofasentenceandtheactionitdescribes.Here’sastraightforwardsentenceinwhichthegrammaralignswiththeaction.

WhenBronsondiscoveredthatCindyhaddefiedtheschoolbully,hecongratulatedher.Inthissentence,thethreeactionsareexpressedbythreeverbsandthreesubjects:

• Bronsondiscoveredsomething.• Cindydefiedthebully.• BronsoncongratulatedCindy.

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Here’swhatthissentencelookslikewhenwechangethoseactionsfromverbsintonominalizations:

WhenBronsonmadethediscoveryofCindy’sdefianceoftheschoolbully,congratulationsensued.

Theactionsofdiscovering,defying,andcongratulationinsteadofbeingverbs,areturnedintoabstractnouns.Theyarenominalized.Whataretheverbsinthatsentence?Theverbsaremadeandensued.Discoverybecomesadirectobject,defiancegetstuckedawayastheobjectoftheprepositionof.Congratulationsisactuallythesubjectofthemainclause.Noticethetwoprepositionalphrasesthatwormtheirwayin:ofCindy’sdefiance,andoftheschoolbully.Let’sputthetwosentencesnexttoeachother.

WhenBronsondiscoveredthatCindyhaddefiedtheschoolbully,hecongratulatedher.

WhenBronsonmadethediscoveryofCindy’sdefianceoftheschoolbully,congratulationsensued.

Youcanfeelthedifferencebetweenthosetwosentences,can’tyou?Thesentencesdescribethesameaction.Theydescribetheexactsameinformation.Butinthefirst,theinformationandactioncomeatthereaderthesamewaytheydoinreallife.WHODIDWHAT?Theactionsareverbs.Theactorsaresubjects.IfIwereaskthedifferencebetweenthesetwosentences,youmightsaythesecondoneistoowordy.Youwouldn’tbewrong.Itdefinitelyfeelswordy.Butifyouactuallycountthewords,youseethatthesecondsentence,thenominalizedone,isonlyONEwordlongerthanthefirst.Sentence1is13wordslong.Sentence2is14words.It’shardtobelieveisn’tit?Thedifferenceisthatinsentence2,yourbrainhastoengagemorethanyoursenses.Itseemsoddtosayit,butyoudon’twantyourreaderstohavetothinktoomuch.Rather,youwantyourreaderstosavetheirmentalenergyforwhenyoureallyneedthemtothink.Youdon’twanttowasteit.Sentence2issooddthatyourreaderasks(maybesubconsciously),“Whydidyouphraseitthatway?”YourreaderstartsthinkingaboutyourgrammarinSentence2.Thatisnotsomethingyouwant!Hereisa3-Stepprocessforfindingandfixingnominalization:

• STEP1:Identifytheactioninthesentence.• STEP2:Identifytheverbsinthesentence.• STEP3:Aligntheactionsandtheverbs.

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Thatishowyougetridofnominalization.But,asIhavesaidbefore,everyproblematicgrammaticalstructureexistsbecausesometimesit’snotproblematic;sometimesitisexactlywhatyouneed.Let’slookatanothernominalizedsentence—onethatisn’tnearlysoegregiousasthatlastone:

Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.Inthissentence,thesubjectsandverbsarenotatallalignedwiththeaction.There’salotofactioninthissentence:It’sacarcrash!Markisrunningaredlight.Markiscareeningintoanothercar.Metaliscrumpling.Glassisflying.Babiesarecrying.Dogsarebarking.Butwhatistheverbinthissentence?There’sonlyone.It’sWAS.Howmightyoualignthemain-linegrammar—subjects,verbs,andobjects—withtheaction?Wehaveafewoptions.Herearetwo:

Markfailedtostopattheintersectionandcrashedintoanothercar.

Markranthrougharedlightandcrashedintoanothercar.Arethosebettersentencesthantheoriginal?Itdependsonthecontext.Isascrewdriverabettertoolthanawrench?Itdependsonthecontext.It’snotatallhardtoimagineasituationinwhichthebestsentenceistheonewestartedwith:Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.MaybeoneofMark’sdefendershassaid,“Foggyconditionswerethecauseofthecarcrash,”andyousay,“Hardly!Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.”Thinkofitthisway:Ikeepsayingthatyourreaderalwayswantstoknowwhodidwhat.Butwhodidwhatisn’ttheonlyimportantquestionyou’reansweringwhenyouwrite.Sometimesotherquestionscometotheforeground—WHYdidsomethinghappen?Inthiscase,WHOistoblame.SoletmereturntosomethingIsaidatthebeginningofthislesson.Whenyoucomposeasentence,youaretryingtomakethestructureofthesentencematchupwiththedeeperlogicofthatsentence.Straightforwardactionisagreatplacetostartbecauseintherealworld,informationTENDStocometousasaction.Weseeacarrunaredlight.Weseethatcarcrashintoanothercar.THENourjudgmentkicksin.Wesay,“Hey,thatjerkjustcausedanaccidentbyrunningthatredlight.”ToparaphraseFlanneryO’Connor,“Theeyeisanorganofjudgment.”Datacomestousthroughoureyesorourothersenses,andwemakejudgmentsbasedonthatdata.Wedon’thaveanarratorinourheadtellinguswhattothinkaboutwhatwesee.

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NominalizationTENDStomovethingsoutoftherealmofactorsandactionsandintotherealmofmoreabstractrelationships.Let’slookonemoretimeatourfirst,nominalizedsentenceaboutMark’scarcrash:

Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.ThemainlineofthatsentenceisFAILUREWASCAUSE.Causeandeffect.That’salogicalrelationship.Thesentencestructureforegroundsthelogical,cause-and-effectrelationshipatplayhere.Themore“verbish”version—Markranthroughtheintersectionandhitanothercar(orsomethingsimilar)—letsthereadermakethecause-and-effectconnectionforhimself.MaybeitletsthereaderpassjudgmentonMarkasadriver—which,again,ishowourexperienceoftheworldusuallyworks.However,thatnominalizedversion—Mark’sfailurewasthecause—thatversionsaystothereader,“Here’stheconclusionIwantyoutoreachhere.”Sometimesthat’sagoodthing—tellingyourreaderwhatconclusionyouwanthimtoreach—andsometimesthat’sabadthing.Idothinkwriterstendtoerronthesideoftellingreaderswhattothinkratherthaninvitingthemintoasceneandpointingthemintherightdirection.That’swhyIpersistinmycampaigntogetyoutotreattheactor-action-subject-verbmodelasyourdefault.That’swhyIencourageyoutohaveagoodreasonifyouaregoingtousenominalization.ButaswehaveseenwithMarkandhishorribledrivingrecord,therearecertainlysituationswhenit’sappropriatetousenominalizationtodirectyourreadertoaspecificconclusion.Grammarisn’tjustgrammar.Sentencestructurespeakstodeeperlogicalstructures.

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Quiz1.9:Nominalization

I.NominalizationTENDStomovethingsoutoftherealmofactorsandactionsandintotherealmof_________________.II.Complianceisanominalizationofwhatverb?___________________III.Revelationisanominalizationofwhatverb?___________________IV.AlackofattentivenessonLeonard'spartledtoacollisionwithatelephonepole.Revisethissentencebychangingnominalizationsbackintoverbssoastoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionthesentencedescribes.V.Mariamadetheargumentthattheexpirationofthepolicywouldresultdirectlyinherexposuretonewrisk.Revisethissentencebychangingnominalizationsbackintoverbssoastoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionthesentencedescribes.

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VI.Ioriginallywasn’tinterestedinknowingher,butonlywantedheracceptanceofme.Revisethissentencebygettingridofthenominalization(acceptance)inordertoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionitdescribes.VII.AfallfromaladderatawarehousejobandashoulderinjuryfromjanitorialworkatthecountyjailmeantDaleisnonetoosteadyonhisfeetthesedays.Theabstractnounsfallandinjurymakeupthecompoundsubjectofthissentence.Turnbothofthosenounsbackintoverbs,thebettertoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionitdescribes.VIII.Someofmyfavoriteswerebooksandbaseballcards,butingeneralIwasundertheimpressionthatthebiggerthegiftthebetter,andtherewaslittlerespectforbirthdaycards.Lookatthatphrasetherewaslittlerespect...Noticehowthespeakerdisappearsfromthesentencewiththatnominalization.Revisethissentencewithoutusingthephrasetherewas...(Youranswer,bytheway,mightstillhavetheabstractnounrespect,andthatwillbeok).

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IX.Theoccasionalremovalofhisshadesrevealedglassy,bloodshoteyes.Revisethissentencebychangingnominalizationsbackintoverbssoastoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionthesentencedescribes.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson10:StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbs

Nodoubtyouhaveheardthewritingadvice,"Usestrongverbs."IfyouGooglethatphrase,“usestrongverbs,”you’regoingtoseelistslike100STRONGVERBSTOADDPOWERANDPIZZAZZTOYOURWRITINGorSTOPUSINGWEAKVERBSANDSTARTUSINGTHESESTRONGVERBS.Itwouldbegreatifalistof"betterverbs"existed,buttherightverb,liketherightnoteonapiano,isamatterofcontext.Youcan’tmakealistofthebestverbsanymorethanyoucouldmakealistofthebestmusicalnotes.It’snotthat“Usestrongverbs”isterribleadvice.Butit’sthekindofadvicethatcanhelpyougofrombeingabadwritertobeingamediocrewriter.It’snotgoingtomoveyoufrombeingaprettygoodwritertobeingaverygoodwriter.“Usestrongverbs”isjustanoversimplificationofbetteradvice:Foreverysentenceyouwrite,figureoutwheretheactionis—ifpossible,ENVISIONthataction—andTHENfindtheverborverbsthatmostPRECISELYdepictthataction.Goodwritingisalwaysaboutprecision,notembellishment.Themorepreciseabitofwritingis,themorelikelyitisthatyourreaderwillbeabletoseewhatyou’retryingtoshowhim.Considerthissentence:

Terencewentaway.Therearelotsofwaystogoaway.Theideaofgoingawayisbroad—sobroad,infact,thatthephrasewentawaydoesn’tgiveyourreadermuchtolookat.Amorepreciseverbnarrowsthingsdownandcreatesavisualimageforyourreader.

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• Terenceleft.• Terencevamoosed.• Terencesplit.• Terencehightailedit.• Terencesnuckoff.• Terenceabsconded.• Terencevanished.• Terencewascalledaway.

Whichofthoseverbsisthestrongest?That’snotanespeciallyhelpfulquestion.Thequestionis,whichofthoseverbsmostpreciselydepictswhatTerencedid?Writingdoesn’tstartwithwords.Writingstartswithvision.Ifyoudon’tseewhatyou’retryingtowrite,youcan’tmakeyourreaderseeit.Sothrowawayyourlistsofstrongverbs.Thelistssuggestthatbetterwritingissimplyamatteroffindingbetterwordsandpluggingtheminwheretheless-goodwordswere.Therearen’tbetterwordsandworsewords,anymorethantherearerightnotesandwrongnotesonapiano.SayandsaidSomethingthatsometimesgetsrolledinto“strongverb”discussionsistheverbsayorsaid.Writingteacherssometimestelltheirstudentstofindmoreinteresting(orstronger)verbsthansayandsaidindialogue.Theyofferadvicelike,“Don’tsaysay,”or“Saidisdead.”Pleaseignorethatadvice.Whenyouaredescribingpeoplewhoaresayingthings,sayisaperfectlyrespectableverb.Ononewriting-advicewebsiteIranacrosstheexample,“Heidisaidshewastiredofhiking.”Thewebsiteadvisedfindingastrongerverbthansaid—maybesomethinglike“Heidicontendedthatshewastiredofhiking.”Iscontendastrongerverbthansaid?Iscontendamoreinterestingverbthansaid?Maybeso.Butthat'snotthequestion.Thequestionis,whichverbmorepreciselydepictswhatHeidiwasdoing?Tocontendistoargue,tostruggle.WhywouldHeidihavetocontendwhatsheisfeelingabouthiking?IstheresomebodygettinginHeidi’sfaceandtellingherthatshe'snottiredofhiking?IsHeidihavingtomakeacasethatsheisindeedtiredofhiking?Ifso,contendedmightbeabetterverbthansaid.Otherwise,saidwillworkjustfinehere.Don’tletanybodybullyyouintothrowingouttheperfectlyserviceableandperfectlyrespectableverbsaid.Saidisnotdead.It’sverymuchalive.TheTo-BeVerb

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Anotherverbwithabadreputationistheto-beverb:

• am• are• is• was• were• be• being• been

Theto-beverbhasabadreputationbecauseitisoftenmixedupwithother,moreseriouswritingproblems.Thepassivevoicealwaysinvolvesato-beverb:"Thebullwastakenbythehornsbyme."Nominalizationusuallyinvolvesato-beverb:"Leonardwasconsciousofthefactthat..."Therefore,itisagoodpracticetogobackthroughyourwritingandcircleto-beverbsasawayoffindingnominalizationsandpassiveconstructions.Butwhereto-beverbscommunicateastateofbeing,orwhereto-beverbsarelinkingverbs(asin"wewerewalking"or"Ihavebeentellingyouthatallalong")there’snothingtobeashamedof.Don’tfeeltheneedtoeradicateto-beverbsandplugin“action”verbsor“strong”verbs.Verbscandotwothings:theycancommunicateaction,ortheycancommunicatestatesofbeing.Verbsthatcommunicatestatesofbeingarecalledlinkingverbs(Ifeelpretty.Clarenceisthemayor.Marthawassuspiciouslyhappy.)Themostcommonlinkingverb(byfar)istheto-beverb.Communicatingactionisn’tmorerespectablethancommunicatingstatesofbeing.Onelastthingaboutcommunicatingstatesofbeing:thereareotherwaystocommunicatestatesofbeingbesidesusingalinkingverb.

• Youcanuseanadjective.(MymailmanishandsomebecomesMyhandsomemailman.)

• Youcanuseanappositive.(ClarenceisthemayorbecomesClarence,themayor...)• Youcanuseaprepositionalphrase.(AngusisfivefeettallbecomesAtfivefeettall,

Angustowersoverhisfellowcubscouts.)Wewilldiscussallthoseoptionsinfuturelessons.SummaryTaketheadvice“usestrongverbs”withagrainofsalt.Usepreciseverbs—theverbsthatmostpreciselydepicttheactionsyouwanttodepict.

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Therearen’tstrongverbsandweakverbs,justastherearen’trightnotesonthepianokeyboardandwrongnotes.Italldependsonthecontext:everynoteisrightsometimes,andeverynoteiswrongsometimes.Everyverbisrightsometimesandwrongsometimes.Soalistof“strongverbs”isoflimitedhelp.

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Quiz1.10:StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbs

I.Whataretheverbsofbeing?II.Trueorfalse:Verbsshouldcommunicateaction,notstatesofbeing.III.Herhair,onceexplodingoverhershouldersintight,brownringlets,isgraying.What'swrongwiththatparticipialphrase,explodingoverhershouldersintight,brownringlets?IV.IjumpedoffacliffhoveringhighabovethePacificOcean,harnessedtomyhang-glider.Considerthatparticiplehovering.Whyisitnotthebestchoicehere?

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V.Hisbewilderedfacemeltedintodefiance.Makethemainverbofthissentencemoreprecise.VI.Therectangularstudioheldpolishedwoodfloors,twowallsofbarre,amplefloorspaceforthetenlittledancersinmyclass,andoneentirewallofflawlessmirror.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthatmainverbheld?VII.Shepaintseyeshadowinpumpkinorange,brushesmascarainlinesasthickascalligraphyink,andpatsonlayersofrogue,allofwhichchiselanexpressionofpermanentexhilarationontohercreasedface.Whichverbismisleading?Why?Correctit.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson11:KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbs

Englishgrammargivesyouplentyoftechnicallycorrectwaystocraminformationintoasinglesentence.Butconnectingwithyourreaderismoreimportantthanbeingimpressivelycomplex.Remember,yourreaderalwayswantstoknowWHODIDWHAT?Subject,Verb,Object.Whateverelsehappensinyoursentence,yourreadershouldbeabletogetfromsubjecttoverbtoobjectwithrelativeease.Usually,thismeansgettingtoyoursubjectearlyinthesentence,andnothavingtoomanywordsbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Let'slookatafewsentencesthatviolatetheseprinciples,andconsiderhowtheycouldbebetter.

Theprocessesinvolvedinshapingthechannelinplaceswheretheturnsswungfromsidetoside,asthewaterflowedacrossthefloodplain,mesmerizedme.

A.Whatisthemainverb?___________________________________________.B.Whoorwhatmesmerized(i.e.whatisthesubject)?__________________________________________.C.Whatisthewholemainclause?_________________________________________________________________.[A.mesmerized.B.theprocesses.C.Theprocessesmesmerizedme.] Thereare22wordsbetweenthesubjectandtheverbofthemainclause.Thecommabeforetheverbisalsoamajorredflag.

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Therearealotofoptionsforfixingthissentence,butIthinkthemostelegantsolutionusesthepassivevoice: Iwasmesmerizedbytheprocessesthatshapedthechannelasitswungfromsideto sideandflowedacrossthefloodplain.Here'sanother:

Thefeeling,familiarinthoseyears,thatIwasofadifferentspeciesthanthepeoplearoundmesurgedupagain.

A.Whatisthemainverb?________________________________________________.B.Whatisthesubject?____________________________________________________.[Answers:A.surged.B.feeling.]Thereare16wordsbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Onepossiblefixusesanappositive(whichwe'lltalkaboutinalatermodule):Afamiliarfeelingsurgedupinme—afeelingthatIwasofadifferentspeciesfromthepeoplearoundme.Ihadthatfeelingalotinthosedays.Noticethatyoudohavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintwo.Sometimestwoshortsentencesarebetterthanoneunwieldyone. OnthefaredgeofthetownwhereIgrewup,satthealuminumfactory.A.Whatisthemainverb?______________________________________________________.B.Whatisthesubject?__________________________________________________________.[Answers:A.sat.B.thealuminumfactory.]Thissentencehastwelvewordsbeforewegetthesubject-verbnexus.Again,thecommabeforethemainverbshouldclueyouinthatthissentencewillbedifficultforyourreadertocomprehend.It'smoresimpletowritethis:Analuminumfactorysatatthefaredgeoftown.Maybeyouthinktheoriginalismoreinterestingthanthestraightforwardversion.Isitinterestingenoughtobeworththeextraworkyou'reaskingofyourreader?That'sarealquestion.Differentwriterswillansweritdifferently.Theimportantthingisthatyouconsiderthedifferenceandmakeaconsciousdecision.Don'tjustcauseextraworkforyourreaderwithoutthinkingthroughit.

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Quiz1.11:KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbs

I.Liquidpainsointensethatitstolemybreath,wouldsurgethroughmybackwitheveryattempt.Thisisasentenceaboutapersonwithbackpaintryingtogetoutofbed.Whatisthesubjectofthissentence?Whatisthemainverb?Editthesentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.II.Aneerieemptydarknessshehadneverexperiencedbeforewhenevershevisitedherfatherathisbig,glassedinofficeenvelopedthethreestoryfoyer.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.

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III.Hisponytailcomesloose,andhisthreefeetofgrayingbrownhair,typicallyonlyobservedbyimmediatefamilyoranyoneluckyenoughtocatchhimsippingcoffeeonadayoff,drapeshisshoulders.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.IV.Afewyearsaftermygreat,greatuncleMarion—aneccentricartistwhoframedhiswatercolorswithplanksfromtheporchandworehisteethonlyforimportantevents—haddied,TheVaseappeared,andwejokedthathissonBerthadputhisashesinitandplaceditonhismantel.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.Youmayneedtousemultiplesentences.V.Aweeklyrhythmbandfortheneighborhoodchildren,intheredbrickhomeofthewomannextdoor,putthedelighttomusic.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.VI.Thirtyfeetfromthewater,afringeofgnarledpinerootsreachingoutintoemptyairmarkstheborderfrombarerubbletostubbornforest.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.

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VII.Threesweatykidsandtheirmotherwithloadedpurse,emptiedpicnicbasket,andtissue-filledgiftbagtrudgedupthebackstepsreadytoescapetheJulysun.Editthissentencetomakeitclearer,keepingthesubjectclosetotheverb.VIII.Thesheerexhilarationmixedwiththeutterterroroflaunchingintotheair,thatmomentwhenyoufeelweightless,suspendedmidair,andthenthepulloftheearthdownwardasIracedtotheevergrowingpuddlebelowme,combinedtomakethejourneyastonishing.Thisisatoughone.It'sasentenceaboutjumpingoutofaswing.Howwouldyoureworkittomakeitclearerandkeepthesubjectclosethemainverb?Youmayneedtousemultiplesentences.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson12:CompoundsontheMainLine

In1990,MichaelJordanscoredacareer-high69points.RookieStaceyKingmadeonefreethrow.Inaninterviewafterthegamehesaid,"I'llalwaysrememberthisasthenightwhenMichaelJordanandIcombinedtoscore70points."Thisisabrilliantandhilarioususeofthecompoundsubject.Theverbscoredhastwosubjects:MichaelJordanandI.Anyspotonthemainline—Subject,Verb,Object,orComplement—canbecompounded. TheOwlandthePussycatwenttoseainabeautifulpea-greenboat. Twosubjectsshareoneverb. Isanganddanced. Onesubjectsharestwoverbs. Gabrielaatelobsterandporkrinds. Twoobjectsshareoneverb. Youarebeautifulbutmean. Twopredicatenominativesshareonelinkingverb.Youcancombinecompoundsinanycombination.Soyoucouldhave:Theowlandthepussycataterodentsandcatfood.(Compoundsubjectandcompounddirectobjects.)Compoundelementsarejoinedtogetherbyaconjunction(usuallyand,occasionallybut)andnocomma.Acommawithaconjunctionindicatesacompoundsentence.Acompoundsentenceistwoseparatemainclausesjoinedbyacommaandacoordinatingconjunction.

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Thereareonlysevencoordinatingconjunctions:

• For• And• Nor• But• Or• Yet• So

YoucanrememberthembyusingtheacronymFANBOYS.Acompoundsentencethathasaconjunctionbutnocommaisarun-onsentence.Acompoundsentencethathasacommabutnoconjunctioniscalledacommasplice.AcompoundsentencelinksoneindependentSubject-VerbnexustoanotherindependentSubject-Verbnexustoformasinglesentence.

Isang.Idanced.Twoseparatesentences.Isang,andIdanced.Compoundsentence.Isanganddanced.Compoundverb.

Whileallofthesearegrammaticallycorrect,thefirsttwofeelredundant.Itmakesthemostsensetouseacompoundverb.Whataboutthese?

Theowlhooted.Thepussycatmeowed.Twoseparatesentences.Theowlhooted,andthepussycatmeowed.Compoundsentence.Theowlandthepussycathootedandmeowed.Compoundsubjectandcompoundverb.

Thosetwoactionsdon'tfeelcloselyenoughrelatedtobeacompoundsubjectandcompoundverb.Thefirstorsecondoptionsmakemoresense.Here'sanotherexample:

Ihadneverbeenstruckinthefacebeforeandsatstunnedforseveralseconds.Thesetwoverbsdohavethesamesubject(I),butthedon'tcombineverywellforacoupleofreasons:

1. Thefirstverbispassiveandthesecondisactive.2. Thetwoactionsarenearlyascloselyrelatedas"Isanganddanced."

Wecouldcorrectthisbysaying,Ihadneverbeenstruckinthefacebefore,soIsattherestunnedforseveralseconds.(CompoundSentence)Oreven,Ihadneverbeenstruckinthefacebefore.Isattherestunned.

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Grammarisn'tjustaboutgrammar.Grammarreflectsadeeperlogic.StaceyKing’sjokeaboutcombiningfor70pointswithMichaelJordanisinpartagrammarjoke.Thecompoundsubject—MichaelJordanandI—istechnicallycorrect.TheyDIDcombinefor70points.Butthatcompoundsubjectalsoimpliesanequalitythatisridiculousandfunny.Grammarisakindoflogic.StaceyKingwasmisusingthatlogictobefunny.Mostofthetime,you’renottryingtobefunnywithyourgrammar,soyouwantyourgrammartoactuallyreflectyourlogic,notundermineit.

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Quiz1.12:CompoundsontheMainLine

I.Whatspotsonthemainlinecanbecompounded?Circleallthatapply. A.Subject B.Verb C.Object D.ComplementII.Listthesevencoordinatingconjunctions.(RemembertheacronymFANBOYS.)III.Acompoundsentencethathasaconjunctionbutnocommaiscalleda_____________________________________________.Acompoundsentencethathasacommabutnoconjunctioniscalleda______________________________________________.

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IV.Maybethatdayitwasgreenplaidbell-bottomsayearortwopasttheirheightofcoolnessandapilledtansweater.1.Identifythecompoundcomplement.2.Whyisthiscompoundcomplementconfusingtothereader?3.Editthesentenceforclarity.V.Theroomwasfurnishedwithpiecesthatcouldeasilyhavebeenfroma1960scatalogandsmeltmusty.1.Identifythecompoundverb.2.Editthesentenceforclarity.VI.Ifinishedplayingandthehissoftherespiratoronceagainfilledtheroomlikeincense.1.Whyisthissentencegrammaticallyincorrect?2.Howwouldyoucorrectit?

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VII.Mysisterhadaskedforadozendollsandmybrother'swishlisthadafrontandback.Correctthisrun-onsentencetomakeitacompoundsentence.VIII.Briancamehomewithmydollandarepentantheart.1.Identifythecompoundobjectoftheprepositionwith.2.Whyisthissentenceunusual?

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson13:VerbTenses

Aswewrapupthismoduleaboutsubjectsandverbs,let'stalkaboutverbtenses.Simplepast:Iate,youate,he/she/itate.Simplepresent:Ieat,youeat,he/she/iteats.Simplefuture:Iwilleat,youwilleat,he/she/itwilleat.Thesearesofamiliarthatthereisreallynoneedtotalkaboutthem.However,sometimesweneedmoreprecisionandnuancethanjustthesesimpletenses.That'swhereprogressiveandperfectverbtensescomein,andevennativeEnglishspeakershavealotoftroublewiththem.Pastprogressivetense,endsin-ing.Indicatesthatatagivenpointintime,apersonwasorisorwillbeinthemiddleofsomeaction.PastPerfectTense.Indicatesthatatagivenpointintime,apersonhascompletedorwillhavecompletedanaction.

Iranat6:00thismorning.Simplepasttense.

Iwasrunningat6:00thismorning.Pastprogressivetense.

Ihadrunat6:00thismorning.Pastperfecttense.

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Theprogressivetense(whetherpast,present,orfuture)isformedbyadding-ingtotheendoftheverb.Thisisthe2ndprincipalpart.Pastprogressive:Iwasrunning,youwererunning,he/she/itwasrunning.Presentprogressive:Iamrunning,youarerunning,he/she/itisrunning.Futureprogressive:Iwillberunning,youwillberunning,he/she/itwillberunning.Theperfecttenseisformedbycombiningthe4thprincipalpart(endsin-d,-t,or-en)withthehelpingverbhaveorhad.Pastperfect:Ihadrun,youhadrun,he/she/ithadrun.PresentPerfect:Ihaverun,youhaverun,he/she/ithasrun.FuturePerfect:Iwillhaverun,youwillhaverun,he/she/itwillhaverun.Usingtheseverbformsrequiresthatyouplantaflagonthetimeline,andthensetyourverbtensewithrespecttothatflag.Youaresaying,ineffect,atthisspecificpointintimethesubjectofthesentenceiseitherinthemiddleofanactionorhascompletedtheaction.Forsimpletense,thetime-flagisoptional.Icansay,Istolesomeleftoversfromoutoftheofficerefrigerator.Or,Istolefromleftoversoutoftheofficerefrigeratoryesterday.Eitheroneisfinebecausethesimplepastdoesn'tcarewhetherIincludethattimemarkeryesterdayornot.However,ifI'mgoingtosayIHADSTOLENleftovers(perfectpasttense),orIWILLHAVESTOLENleftovers(futureperfect),orIWASSTEALINGleftovers(pastprogressive),orIWILLBESTEALINGleftovers(futureprogressive),Ineedtoprovideatime-flag.

IwillbestealingleftoversfromtheofficerefrigeratortomorrowifIforgetmylunchagain.

IhadstolenleftoversoutoftheofficerefrigeratorbeforeIrealizedthattheybelongedtotheCEO.

Plantingatimeflagdoesn'tnecessarilymeannamingatime(6amorOctober12th).Youcanalsodoitbyplacingoneactionrelativetoanotheraction.

Iwasrunningthismorningwhileyouwerestillsawinglogs.Pastprogressive.

Iwasthinkingaboutyouwhenyoucamethroughthedoor.Pastprogressive.

Marthawillbesingingoperawhileyoutendtothecashregister.Futureprogressive.

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Whenyouhavefinishedyourbroccoli,youcanhavesomepie.Futureperfect.Ihaveeatenmybroccoli,andnowIwantsomepie.Perfect.

Whenyourolledoutofbedat6:00thismorning,Ihadalreadyrun,showered,anddressed.Pastperfect.

Whenyouusethesetenses,yousignaltoyourreadersthattheyneedtopayattentiontosomenuanceoftime.TheyneedtounderstandthatthisactionwasCOMPLETEatsomespecifictime,oritwasONGOINGatsomespecifictime.Askyourselfhowpreciseyouneedtobe.Ifyouaren'tcommunicatingsomenuanceoftime,don'taskyourreadertodecodeacomplexverbform.Here'safinalexample:

Ifweturnedaround,wewouldhavetotravelbackacrossanarrowbridgethathadnorailingsandwasmadeoflooseplanksthatHADMOVEDasweHADGONEacrossthemthefirsttime.IwasprettysureIHADSEENthetailendofacarthatHADPLUNGEDoffthebridgeintotheravinenosefirst.

Alloftheseverbformsaregrammaticallycorrect,butthey'reconfusing.Inthiscase,itmaybeworthtradingprecisionforsimplicity:

Ifweturnedaround,wewouldhavetotravelbackacrossanarrowbridgethathadnorailingsandwasmadeoflooseplanksthatMOVEDwhenweWENTacrossthemthefirsttime.IwasprettysureISAWthetailofacarthatHADPLUNGEDoffthebridgeintotheravinenosefirst.

Theoriginalconstructionismoreprecise,butthegrammardrawsattentiontoitself.Youdon'twantyourreaderstobethinkingaboutgrammar.Correctgrammarisbetterthanincorrectgrammar.Butwhatyoureallywantisgrammarthatisinvisibletothereader.

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Quiz1.13:VerbTenses

I.Thistimetomorrow,JohnBarberwillbewishinghehadchosenadifferentnemesis.Whatisthetimeflaginthissentence?II.Irealizedafterafewminutesthatmydaddidnotdriveawaybutwassittinginthecarwatching.Editthissentencesothattheverbtensesmakesensetogether.Whereistheflagonthetimeline?III.Thistimetomorrow,JohnBarberwillbewishinghechoseadifferentnemesis.Whatistheverbtenseinthissentence? A.Past B.Pastperfect C.Pastprogressive D.Present E.Presentperfect F.Presentprogressive G.Future H.Futureperfect I.Futureprogressive

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IV.ByDecember11,1941,justfourdaysafterthebombingofPearlHarbor,theUnitedStateshaddeclaredwaronbothJapanandGermany.Whatistheverbtenseofthissentence? A.Past B.Pastperfect C.Pastprogressive D.Present E.Presentperfect F.Presentprogressive G.Future H.Futureperfect I.FutureprogressiveV.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourstarted.Ifeltbadformywife;shewashanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleftthehouse. A.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourHADSTARTED.Ifeltbad formywife;shewashanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleftthehouse. B.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourstarted.Ifeltbadformy wife;sheHADBEENhanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleftthehouse. C.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourstarted.Ifeltbadfor mywife;shewashanginglaundryoutsidewhenIHADLEFTthehouse. D.Nochangeisnecessary.VI.Normally,Ienjoygardening,butthissummeracolonyofhornetstookownershipofouryard,andtheydidnottakekindlytotrespassers.Thissentencecontainsthreeverbs.Whichofthesethreeverbswouldyouchangetopastperfectsoastoclarifythemeaning?Checkallthatapply. A.ChangeIenjoyedgardeningtoIhadenjoyedgardening. B.Changetookownershiptohadtakenownership. C.Changedidnottakekindlytohadnottakenkindly. D.It’sbetteras-isthanwithachange.

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LectureNotes

Module1,Lesson14:Review

Dadjokesaside,Iamgoingtorepeatmyself.Inthismodule,I’vekeptthematerialintentionallysimple.Thenextmodulewillquicklybecomecomplex.Becauselanguageiscomplex,it’simportantthatyoukeepthingssimplewhereyoucan.Hereonthemainline,youcankeepthingssimple.Figureoutwheretheactionofyoursentenceis.Makeitahabittoexpressthatactionasaverb,andtheactorasthesubjectofthatverb.Infollowingmodules,we’lllearnhowtoloadactionsandactorsintoothergrammaticalstructuresbesidesthemainline.Whatyou’velearnednow—expressingsubjectsandactionsinmainclauses—isanimportanthabittodevelop.Remember:Yourreaderpaysextraattentiontothemainsubjectandverbofasentence.Yourreaderwilltrustyourwritingifitmovesfromsubjecttoverbtocomplement.Youcanaddcomplexityaftergainingthattrust.Expressactioninthesubject-verbnexus.Gettothesubjectearlyinthesentence.Keepsubjectsclosetoverbs.Gettothesubject-verbnexusquickly.Ifyouaskthereadertodoextrawork,makesureyouhaveagoodreason.Waitingforthesubject,usingnominalizations,andusingthepassivevoiceallcreateworkforthereader.IfyouASKmoreofthereader,youhavetoGIVEhermore.

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Whenwemovetomodifiersinthenextmodule,we’llstillpaycloseattentiontothemainline.Everythingyou’velearnedaboutthemainlinealsoappliestosubordinateclauses.Nothinggetswastedinawriter’sgrammar.

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson1:Introduction

Wearefinallyreadytoleavethemainlineofthesentenceandmoveontomodifiers.Modifiersarewords,phrases,orclausesthatdescribeotherwordsorphrases.Modifierstellwhatkindofpersonorthingisactingorbeingactedupon,andhowthey’reacting.Adjectivesandadverbsareobviousexamplesofmodifiers.Considerthissentence:Thebluetruckrumbledloudly.

ThemainclauseisThetruckrumbled.Blueisanadjectivemodifyingtruck,narrowingthesubject.Whichtruckrumbled?Thebluetruck.Loudlyisanadverbmodifyingrumbled.Howdidthetruckrumble?Loudly.Adverbialmodifiersanswerthesequestionsaboutverbs(andsometimesadjectivesorotheradverbs):

• HOW?• WHERE?• WHY?• TOWHATEXTENT?

Adjectivalmodifiersanswerthesequestionsaboutnouns:

• WHICHONE?• WHATKIND?• HOWMANY?

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Alotofinterestinasentencederivesfromthemodifiers.Ratherthanthinkingofadverbsandadjectivesasornamentationinasentence,thinkofthemasawayofnarrowingmeaning.Modifiershelpyourwritingbemoreprecise.Describingatruckasabluetrucknarrowsdownthebroadcategoryoftruckconsiderably,butsaying“blueFordtruck”narrowsitevenmore.Lookatthissentence:TheraccoonthatIwastellingyouabout,withthemissingearandtheunusuallybushytail,rattledthetrashcanbehindmygaragewithaninsistencethatborderedonobsession.

Themainclauseis:Raccoonrattledtrashcan.Alltheotherwordsaremodifiers.ThatIwastellingyouaboutisaclause.Ithasaverb(wastelling)andasubject(I).Itmodifiesanoun(ittellswhichraccoon),soitisanadjectivalclause.Withthemissingearandtheunusuallybushytailisaphrase,becauseitdoesn’thaveaverb.Ithasapreposition(with)andacompoundobject(earandtail),soit’saprepositionalphrasemodifyingraccoon(again,ittellswhichraccoon).Withintheprepositionalphrase,theadjectivemissingmodifiesear.Bushytellsuswhatkindoftail.Behindmygarageisanotherprepositionalphrase.Youcouldsayit’sadjectival(tellinguswhichtrashcan)ormaybeadverbial(tellinguswheretheraccoonwasrattling).Withaninsistenceisanotheradverbialprepositionalphrase(howdidherattle?).Thatborderedisanadjectivalclausemodifyinginsistence(whatkindofinsistence?).Anobsessionisanadverbialprepositionalphrase(howdiditborder?).

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Theimportantskillistobeabletoidentifywhataparticularphraseorclauseismodifying.Whatquestionisitanswering?LetNounsandVerbsCarrytheFreightWhileadjectives,adverbs,andothermodifiersareanimportantwaytoadddescription,thereisamorepowerfulway.Nounsandverbsshouldcarrythefreightofyourwriting.Hereisanexample:MybrotherTimwastheonlyboyandarevelationtoallofus.Heatetemperapaint,suckingitstraightfromthebrush.Heclimbedontothediningroomtableandjumpedoffofit,ashighashecould,overandoverandover,whileourmiddlesisterRachelandItriedtodoschoolwork.HefellintothewaterfountainattheBotanicalGardens.Hesometimesplayedsohardthathethrewupinthegrass,andthenwentrightbacktoplaying.Timissuckingpaint,jumpingoffthediningroomtable,fallingintothewaterfountain,throwingup,goingrightbacktoplaying.Therelentlessmovementinthisshortpassagemimicstherelentlessmovementofthelittleboy.Butifyoulookclosely,you’llnoticetherearen’talotofadjectivesandadverbs.ThewriterissuccessfulinthispassagebecauseshehastakenthetimetoenvisionwhatitlookslikewhenherlittlebrotherTimplays.Aftershehadthatvisionfixed,shewentlookingforthebestverbstodescribethatvision.Thisisjuststraight-ahead,workmanlikewriting,andtheresultisfantastic.

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson2:AdjectivesandAdverbs

AdjectivesandAdjectivalsAnadjectiveisawordthatmodifiesanoun.Adjectives(andadjectivalphrasesandclauses)answerthreequestions:WHATKIND?WHICHONE?HOWMANY?InEnglish,anadjectiveappearsimmediatelybeforethenounitmodifiesasin,Theyellowflower.AsanEnglishspeaker,youalreadyknowthis.Nooneaccidentallysays,“Thefloweryellow,”or“Yellowtheflower.”Apredicateadjectivecomesafterthelinkingverb:Mycatisenthusiastic.Enthusiasticisanadjectivebeingusedaspredicatecomplement.Theonlythingthatmaycomebetweenanounanditsadjectiveisanotheradjectivemodifyingthesamenoun.Forexample:Myenthusiastic,playfulcatpounces.CommasBetweenAdjectivesinaSeriesHowdoyoupunctuatemultipleadjectives?Whenyouhavetwoormoreadjectivesinarow,youmightneedtoseparatethemwithcommas.Ifitwouldmakesensetoputtheword“and”betweentheadjectives,thenyoushouldputacommabetweenthem.Myenthusiasticandplayfulcatcouldwork,soyouneedacommabetweentheadjectives.Butyouwouldn’tsayMyenthusiasticandSiamesecat,soyoudon’tneedacommabetweenenthusiasticandSiameseeventhoughtheyarebothadjectives.Anotherruleofthumb:ifyoucanreversetheorderoftheadjectives,separatethemwithacomma.(Youcouldsayplayful,enthusiasticcatjustaseasilyasyoucouldsayenthusiastic,playfulcat,soyouneedthecommathere.)Ifyoucan'treversetheorderoftheadjectives,

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don'tseparatethemwithacomma.(Youcouldn'tsaymySiameseenthusiasticcat,soyoudon'tneedacomma.)OtherAdjectivalsOtheradjectivals(prepositionalphrases,infinitivephrases,participialphrases,adjectiveclauses)comeafterthenounstheymodify.TheflowersthatKengavetoBarbiemadehersneeze.Mydesiretowinahot-dog-eatingcontestgotthebetterofmydesiretostaythin.Thedogwiththediamondcollarstilldrinksfromthetoilet.Ultimately,ALLadjectivalsneedtobeascloseaspossibletothenounstheymodify.AdverbsandAdverbialsAnadverbisawordthatmodifiesaverb,anadjective,oranotheradverb.Adverbsoftenendin–ly,butnotalways.Youcanusuallychangeanadjectiveintoanadverbbyadding–ly:gladbecomesgladly.Glumbecomesglumly.However,fortherestofthislessonwewillbelookingattheadverbsthatDON’Tendin–ly.Thenextlessonaddresses-lyadverbs.Adverbsansweroneoffivequestions:HOW?WHY?WHEN?WHERE?TOWHATEXTENT?Ingeneral,adverbsendingin–lyanswertheHOWquestion:Thebirdsanggloomily.IwillgladlypayyouTuesdayforahamburgertoday.TherearesomeotheradverbsthatanswerHOW(suchassideways.Howwasthecarturned?Thecarwasturnedsideways).TheWHYquestiontendstobeansweredbyadverbialphrasesandclauses.So,we’regoingtomainlylookattheWHEN,WHERE,andTOWHATEXTENTadverbsfornow.AdverbsansweringWHEN?Now,tomorrow,yesterday,soon,never,late,early,often,seldom,always,usually,arealladverbsthatanswerthequestionWHEN?I'mdonetalkingtoyounow.WhenamIdonetalkingtoyou?Now. AdverbsansweringWHERE?Here,there,everywhere,anywherearealladverbsthattellWHEREanactionhappened.Squirrelswererunningeverywhere.Whereweresquirrelsrunning?Everywhere.

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Inside,outside,uphill,downhill,upriver,downriver,left,right:thissortofadverbalsoanswersthequestionWHERE?AdverbsansweringTOWHATEXTENT?InansweringthequestionTOWHATEXTENT?,adverbscaneitherintensifyordialdownanaction.Alot,completely,heartily,andabsolutelyallintensifyanaction.Kindof,only,just,almost,somewhat,andsortofallminimizeanaction.MostadverbsthatmodifyadjectivesorotheradverbsareansweringtheTOWHATEXTENTquestion.Forexample,Youlookveryprettytonight,orYoulookkindofhandsome.Wordsliketheseareusefulandnecessary,andyouprobablydon'tneedtoworryaboutover-usingtheminyourwriting.The-lyadverbsrequiremorecaution.Theywillbethesubjectofthenextlesson.

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Quiz2.2:AdjectivesandAdverbs

I.Inthehighlightedadjectivepairsbelow,circletheonesthatneedcommas. A.theplaingoldband

B.ripesweetberries

C.longtediousplanningmeeting

D.longtediousplanningmeeting

E.basichumandecency

F.Thefatsoftsheepnibbledsweetspringgrass.

G.Thefatsoftsheepnibbledsweetspringgrass.

II.Inthehighlightedwordgroupsbelow,circletheonesthatneedhyphens. A.Anambulancedroveontheshoulderofthetrafficcloggedroad.

B.Mytwoyearoldnephewisstillunemployed.

C.Mynephewistwoyearsoldandstillliveswithhisparents.

D.Hescratcheduphisloaferswalkingthroughtheforest.

E.Exceptforhisscratcheduploafers,heseemednonetheworseforhisexperience.

F.Theclown’sheavilypaintedfaceloomedintomynightmare.

G.Theclown’sheavilymadeupfaceloomedintomynightmare.

H.Theclown’shandpaintedfaceloomedintomynightmare.

I.ThecouplehadmadeupbeforeIevenrealizedtheywerefighting.

J.Thesearemyfoxhuntingpants.

K.Doyouexpectmetobelievethisclearlyimpossiblestory?

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III.Whichquestionsdoadjectivesansweraboutthenounstheymodify? A.How?

B.Howmany?

C.Towhatextent?

D.Whatkind?

E.When?

F.Where?

G.Whichone?

H.Why?

IV.JohnBarbercriedsloppily. 1.Istheitalicwordanadjectiveoranadverb? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswerabouttheworditmodifies?(Whichone?What kind?Howmany?How?When?Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

V.Thelazygoatatewhateverwasclosesttoit. 1.Istheitalicwordanadjectiveoranadverb? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswerabouttheworditmodifies?(Whichone?What kind?Howmany?How?When?Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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VI.Iwillcallyoutomorrow. 1.Istheitalicwordanadjectiveoranadverb? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswerabouttheworditmodifies?(Whichone?What kind?Howmany?How?When?Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson3:What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?

We'veseenthatnotalladverbsendin-ly.However,manyadverbsareformedbyadding-lytotheendofanadjective.IcouldsayThesullencashierhandedovermyhappymeal.Inthatcase,sullenisanadjectivedescribingthecashier.OrIcouldaddan-lytosullentomakeitanadverb.Thecashiersullenlyhandedovermyhappymeal.Thatadverbsullenlydescribeshowthecashierperformedtheactionofhandingovermyhappymeal.Whenadverbsandadverbialsaremodifyingaverb,theyarehighlymoveable.Theycouldbeatthebeginningoftheclauses,rightbeforetheverb,orattheendoftheclause.

• Sullenly,thecashierhandedmemyhappymeal.• Thecashiersullenlyhandedmemyhappymeal.• Thecashierhandedmemyhappymealsullenly.

Writersareoftentoldnottousetoomanyadverbs.Thisisgoodadviceinprinciple,butIuseadverbsallthetime.Sowhydowritingteachersdiscouragetheuseofadverbs?1.Adverbscanbreedlazinessonthepartofthewriter.We'vealreadytalkedalotaboutusingpreciseverbs.Sometimeswritersuseanadverbinsteadoflookingforthemostpreciseverb.Forexample:"Achmedwalkedintotheroomloudly,"insteadof,"Achmedstormedintotheroom,"or"Achmedstompedintotheroom."2.Grammaticalandotherwritingmistakestendtohappenaroundadverbs.Mypracticeistoseekoutthemostpreciseverbsandresorttoadverbsonlywhenthebestverbsneedalittleextrahelp.Remember:Letnounsandverbscarrythefreight.Startwiththemainline—subjects,verbs,andobjects.

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Alsobearinmindthatadjectivesandadverbsaren'tyouronlyoptionfordescription.Intherestofthisunitwe'lllookatprepositionalphrases,participialphrases,infinitivephrasesandclauses,etc.

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Quiz2.3:What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?

I.TheymaybedigitallyconnectedtotheInternet,butrelationallytheyaredisconnectedfromoneanother.Considerthoseadverbsdigitallyandrelationally.Doyoufindthemhelpful?Whyorwhynot?II.Amomentlaterhisdooropened,thenshutloudly.Considertheadverbloudly.Doesitcontributetothesentenceordetractfromit?III.Shequicklyhalf-rantothephone.Considertheadverbquickly.Hownecessaryisit?

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IV.Idon’tbelievetheconnectionbetweenartandlifecaneverbefinallyorevenverysatisfactorilyresolved.Considertheadverbsfinallyandsatisfactorily.Aretheyhelpfulhere?V.Hebouncedinafranticmanner,yippingandbarking.Reworkthissentence,usinganadverbinplaceoftheprepositionalphrase,inafranticmanner.

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson4:PrepositionalPhrases(Part1)

"Inourworld,"saidEustace,"astarisahugeballofflaminggas.""Eveninyourworld,myson,thatisnotwhatastarisbutonlywhatitismadeof."

-TheVoyageoftheDawnTreader

ThereisagreatmomentfromC.S.Lewis'sVoyageoftheDawnTreaderwhenLucyandEustacemeetanoldmannamedRamandu,whoturnsouttobearetiredstar.HeexplainstoEustacethataflamingballofgasisonlywhatastarismadeof,notwhatitis.Inthisunit,we'vetalkedalotaboutwhatdifferentmodifiersaremadeof,butnotreallywhattheyare.Whattheyarehasmoretodowithhowtheyfunction,howtheymakeconnectionsinthemindofareader.Witheachtypeofmodifier,wewilltalkabouttheirconstruction/form,butthenwewillmoveontohowtheyfunction.Whatisaprepositionalphrasemadeof?Preposition+NounThereareaboutahundredprepositionsintheEnglishlanguage,butherearethetop45:

About Beyond Into ToAbove By Like TowardsAcross Concerning Near Under After Despite Of UntilAgainst Down Off UpAlong During On UponAmong Except Out WithAround Following Over WithinAt For Plus WithoutBefore From SinceBehind In ThroughBetween Including Throughout

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If you're not sure if aword is functioning as a preposition, you can use this PrepositionFinder:Therabbitran__________thewoodpile.Anywordthatfitsinthatblankisapreposition.Therearealsoafewprepositionsthatdon'tfitinthePrepositionFinder,butanywordthatdoesfitintheblankisapreposition.The prepositions that don't fit in the Preposition Finder are time-related prepositions(before, during, after, since), and prepositions describing logical relationships (except,concerning,including,plus,minus).ThereisonemoreprepositionthatdoesnotfitinthePrepositionFinder,anditisthemostcommonprepositionofall:OF.Thewordofdoesnotfitintotheprepositionfinder,soyoujusthavetorememberit.Sothen,ifyoucanrememberPrepositionFinderplusof,youcanaccountforabout98%oftheoccurrencesofprepositions.AprepositionisALWAYSfollowedbyanounorpronoun.

• Preposition+Noun=PrepositionalPhrase(insidethewardrobe,aftertheconcert,withfortitude)

ThatnouninthePrepositionalPhraseisknownastheObjectofthePreposition.TheObjectofthePrepositionmayhavemodifiers.(insidethebigwardrobe,insidethebigwardrobeinthespareroom).Thesemodifiersareconsideredtobepartoftheprepositionalphrase.Ifyouseea"preposition"thatisnotfollowedbyanounorpronoun,itisnotservingasapreposition;itisprobablyservingasanadverb.

• Thesquirrelranaroundthetree.(Inthissentence,aroundservesasapreposition,theheadoftheprepositionalphrase,aroundthetree.)

• Thesquirrelranaround.(Inthissentence,aroundservesasanadverbbecauseitisnotfollowedbyanoun.)

Thewordpreposition=pre(before)+position.It'ssittinginthepre-position,beforeanoun.A preposition always puts a noun in relationshipwith another noun, verb, adjective, oradverb.

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Theprepositionswelistedearlieralldescriberelationships:

SpatialRelationships

Above,Below,Behind,Between,Among,

etc.

TimeRelationships

Before,During,After,Since,etc.

LogicalRelationships

Except,Despite,Concerning,etc.

Relationshipof

owning/belonging/attachment

Of

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson5:PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)

Prepositionalphraseshavetwofunctions:

1. Adjectivalfunction:tellingusWHICHONE,WHATKIND,orHOWMANYaboutanoun.

2. Adverbialfunction:tellingusHOW,WHERE,WHEN,WHY,orTOWHATEXTENT,aboutaverb(oranadjectiveoranotheradverb).

Anytimeyouseeaprepositionalphrase,youknowitwillansweroneofthosequestions.

A.Edmundsteppedinsidethewardrobe. Thephraseinsidethewardrobeis_______________________,answeringthequestion _______________________didEdmundstep?

B.Thefursinsidethewardrobeweresofttothetouch. Thephraseinsidethewardrobeis__________________________,answeringthequestion _________________________furs?[Answers:A.adverbial;where.B.adjectival,which.]MovabilityIsaCluetotheFunctionofaPrepositionalPhraseRemember,adverbialsmodifyingverbsarefreetomoveaboutthecabin,butadjectivalsandadverbialsmodifyingadjectivesoradverbsmustcomeimmediatelyafterthewordstheymodify.Sowhenyouaretryingtofigureoutwhatfunctionamodifierserves,it’sagoodideatostartbylookingatwhatisimmediatelybeforeit.

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Inyourownsentences,whenyourealizethatyoumeantforanadjectivaltomodifyagivennoun,andit’snotrightnexttothatnoun,you’veprobablygotsomeworktodo.Let'slookatanotherexample,thisonefromGrouchoMarx:

LastnightIshotanelephantinmypajamas.Howhegotintomypajamas,I'llneverknow.

A.Whatistheprepositionalphraseinthefirstsentence?_______________________________________.B.Whatfunctiondoestheprepositionalphraseserve?__________________________________________.[Answers:A.inmypajamas.B.youmighthaveansweredadverbialoradjectival.]Thelogicsuggeststhatthephraseisadverbial,describingHOWGrouchMarxshottheelephant.Butgrammaticallyspeaking,inmypajamascouldbeadjectival,tellingusWHICHelephant.Anditcomesimmediatelyafterelephant,theproperlocationforanadjectivephrasemodifyingelephant.Ontheotherhand,ifthephraseisadverbial,itcaneasilybeattheendofthesentence,farfromtheverbitmodifies.Onlywhenyoureadthesecondsentencedoyourealizethatthephraseinmypajamasisindeedadjectival,tellingushowtheelephantwasdressed.Humorisallaboutgoofylogic.Grammarreflectslogic.Soitshouldbenosurprisethatgoofygrammarisoftenthebasisofjokes.Whydoprepositionalphraseshaveabadreputation?Writersareoftentoldtogetridofprepositionalphrases,justastheyareoftentoldtogetridofto-beverbs.However,thisistreatingasymptomasifitweretheproblem.Considerthisexample:

Iamawareofyourneedfortransportation.Thisnot-so-greatsentencehastwoprepositionalphrases(ofyourneed,andfortransportation)thataccountformorethanhalfofthewordsinthesentence.Buttherealproblemhereisn'ttheprepositionalphrasesoreventheto-beverb(am).Theproblemthenominalization.Getridofthenominalizationandtheto-beverbandprepositionalphrasesgowithit.

Iknowyouneedtransportation.Or,Iknowyouneedacar.

Hereisanotherexample:BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.

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What’sourprepositionalphrase?It'sbyKen.Kenistheactor;yetheistuckedawayastheobjectoftheprepositionattheveryendofthesentence.That’saproblem.Buttheprepositionalphraseisasymptom,nottheproblem.Fixthepassivevoice,andboththeprepositionalphraseandtheto-beverbgoaway:

KengaveBarbieflowers.Inbothofthosecases,nominalizationandpassivevoice,theprepositionalphraseisTECHNICALLYamodifier,butonlytechnically.It’snotactuallyaddingtothesentence.It'smakingthingslessconcrete,hardertoenvision.Asarealmodifier,aprepositionalphrasecanbeaverypowerfulandusefulconstruction.Thereisnoshameinaprepositionalphrase,butdon’tgocrazy.Youdon’twanttonestprepositionalphraseinsideprepositionalphraseinsideprepositionalphrase,eventhoughEnglishgrammarallowsforthat.Butremember:Englishgrammaralwaysgivesyouanotherwaytoskinacat.We’relookingatallthesedifferentkindsofmodifierssoyouwillhavemoreoptionsforexpressingyourselfwithclarityandstyle.

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Quiz2.5:PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)

I.Youcanhaveaturnafterme. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)II.Afterme,youcanhaveaturn. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

III.JohnBarberranintotheburningbuildingtosavehisBeanieBabycollection. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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IV.Acacophonyofbirdsonggreetedus. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

V.Themoneyunderthemattressismylifesavings. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

VI.Ihidthemoneyunderthemattress. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

VII.Abuzzingboxfansatonthefloornearby. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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VIII.HelenlookedatSadiewithastraightface. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

IX.Helenlookedatthegirlwiththemermaidtattoo. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

X.Helenlookedatthegirlwithbinoculars. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson6:Participles

Whatdoyoucallitwhenyouchangeaverbtoanoun?_________________________________________.Whatdoyoucallitwhenyouchangeaverbtoamodifier?_____________________________________.[Answers:A.Nominalization.B.Aparticiple.]I'vesaidsomeprettynastythingsaboutnominalizationoverthepastlessons,buttheabilitytochangewordsfromonepartofspeechtoanotherisoneofthethingsthatgiveslanguageitstremendousflexibility.Let'slookathowtwoexamplesimprovewhenyouchangetheverbintoaparticiple:

Adogwasbarking.Hewokemeup.⤍Abarkingdogwokemeup. Thefiremanisrunning.Heneedstograbthehose.⤍Therunningfiremanneedsto grabthehose.Likeeveryotheradjectival,participlesanswerthequestionsWHICHONE?WHATKIND?

• Whichdog?Thebarkingdog.• Whichfireman?Therunningfireman.

Thesekindsofparticiplesthatendin-ingarepresentparticiples.Let'sconsidersomepastparticiples:Mashedpotatoes.Splitpeas.Brokenpromises.Enragedllamas.Raisedhands.Tornpaper.Apastparticiplelookslikethepasttenseformoftheverb.It'stechnicallythefourthprincipalpartofaverb.

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Thefourthprincipalpartistheformaverbtakesifyouputthehelpingverb"have"or"had"infrontofit:Italked/Ihavetalked.Iwalked/Ihavewalked.Ispent/Ihavespent.Forirregularverbs,thepasttenseandfourthprincipalpartaredifferent:Igave/Ihavegiven.Isang/Ihavesung.Iwent/Ihavegone.Pastparticipleshavealotincommonwithpassiveverbs:

• Thepotatoesweremashed.(passive)mashedpotatoes(pastparticiple)• Thepapergottorn.(passive)tornpaper(pastparticiple)

Bythesametoken,presentparticiples(theonesthatendin-ing)arebeingperformedbytheirsubject,sotheyareactive:

• Thebarkingdog• Therunningman

Thoughtheyaremodifiers,participlesretainsomeofthepropertiesofverbs.Mostimportantly,theycanbemodifiedbyadverbsandadverbials,andtheycantakedirectobjects.Aparticipletogetherwithamodifierand/oranobjectconstitutesaparticipialphrase.Participialphraseswillbethesubjectofthenextlesson.A.Participlesmodify________________________________________________________________________________.B.Aparticiplegoes__________________________________________________________________________________. [Answers:A.Nounsandonlynouns.B.Immediatelybeforethenounitmodifies.(Thereareexceptions,suchasIheardadogbarking.Butthey’reuncommon.)]Anytimeyouusetwowordsasaparticipletheyshouldbehyphenated.

Dog-earedpage Well-lovedgrammarinstructor

Oft-repeatedwritingadviceHowcanyoutellapastparticipleapartfromotherusesofthe4thprinciplepart?

1. Therewon'tbeahelpingverb(had,has,willhave)2. Aparticiplecan'thaveasubject

Youcantellapresentparticipleapartfromother-ingverbs(2ndprinciplepartverbs)inthesameway:

1. Noto-be/helpingverb2. Nosubject

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson7:ParticipialPhrasesBecausetheystartedoutlifeasverbs,participlesretainmanyofthepropertiesofverbs.Theycantakedirectandindirectobjects.Theycanbemodifiedbyadverbials.Whenyouaddanobjectoranadverbialtoaparticiple,itbecomesaparticipialphrase.Justlikeasimpleparticiple,theparticipialphraseonlyhasonejob:itmodifiesanoun.However,whereasasimpleparticiplealmostalwaysappearsbeforethenounitmodifies(asinmashedpotatoes),aparticipialphraseusuallyappearsafter:

Potatoesmashedwithmybarehands.Theparticipialphrasemashedwithmybarehandsisadjectival,tellinguswhatkindofpotatoes.ButWITHINthatadjectivalphrase,theprepositionalphrasewithmybarehandsisadverbial,modifyingmashed.Considerthissentence:

Atruckhaulingchickensalmostflattenedme.Here'sthediagram:

A.Whatistheparticipialphrase?_________________________________________________________________.B.Whatisthemainverbofthesentence?________________________________________________________.

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C.Whatisthesubjectofthesentence?____________________________________________________________.D.Whatisthedirectobjectofthesentence?______________________________________________________.E.Whatisthedirectobjectoftheparticiple,“hauling”?_________________________________________.[Answers:A.haulingchickens.B.flattened.C.truck.D.me.E.chickens.]NoticethattheDirectObjectoftheparticiple(intheaboveinstance,chickens)hasnorelationtotheDirectObjectofthemainclause(intheaboveinstance,me).TheImportanceofProximityWhenyouaddobjectsand/oradverbials,theparticiple—nowaparticipialphrase—movesfromthespotimmediatelyinfrontofthenountothespotimmediatelyafterthenoun.Butstill,it’simmediatelyadjacent.Iftheparticipialphrasestartsdriftingawayfromthenounitmodifies,badthingsstarthappening.Adjectivals,remember,aren’tverymovable.Theyneedtobeveryclosetothenounstheymodify.Itisnotunusualforaparticipialphrasetomovetothebeginningofaclause.Butifitdoes,ithastomodifythesubjectoftheclause.Why?Becausethesubjectisthefirstnoun,rightthereaftertheopeningphrase:

• Convincedthatherfriendswereouttogether,MargaretworeadisguisetoSundayschool.

• Screaminglikeabanshee,thejewelerranfromtheroom.Inbothoftheaboveexamples,theopeningparticipialphrasemodifiesthesubject(Margaretisconvincedthatherfriendsareouttogether,andthejewelerisscreaminglikeabanshee).DanglingModifiersYoumayhaveheardofdanglingmodifiers.Whenasentencebeginswithanadjectivalphrase,andthatphrasedoesn'tmodifythesubject,themodifierdangles.Considerthisexample:

Turningoffthemaindragandontooneofthesidestreets,theoceancameintoview.A.Whyisturningadanglingparticiple?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.B.Howcouldwefixit?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

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[Answers:A.Lookforthesubject:ocean.Buttheoceandidn'tturnoffthemaindragontoasidestreet.B.Changethemodifiersothatit'snotaparticipialphrase.Asweturnedoffthemaindragandontoasidestreet,theoceancameintoview.]Danglingmodifiersareoftenfunny:

Lockedinavaultforfiftyyears,theownerofthejewelsdecidedtosellthem.[Possibleedit:Thejewelerdecidedtosellthejewelsthathadbeenlockedinavaultforfiftyyears.]

Or,

Plunging1,000feetintothegorge,wesawYosemiteFalls.[Possibleedit:WesawYosemiteFallsplunging1,000feetintothegorge.]

Inreview,

• Aparticipleisaverbthathasbeenturnedintoanadjective.

• Aparticipialphraseisaparticipleplusadirectobject(rarelyanindirectobject)and/oradverbialmodifiers.

• Ifaparticipialphraseisatthebeginningofthesentence,itmustmodifythesubjectofthatsentence.

• Iftheparticipialphraseatthebeginningofthesentencedoesn'tmodifythegrammaticalsubject,it'scalledadanglingmodifier.

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Quiz2.7:ParticipialPhrases

I.Wipingtheteafromhishandlebarmustache,thesmileofthishusbandiswideenoughtodriveatractorthrough.Wipingtheteafromhishandlebarmustacheisadanglingparticiple.Why?Howwouldyoufixit?II.OnawarmOctobermorning,stillbreakfastingonthepatio,abirdswoopeddownandlandedontheirtable.Stillbreakfastingonthepatioisadanglingmodifier.Explainwhy.Howwouldyoufixit?III.AfterfivehoursofansweringalltheERnurses’questionsbutnotgettingclarityonanyofmine,thedoctorfinallyenteredtheroom.Thisisnot,technicallyspeaking,adanglingmodifier,butitisasimilarproblem:it’snotthedoctorwhohasbeenansweringthenurses’questions,butthepatient.Howwouldyoufixit?

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IV.Allofourtempera-paintingwasdoneinthebackyard,half-clothed.Theparticiplehalf-clotheddangles.Explainhowthepassivevoicecontributestotheproblem.Howwouldyoufixthissentence?V.Theforestdampeningtheinsects’choruslikestagecurtainsdeadeninganorchestra’stuningbeforeaconcert.Explainwhytheabove“sentence”isafragmentratherthanasentence.Turnitintoasentence.VI.Thedogfollowedhimeverywherehewent,alternatingbetweenasetofgrowls,yips,andbarks.Thatphrasealternatingbetweenasetofgrowls,yips,andbarksgetsalittleawkward.Tryreworkingthissentencebyturningthenounsgrowls,yips,andbarks,intoparticiples.

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson8:InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrases

We'vebeentalkingabouthowthedifferentformsofaverbservedifferentfunctionsinasentence.Thosedifferentformsarecalledverbals.Therearethreekindsofverbals:PARTICIPLES

• Present(active)participlesendin-ing.• Past(passive)participlesendin-ed,-t,or-en.(4thprinciplepart).

GERUNDS

• We'lltalkaboutgerundsinthenextmodule.Theylookexactlylikepresentparticiples,butfunctionasnouns.

INFINITIVES

• Aninfinitiveisaverbthathastheword'to'infrontofit.Todrive.Tothink.Tobe.Tosmell.

To+verbistheformofaninfinitive,butwhatisitsfunction?Aparticipleisalwaysadjectival,andagerundisalwaysanounequivalent.Infinitives,however,canbeadjectival,adverbial,oranounequivalent.ThinkaboutthesongfromMaryPoppins,"ILovetoLaugh."Tolaughisaninfinitiveservingasadirectobject.Ilovewhat?Tolaugh.Sotheretheinfinitiveisanounequivalent.Howabouttheseexamples:

Ibroughtsomepopcorntoshare. Whatfunctiondoestoshareserve?It'samodifiertellingusWHATKINDof popcorn.Itisadjectival.

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DougMcKelveyisawritertowatch. Towatchisanadjective.Whatkindofwriter?Awritertowatch.

Iboughtthegarlictowardoffvampires. Towardoffisfunctioningadverbially.IttellsWHYIboughtthegarlic.Anotherwaytodistinguishadjectivalinfinitivesfromadverbialinfinitivesistoseewhetherornottheinfinitiveismoveable.Youcansay,Towardoffvampires,Iboughtthisgarlic.(Adverbial)Butyoucan'tsay,ToshareIbroughtthispopcorn.(Adjectival)A.Adjectivalinfinitivesalwaysappear____________________________________________________thenounstheymodify.B.Participlesusuallyappear____________________________thenounstheymodify.C.Participialphrasesusuallyappear___________________________________thenounstheymodify.[Answers:A.immediatelyafterB.beforeC.after(thoughitisnotunusualtoseethematthebeginningofaclause).]Onelastnoteonthesubjectofsplitinfinitives:Theruleagainstsplittinginfinitiveswasmadeupinthe18thcentury.Youcansplitaninfinitivewithanadverb(ie:tosecretlyeatsomecookiesor,toentirelydisregardthisarbitraryrule)ifyouwantto.Igenerallyavoidsplitinfinitivessoasnottodrawattentiontoapossiblegrammarerror.Tofixasplitinfinitive,simplymovetheadverb,asinfeelfreetodisregardentirelythisarbitraryrule.

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Quiz2.8:InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrases

I.Everyspring,blackbirdscometothemarshbesideourhousetonest.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)II.Myattemptstowinherlovewithtubasolosonlyannoyedher.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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III.Richieturnedtoleavequicklyashismompulledintothedriveway.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)IV.Thebestmushroomstoeatarethenon-poisonousones.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)V.Thetoweringcanopyblockedenoughsunlighttomaketheundergrowthsparse.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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VI.Alittlesoyandricevinegarisallyouneedtoseasonyourbroth.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)VII.I’dtradeitalltositatthebenchatthebendinthetrail.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson9:SubordinateClauses(Introduction)

Itisfinallytimetoturnourattentiontosubordinate(alsoknownasdependent)clauses.Remember,everyclausehasaSUBJECTandaVERB.Itmayhaveotherparts,buttobeaclauseitmusthavethosetwoparts.

WhenIrememberthatyouwerethepersonwhogavememyfirstjob,IfeelsorrythatIcalledyouamonster.

Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Ifeelsorry.(Subject,Verb,PredicateComplement.)Everythingelseinthesentencemodifiesthismainclause.Here'sadiagram:

Everythingbeforethecommainthissentenceispartofanadverbialclause,tellingusWHENthesubjectfeltsorry.Therearetwomoresubordinateclauseswithinit:thatyouwerethepersonandwhogavememyfirstjob.

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Thatyouwerethepersonisservingasadirectobjectforremember,soitisanounclause.ThisistheS-V-PredicateComplementclausepattern.WhogavememyfirstjobisanadjectivalclauseansweringthequestionWHICHperson.ThisistheS-V-IO-DOclausepattern.Whatisthedirectobject?Job.IndirectObject?Me.Thereisonemoresubordinateclauseinthesentence.Golookingforanotherverbandyouwillfindit.ThatIcalledyouamonster.Thisisanadverbialclause,modifyingsorry.IttellsWHYthesubjectissorry.Sointhisonesentence,we'veseensubordinateclausesfunctionasanadverb(HOW,WHEN,WHERE,WHY,TOWHATEXTENT),adjective(WHICHONE,WHATKIND,HOWMANY),andasanoun(asasubject,directobject,orobjectofthepreposition.)We'vealsoseenthatasubordinateclausecanconformtoanyofthefiveclausepatterns.HowSubordinateClausesandMainClausesDifferAmainclausecanstandalone,andasubordinateclausecan't.Theeasiestwaytotellthedifferenceistosayyouknowitwhenyouseeit.Ifeelsorryisawholesentence.WhenIremember,Thatyouwereaperson,Whogavememyfirstjob,andThatIcalledyouamonsterareallclauses,butnoneofthemcanstandalone.Usually,aclausecan'tstandalonebecauseitstartswitheitherarelativepronoun(suchasWHO)orasubordinatingconjunction(suchasTHAT).Subordinateclauseshelpyouincludealotofadditionalinformationaboutthemainactionofthesentenceandcangiveyouoptionsforexpressingideaswithdifferentshadesofmeaning.Subordinationisonewayofsignalingtoyourreaderwhichideasoractionsareprimary,andwhichonesarealittlelessimportant—or,literally,whichideasaredependentonotherideas.Oneideaistheindependentclause.Itcouldstandalonewithoutthoseotherclauses.Buttheotherclauses—thedependentclauses—alldependonthatmainclause.However,subordinateclausescomewithtwopotentialdangers:

1. Theycantemptyoutosticktoomuchinformationintooncesentence.2. Youcanaccidentallytuckawayimportantinformationintoasubordinateclausethat

maybedeservestobeasentenceallitsown.

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson10:AdjectiveClauses

AfewyearsagoIwroteabookcalledTheCharlatan’sBoy.ForthechaptertitlesIwentbacktoaveryoldtradition.Everychaptertitlewasaclausebeginningwiththephrase“inwhich.”

• Chapter2:InwhichIgetoutofthefeechietradeandbeginmyformaleducation.• Chapter4:InwhichIfindamama.• Chapter6:InwhichIruinafeller'shairdoandnearboutgetsmashedforit.

A.Howdoweknowthesechaptertitlesareclauses?________________________________________________________________________________________________________.B.Aretheyadjectivaloradverbialclauses?________________________________________________________________________________________________________.[Answers:A.Theyeachhaveasubjectandaverb.B.Adjectival.TheytellusWHICHchapter.]AnadjectiveclausealwayssitsascloseaspossibleAFTERthenounitmodifies.Lookfortheadjectivalclauseinthesenextexamples:

Themanwhorepairedmytricycleturnedouttobeastate-championjuggler.whorepairedmytricycle

Thestonethatthebuildersrejectedhasbecomethechiefcornerstone.thatthebuildersrejected

ThepersontowhomIgivethissceptershallbemysuccessor.towhomIgivethisscepter

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ThetownwhereIgrewupistheporkrindcapitaloftheworld.whereIgrewupThegiantwhosecheeseyoujustateisgoingtowakeupanyminutenow.whosecheeseyoujustate

TheyearswhentheSummerOlympicsareheldarealsopresidentialelectionyears.whentheSummerOlympicsareheld

Whatpatternsdidyounoticeinthoseexamples?

• theadjectiveclausecomesimmediatelyafterthenounitmodifies• theystartwithrelativepronouns("W"words)

RelativePronounsTherelativepronounsusedbyadjectiveclausesare:

• WHO• WHOM• WHOSE• WHICH• THAT• WHERE• WHEN

Relativepronounsconnecttheadjectiveclausetothemainclause.Theantecedentoftherelativepronounisthenouninthemainclausethattheadjectiveclauseismodifying.(Antecedent=thenounrenamedbyapronoun)Inthissentence,therelativepronounWHOrenamesthenounMAN,andtheclauseintroducedbyWHOmodifiesthenounMAN:

Themanwhorepairedmytricyclewasastate-championjuggler.Inthissentencediagram,thedottedlinemakescleartherelationshipbetweenthenounMANinthemainclauseandtherelativepronounWHOintheadjectiveclause.YoucanalsoseethattherelativepronounWHOisthesubjectoftheadjectiveclause.

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Orconsiderthissentence:

Thestonethatthebuildersrejectedhasbecomethechiefcornerstone.TherelativepronouninthissentenceisTHAT.

Inthesubordinateclause,whatistheverb?Rejected.Whorejected?Thebuilders.Sobuildersisthesubjectofthesubordinateclause.Thebuildersrejectedwhat?Theyrejectedthestone,whichinthesubordinateclausehasbeenrenamedthat.Sothatisthedirectobjectoftheadjectiveclause.Thestrangethinghereisthatnormallythedirectobjectcomesaftertheverb:Subject-Verb-Object.Butinanadjectiveclausetherelativepronouncomesfirst,whetheritisthesubject,object,orsomethingelse.Therelativepronouncanalsoserveastheobjectofthepreposition:

ThepersontowhomIgivemysceptershallbemysuccessor.Whomistheobjectoftheprepositionto.Thisistheonecase,bytheway,wheretherelativepronounisNOTthefirstwordofanadjectiveclause.Ifitistheobjectofthepreposition,theprepositionhastocomefirst(pre+position).Hereareafewmoreexamples:

Thegiantwhosecheeseyoujustatewillwakeupsoon.TherelativepronounWHOSEisanadjectivemodifyingCHEESE.

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Whichcheese?Thegiant'scheese.Therelativepronounwhoseisanadjectivemodifyingcheese.Whichcheese?Thegiant'scheese.

ThetownwhereIgrewupistheporkrindcapitaloftheworld.TherelativepronounWHEREservesasanadverb,telling(obviously)WHERE.Nevertheless,thewholeclauseisadjectival,tellingWHICHtown.

TheyearswhentheSummerOlympicsareheldarealsopresidentialelectionyears.Thissentenceisverysimilartotheprevioussentence:WHEN,therelativepronounintroducingtheadjectiveclause,servesanadverbialfunctionwithinitsclause.

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Quiz2.10:AdjectiveClauses

I.IwillpointtothegoatthatIlikebest.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:

1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,

adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?II.ThepostofficewhereIgotmystartisjustaroundthecornerfromhere.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:


adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?

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III.ThealligatoraboutwhichItoldyouisbackagain.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:


adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?IV.ThealligatorItoldyouaboutisbackagain.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:



V.Youwouldliketheplumberwhoinstalledouricemachine.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:


adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?VI.TheguywhosecarItotaledseemsannoyedwithme.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:



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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson11:AdverbClauses

Adverbialclausesstartwithsubordinatingconjunctions.Theseconjunctionsarecalledsubordinatingbecausewhentheysitinfrontofaclausethatisotherwiseindependent,theclause,asifbymagic,isrendereddependentorsubordinate.Themainclauseistransformedintoanadverbialclause.Here'samainclause:

Antonioeatssushi.Thisclausecanstandalone.Itisaperfectlygoodsentence.Butifyouputthesubordinatingconjunctionwheninfrontofit,itsuddenlybecomesasubordinate(ordependent)clause:

WhenAntonioeatssushiThisclausecannotstandaloneasasentence.Youneedtoattachittoanindependentclausebeforeyouturnitlooseinthewild:

WhenAntonioeatssushi,hefeelssophisticated.HereisapartiallistofsubordinatingclausesinEnglish:

After ThanAlthough ThatAs ThoughAsif UnlessBecause UntilBefore WhenIf WheneverInorderthat WhereLest WhereverSince WhetherSothat While

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Youdon'tneedtobotherwithmemorizingthislist.Evenifyoudid,youwouldonlybememorizingapartiallist.Butgraspthisidea:Youcantakeanyindependentclausethathaseverbeenwritten,stickoneofthesewordsinfrontofit,andthatindependentclauseisnowanadverbialclausetellingHOW,WHEN,WHERE,WHY,orTOWHATEXTENT.Itusedtofunctionasasentence,butnowitisanadverb.CoordinationandSubordinationRememberthecoordinatingconjunctions:for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so.Whenyouuseacoordinatingconjunctiontoconnecttwoclausesintoacompoundsentence,youcommunicatetoyourreaderthatthetwoclausesareofequalweightandimportance.

IwantedVietnamesefood,butChuckywantedahotdog.

Thedogswaminthecanal,andthealligatorlurkednearby.

Youcancleanupyourroom,oryoucanforgetaboutgoingtothemoviestonight.Thecoordinatingconjunctionsbalancetwoactionsorideas,creatingacompoundsentence.Subordinatingconjunctionscreatemorecomplexrelationshipsbetweenactionsorideas—ahierarchy,acause-and-effect,atimesequence,aspatialrelationship,acontrast.

Whilethedogswaminthecanal,analligatorlurkednearby.

Becausethedogswamincanal,thealligatorlurkednearby.

Wheneverthedogswaminthecanal,thealligatorlurkednearby.Eachofthoseexamplesgivemoreweighttothesecondidea,makingitthemainclauseofthesentence.Butmaybewewanttomakethefirstclausetheindependentone:

Thedogswaminthecanalthoughthealligatorlurkednearby.

Thedogswaminthecanalunlessthealligatorlurkednearby.Thoseadverbialclausesnuancetowhatwasabalancedcompoundsentence.InthelastlessonyousawthattherelativepronounatthebeginningofanadjectiveclausehasagrammaticalfunctionwithinthesubordinateclauseANDithasapronoun-antecedentrelationshipwithanouninthemainclause.Thatrelativepronounstraddlesbothclauses.ThesubordinateconjunctionhasagrammaticalfunctioninNEITHERthesubordinateclausenorthemainclause.Likeacoordinatingconjunction,asubordinatingconjunctionconnectstwoclauseswithoutparticipatinginthegrammarofeitherone.

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• Whenyoudiagramacompoundsentence(twoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunction),thecoordinatingconjunctionsitsonadottedlinebetweenthetwoindependentclauses.

• Whenyoudiagramacomplexsentencewithanadverbialclause,thesubordinatingconjunctionalsositsonadottedlinebetweenthetwoclauses.

• Inacomplexsentencewithanadjectivalclause,therelativepronoun,you'llremember,hastohaveanantecedentonthemainclauseANDitplaysagrammaticalroleinthesubordinateclause.

Asyoucanseefromthediagramsbelow,insignificantwaysacomplexsentencewithanadverbialclausehasmoreincommonwithacompoundsentencethanwithacomplexsentencewithanadjectiveclause.Thisisacompoundsentence:

Thedogswaminthecanal,andthealligatorswamnearby.Thisisacomplexsentencewithanadverbialphrase:

Thedogswaminthecanalthoughthealligatorlurkednearby.

Noticehowsimilarthisdiagramlookstothediagramofthecompoundsentence;theonlydifferenceisthedifferentconjunction.

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Thisisacomplexsentencewithanadjectiveclause:

Thealligatorthatlurkedintheweedswatchedthedogswimminginthecanal.

Therelativepronouninthissentencefunctionsverydifferentlyfromthesubordinatingconjunctioninthesentencebeforeit.Likealladverbs,adverbialclausesaremoveablewhentheymodifyaverb.Ifyouputyouradverbialclauseatthebeginningofthesentence,youneedacommabeforethemainclausestarts.Also,anadverbialclausecanmodifyanadjectiveoranadverb,though,aswithotheradverbialsmodifyingadjectivesandadverbs,itisnotmoveable.ConsiderthesentenceAreyousurethatthisisallowed?Theclausethatthisisallowedisadverbial,modifyingsure.

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Let'sreview.A.Anadverbialclauselooksjustlikeanindependentclause,exceptthatithasa___________________________________________________________________________atthebeginning.B.Unliketherelativepronouninanadjectiveclause,thissubordinatingconjunction__________________________________serveagrammaticalfunctionwithintheclause.C.Theadverbialclausealwaysanswersoneoftheadverbquestions:__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.D.Ifyouradverbialclausemodifiesaverb,itis________________________________________.[Answers:A.Subordinatingconjunction.B.doesnot.C.HOW,WHERE,WHEN,WHY,TOWHATEXTENT.D.moveable.]

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Quiz2.11:AdverbClauses

I.AfterJohnBarbershowedup,thepartywasprettylame.1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.

II.Thepartywasn'tthesameafterJohnBarbershowedup.

1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.

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III.Afterthatpoint,Ididn'tofferanyinformationunlesssomeoneaskedforit.1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.

IV.Hewasclosertovictorythanhecouldhaveknown.


V.Slugsleaveatrailofslimeeverywheretheygo.


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VI.Linda'seyesburnedwithtearsofgratitudeasAntoniobroughtthebananapuddingintothediningroom.


VII.Asthecashiertookherplacebehindthecounter.


VIII.IamasangryasIhaveeverbeen.


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IX.WhenIwasfourteen,aftermymotherdiedandmyfatherranoff,mygrandmothersentmetoliveinagrouphomenearTallahassee.


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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson12:MoreonSubordinateClauses

Therearestillafewtopicsrelatedtosubordinateclausesthatwehavenotcovered.Wewillgatherthemintothislesson,grab-bagstyle.Thatv.WhoandWhomBeawareoftheantecedentofyourrelativepronoun.(Remember,theantecedentisthenounOUTSIDEthesubordinateclausethattherelativepronounrenames.)Iftheantecedentisahumanbeing,useWHOorWHOM,notTHAT.IftheantecedentisNOTahumanbeing,useTHAT.

ThebookTHATwasonthetopshelffellonmyhead.YouwouldNOTsay

MarthaisthewomanthatIlove.

YouWOULDsay

MarthaisthewomanwhomIlove.OmittingtheRelativePronounWhentherelativepronounservesastheDirectObjectinthesubordinateclauseitintroduces,itisverycommonandveryacceptabletoOMITit.Youcansay

ThestoneTHATthebuildersrejected,

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oryoucanomittherelativepronounandsayThestonethebuildersrejected.

Eitherisacceptable.Bythesametoken,youcaneithersay

MarthaisthewomanwhomIlove,

oryoucansay

MarthaisthewomanIlove.

ThistechniqueofomittingtherelativepronounhastheaddedbenefitofkeepingyoufromhavingtodecidewhetherTHAT,WHO,orWHOMisright.WhoandWhomWhendoyousayWHO,andwhendoyousayWHOM?Thisisapointofgrammarthatalotofpeoplehavetroublewith.Tounderstandthisissue,wehavetostartwiththenominativeandobjectivecasesofpronouns.Everypersonalpronounhasanominativeandanobjectivecase:

NominativeCase: ObjectiveCaseI MeYou YouHe/She/It Him/Her/It We UsYou YouThey Them

Whenapronounisusedasasubjectorapredicatenominative,youusethenominativecase.

Hecalledthepolice.Wecalledthepolice.Theycalledthepolice.(Subject)Whenapronounisusedasanobject(directobject,indirectobject,orobjectofpreposition),youusetheobjectivecase.

Thepolicecalledhim.Thepolicecalledus.Thepolicecalledthem.(DirectObject)Thepolicegavehimacall.Thepolicegavethemacall.(IndirectObject)Thepolicehadnobusinesswithhim.Thepolicehadnobusinesswithus.(ObjectofPreposition)

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Peoplealmostnevergetthiswrongonthemainline,exceptfortwosituations:

1. Itiscommonforpeopletousetheobjectivecaseforpredicatenominatives—thatis,tosayThisishim(objectivecase)insteadofThisishe(nominativecase).

2. Itisalsocommonforpeopletousethewrongcaseincompounds.TheyoftensaythingslikeCindyandmearecoming(theobjectivecaseusedinthesubjectspot)whentheyshouldusethenominativecase,CindyandIarecoming.OrtheymightsayWendyinvitedCindyandI(nominativecaseinanobjectspot)whentheyshouldsayWendyinvitedCindyandme.

There’saneasyruleofthumbhere.Beforeyousettleonapronouninthiskindofcompoundconstruction,trythepronounwithouttheothernoun.YouwouldneversayMeamcoming,soyouknownottosayCindyandmearecoming.Bythesametoken,youwouldneversayWendyinvitedI,soyouknownottosayWendyinvitedCindyandI.Therelativepronounwho/whomalsohasanominativeandobjectivecase.

Nominative ObjectiveCaseWho Whom

Tousetherightformoftherelativepronoun,figureoutwhatgrammaticalfunctionitserveswithinthesubordinateclauseandchooseaccordingly.Ifitisthesubjectorpredicatenominativewithinthesubordinateclause,usethenominative-casewho.Ifitisanobjectwithinthesubordinateclause,usetheobjective-casewhom.Considerthissentence:

• Isawaguywho/whomlookslikeaparrot.Whichiscorrect?Whoorwhom?Sincetherelativepronounisthesubjectoftheadjectiveclause,whoiscorrect.Hereisadiagram:

Youmaynoticethatguy,theantecedentofwho,isthedirectobjectofthemainclause.Thathasnothingtodowiththecaseofwho/whom.Allyoucareaboutisthepronoun'sfunctioninthesubordinateclause.

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Orconsiderthissentence:

• Thatguywho/whomyoulikestoppedbytoday.Whoorwhom?Withinthesubordinateclause,therelativepronounisthedirectobject.Sowhomisthecorrectchoice.

Again,ignorethemainclausewhendecidingwhichrelativepronountouse.Thewho/whompronounrenamesguy,thesubjectofthemainclause.Butwithinitsownclauseit'sadirectobject.Ifit'ssoeasytogetthecaserightforpersonalpronounsinthemainclause,whyisithardtogetthecaserightforarelativepronouninasubordinateclause?BecauseEnglishisanSVOlanguage:werelyheavilyonwordordertoknowwhetherawordisasubjectoranobject.Butinasubordinateclause,wordorderisnohelp.Nomatterwhatgrammaticalfunctionitserves,therelativepronounalwayscomesatthebeginningofitssubordinateclause.EllipticalClausesAnellipticalclauseisaclauseinwhichwordsaremissing.Anellipsisisthethree-dotpunctuationmark(...)thatshowswhenwordshavebeenomitted,sothatshouldhelpyourememberwhatanellipticalclauseis.Lookatthissentencewithanadverbialclausemodifyingtheadjectivefaster:

WendellranfasterthanIdid.ThanIdidisanadverbialclausemodifyingfaster(ittellstowhatextent).Thisiswhatwecallanellipticalclause.Itismissingpartoftheverb:itisashortenedversionofthemorecompleteclauseWendellranfasterthanIdidrun.Often,however,anellipticalclausewillleaveouttheWHOLEverb:

WendellranfasterthanI.Theverbisomitted,butthepronounIisstillasubject.Thisexplainswhypeoplewhoarebeingextra-propersayYouareuglierthanIinsteadofYouareuglierthanme.OrLindais

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tallerthansheinsteadofLindaistallerthanher.Thosefinalpronouns(I,she)arethesubjectsofellipticalclauses,sotheyareinthenominativecase.Why,then,doesitfeelmorenaturaltousetheobjectiveforms,meandher?Ithinkit’sbecausewithouttheverb,thanfeelslikeapreposition,sothepronounfeelsmoreliketheobjectofaprepositionthanthesubjectofaclause.Andyoualreadyknowthattheobjectofaprepositionshouldbeintheobjectivecase.So,Lindaistallerthanherisincorrectusage.Butitisnotillogical.Peoplemakethismistakebecausetheyarerelyingonlogic.Indeed,mostgrammarerrorsaretheresultofapersonbeingTOOlogical:theyareapplyinglogicinsteadofapplyingtheexceptiontothelogicinoneparticularcase.Atoddlersays“mouses”insteadof“mice”becausehefullyunderstandsandappliesthelogicbywhichwenormallyformthepluralinEnglish.Hejusthasn’tlearnedthatinthecaseofmouseandmice,youhavetothrowoutlogicanddosomethingelse.Whydopeoplemakethemistakeofusingtheapostrophetoformthepossessiveits?BecauseforeveryotherwordintheEnglishlanguage,youuseanapostrophetoformthepossessive.Itisaperfectlylogicalmistake.So,ifyouareoneofthosepeoplewhotakespleasureinbeatinguponotherpeoplewhentheywriteit'swhentheymeanits,besureyouunderstandthatyouarebeatingthemupforbeingtoological.True,it’sausageerror.Andyes,thepersonwhomakesthaterrorisn’tinthegrammarclub.Butnotbeingintheclubisn’tthesamethingasbeingstupid.

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Quiz2.12:MoreonSubordinateClauses

I.Heshowedhiscardtoanyone(who/whom/that)asked.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.thatII.PeanutMontgomery,thefriend(who/whom/that)GeorgeJoneshadinsulted,waswillingtoforgive.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.thatIII.People(who/whom/that)knewJimCarrolloftenremarkedonhisgenerosity.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.thatIV.People(who/whom/that)JohnBarberknowsoftentrytoavoidhim.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.that

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V.Iamheof(who/whom)youspeak.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom VI.Cindyand(I/me)chasedapanther.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.I B.meVII.ApantherchasedCindyand(I/me).Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.I B.meVIII.Whyisittechnicallypropertosay,“Iamtallerthanhe?”IX.Whyarepeoplelikelytosay,"Iamtallerthanhim?"

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LectureNotes

Module2,Lesson13:MisplacedModifiers

Welookedatdanglingmodifiersafewlessonsago.Weshouldprobablylookatmisplacedmodifiersbeforewewrapupourunitonmodifiers.Amisplacedmodifierissimplyamodifierthathasdriftedtoofarfromtheworditmodifies.Theconsequenceisthatitusuallyendsuplookinglikeitmodifiessomeotherword.

TwocarswerereportedstolenbytheMaconPoliceyesterday.ContexttellsusthattheMaconpoliceprobablyhaven'tbecomearingofcarthieves.Butthegrammarallowsforthatpossibility.ThephrasebytheMaconPoliceisanadverbialprepositionalphrase.ItanswersthequestionHOWaboutaverb.Buttherearetwoverbalsinthissentence(werereportedandstolen).Yourreadingbrainexpecttheadverbialphrasetomodifythenearestverb.Eventhoughadverbialsaremoveable,youcan'tmovethemtoaspotwherethey'reclosertoanotherverbthantheoneyouintendedthemtomodify.Therealproblemhereisthepassivevoice.Fixthepassivevoicesandthemodifierisfixedtoo.

TheMaconPolicereportedtwocarsstolenyesterday.HereisanexampleI'veseenonacoupleofgrammarwebsites:

YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon,whowaskilledinaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters.

JohnLennon,ofcourse,wasnotkilledinaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters.Inthissentence,twoadverbialprepositionalphrasesaresupposedtomodifythesameverb:

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• YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusbandJohnLennon.• YokoOnowilltalkinaninterviewtheBarbaraWalters.

Butinthemiddleofthatthewriterhasaddedanadjectivalclause,whowaskilled,tomodifyJohnLennon.Thesecondadverbial(inaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters)isclosertotheverbwaskilledthantotheverbwilltalk.Youcouldfixthesentencethisway:

InaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters,YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon,whowaskilled.

Butnowthesentencefallsalittleflat,doesn'tit?Grammarisneverjustgrammar.Cleargrammarhelpsyouseemoreclearlywhatishappeninginyoursentence.Thecorrectedsentenceabovemightmakeyousay,"Waitaminute,that'snotasinterestingasIthoughtitwouldbe."Nowyouhaveachancetocorrectitagain.

InaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters,YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon,whowaskilledbyamentallyunstablefan.

or

InaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters,YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon.JohnLennonwasonlyfortyyearsoldwhenhewasassassinatedoutsidehisNewYorkCityhomebyamentallyunstablefan.

Cleargrammar,goodverbs,andconcretenounsexposeyouandholdyouaccountable.Ittakescouragetowriteclearly.

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Quiz2.13:MisplacedModifiers

I.Iputupwithacoachwhoyellsatmebecauseheknowshowtotrainchampions.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.II.Fromtheagesoftwelvetoeighteen,halfofmyweekendswerespentatRandall’shousemakingmovies.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.III.Nearweightless,youcannotfeelthemicrochiprestinginyourpalmifyoucloseyoureyes.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.

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IV.Mikelookedathiseldestsonwithahardface.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.V.Weclearedawaywebsdrippingwiththemorningmistfromthelogbridgeswecrossed.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.VI.BornwithGermanbonesandraisedalongsideapuppyfrolickinginanovergrownpasture,oftencrawlingalongacreekbedtocatchtadpoles,balletmademefeelmorelovelyanddaintythananything.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.VII.MyfavoriteprojectwasashadowboxImadein2004ofheroldjewelrytohanginherbathroom.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.

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LectureNotes


We'vebeenprettytechnicalinthemoduleandspentalotoftimecorrectingotherpeople'ssentences.Butthisisn'tapuregrammarclass.ThisisaGrammarforWritersclass.I'mnottryingtomakeyouabettergrammarNazi.Allofthisgrammartalkisintendedtomakeyouabetterwriter.Writingisproblem-solving.Themoretoolsyouhaveinyourtoolbox,thebetteryou'reequippedtosolveagivenproblem.Thehead-spinningcomplexityofprepositionalphrasesandparticiplesandinfinitivesandadjectiveclausesandsoforthiswhatmakeslanguagesoflexible.Lookatthissentence:

Pleasetaketimetolookoverthebrochurethatisenclosedwithyourfamily.Nowthatyou'reagrammargenius,youknowthattheadverbialprepositionalphrasewithyourfamilyisamisplacedmodifier.Itshouldmodifytheverblookover,butit'sclosertoisenclosed.Isenclosedisanadjectiveclause,butyoucouldfixthesentencebymakingitaparticiple.

Pleasetaketimetolookovertheenclosedbrochurewithyourfamily.Ofcourse,youcouldprobablyfeelyourwaytomanyofthesesolutionswithoutknowingthetechnicalnamesforthem.ButknowingtheterminologyandunderstandingtherelationshipsgivesmealotofconfidenceasIapproachawritingproblem.Thebiggesttake-awayfromModule1was:Everytimeyouwriteasentence,knowwheretherealactionis.Writeinsuchawaythattheactionisexpressedasaverbandtheactoristhesubjectoftheverb.

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Thebiggesttake-awayfromModule2is:Knowwhatissupposedtomodifywhatinyoursentencesandbesurethatit’sobvioustoyourreaderaswell.Foradjectivals,thatmeanstheadjectivalneedstobeascloseaspossibletothenounitmodifies.Foradverbials,thoughtheyaremoveableanddon'thavetoberightnexttotheverbtheymodify,domakesurethereisn'tanotherverbsneakingbetweenthemandinterceptingthemodifier.Modificationmakesiteasytocramalotofinformationintoonesentence.Thiscanbeagoodthing,anditcanbeabadthing.You'llseewritingadvicesaying,"cutdownonsubordinateclausesandprepositionalphrases"or"simplify!"Cuttingdownwillsimplifyyourprose,buthere'sthesecretaboutsimplicityandcomplexity:Yourreaderisn'taskingforsimplisticwriting.Yourreaderdoesn'talwaysneedshortsentences.Yourreadercanhandlecomplexity.Whatyourreaderreallywantsistofeelconfidentthathecangetfromsubjecttoverbtoobject.HewantstoknowWHODIDWHAT.Soaddallthemodificationyouwant.Alotofcolorandlifecomestoyourstorythroughmodifiers.Butmakesureyourmodifiersdon'timpedeyourreader'sprogressfromsubjecttoverbtoobject.Inthenextmodule,we'lltacklenounequivalents:nounclauses,gerunds,andinfinitivesservingasnouns.

175

LectureNotes


Inourexamplessofar,we'vetalkedalmostexclusivelyaboutconcretenouns:raccoon,tricycle,Cindy,Wendell,etc.Concretenounsdescribethingsyoucanseewithyoureyeballs,hearwithyourears,andtouchwithyourhands.Abstractnounsdescribeideas:liberty,equality,fraternity,sanctification,justification,anger,love,etc.Usingfewerabstractnounsandmoreconcretenounsgivesyourreadersomethingtolookat.Insteadoftellingyourreaderthatthedishwasherrepairmanwasfullofanger,pictureanangrydishwasherrepairman.Giveyourreadertheexperienceofseeingandlisteningtohim.Thereadercancometotheconclusionthathe'sangryonhisown."Hmm,thatdishwasherrepairmanturnedredinthefaceanddumpedallhisappliancerepairtoolsonthegroundandcussedabluestreak...hemustbeangry."Remember,yourreaderisalwayslookingtoknowWHODIDWHAT,andthatstoryiseasiertograspwhentheWHOissomethinghecanperceivewithhissenses.Sometimes,abstractionisexactlywhatyouneed.But,everyproblematicconstructionintheEnglishlanguageexistsbecausetherearesituationsinwhichit'snotaproblem.It'sexactlywhatyouneed.Sometimeswe'renottalkingaboutraccoonsandtricycles.Sometimeswe'retalkingaboutabstractideasandconcepts.Forexample,you'vebeenlisteningtometalkforhoursaboutclausesandphrases,subjects,verbs,anddirectobjects.Sobeasconcreteasyoucan,butsometimesyoucan'tbeconcrete.Oneofthethingsthatsetshumanbeingsapartfromanimalsandgrown-upsapart

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fromtoddlersisthatweareabletohandleabstractthought.Democracy.Supply-sideeconomics.Faith,hope,andlove.Here'ssomethingreallyinterestingaboutabstractnouns:Wheneveryouchangeanotherpartofspeechintoanoun,thatnounwillalwaysbeanabstraction.Tofertilizebecomesfertilization.Reactbecomesreaction.Bluebecomesblueness.Decrepitbecomesdecrepitude.Now,Englishgrammardoesn'tcarewhetheryournounsareabstractorconcrete.Grammatically,IamafraidofbearsisexactlythesameasIamafraidofdecrepitude.TheraccoonrattledthetrashcanandDemocracyrattledthetrashcanarebothcorrect.(Thoughthatsecondonedoesn'tmakeawholelotofsense.)Grammardoesn'tcarewhatnoungoesinthesubjectspot,itjusthastobeanounoranounequivalent.Nounequivalentsarethesubjectofthisshortmodule.Wearegoingtobelookingatphrasesandclausesthatfunctionasnounsinotherphrasesandclauses.Lookatthesimilaritiesintheseexamples:

Iamafraidofbears.Bears=concretenoun

Iamafraidofdecrepitude.Decrepitude=abstractnoun

Iamafraidofwhoeverhasbeenbreakingintocarsatnight.Whoeverhasbeenbreakingintocars=nounclause

Intheaboveexamples,bears,decrepitude,andwhoeverhasbeenbreakingintocarsatnightallfitequallywellintothatObjectofthePreposition(of)spot.Grammardoesn'tcare.Ifit'sanounoranounequivalent,it'swelcometodoanynounjobitwantstovolunteerfor:SubjectDirectObjectIndirectObjectPredicateComplementObjectiveComplementObjectofthePrepositionAppositive

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Sowhilenounclausesandgerundsandinfinitivesmakeformorecomplicatedsentences,therearestillonlyfiveclausepatterns:1.Subject-Verb2.Subject-Verb-DirectObject3.Subject-Verb-IndirectObject-DirectObject4.Subject-Verb-DirectObject-ObjectiveComplement5.Subject-LinkingVerb-PredicateComplementYouroldSubjectFinder,DirectObjectFinder,andIndirectObjectFinderstillworkthesamewayaswell.Forinstance:Iwillfindwhoeverhasbeengoingaroundatnightandbreakingintocars.Iwillfindwhat?Whoeverhasbeengoingaroundatnightandbreakingintocars.

Allofthenounequivalentswe'rediscussinginthisunitarerepresentedbythatlittlestandyouseethereintheDirectObjectspot.Aswelaunchintonounequivalents,thingswillgetprettycomplicated.Englishgrammarallowsfortremendouscomplexity.Theonlyreasonwecanmakesenseofthatcomplexityisthatcertainstructuresaresimpleandrigid.Nothinghaschangedaboutprepositionalphrasesorparticipialphrases.Ifyoufindyourselfscratchingyourhead,rememberthattherearestillonlyfiveclausepatterns.

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LectureNotes

Module3,Lesson2:NounClauses

Whenweapproachagrammaticalconstruction,wealwayshavetopayattentiontowhatit'smadeof(form)andwhatitdoes(function.)Inform,anounclauselookslikeanadjectiveclause.Considerthesubordinateclause,Whosewoodstheseare.Isthisanadjectiveclauseoranounclause?Itcan'tstandonitsown,sowehavetoattachittoamainclausetofindout:

Thefarmerwhosewoodstheseareprobablywouldn'tmindifwecampedhere.Therelativepronounwhosereferstothefarmerinthemainclause,sothisisanadjectiveclause.Butwhataboutinanother,veryfamous,sentencefromRobertFrost?

WhosewoodstheseareIthinkIknow.Forclarity'ssake,let’sputthissentenceinamorenormalorder:IthinkIknowwhosewoodstheseare.Whatistheclausedoing?It'snotreferringbacktoanything.It'sservingasthedirectobject.Iknowwhat?Iknowwhosewoodstheseare.Whoseisstillanadjectivemodifyingwoods,butitdoesn'treachouttothemainclausebecauseit'sPARTofthemainclause.1.Justlikeanadjectiveclause,anounclausealwaysstartswitha________________________________________.

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2.Thesesixrelativepronounssignaladjectiveclauses:_______________,_______________,_______________,_______________,_______________,_______________.[Answers:1.Relativepronoun2.WHO,WHOM,WHICH,WHEN,WHERE,THAT]Anounclausecanbeintroducedbythoseplusafewmore:WHAT,WHATEVER,WHOEVER,WHOMEVER,WHICHEVERSoanytimeyouseeoneofthosefiverelativepronounsatthebeginningofaclause,youknowyouarelookingatanounclause.Nounclausescandoanythingregularnounscando,buttheyareusuallysubjects,directobjects,predicatecomplements,andobjectsofprepositions.Considerthenounclausewhoeverbroughtthispieinthefollowingfourexamples:A.WHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIEismynewbestfriend.SUBJECTB.MynewbestfriendisWHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIE.PREDICATECOMPLEMENTC.IwanttohugWHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIE.DIRECTOBJECTD.IwanttogiveahugtoWHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIE.OBJECTOFAPREPOSITIONNoticethatinthoselasttwoexamples—inwhichthenounclauseservesasadirectobjectandasanobjectofapreposition—weusewhoever,notwhomever.Thatis,weusethenominativecase,nottheobjectivecase.Whyisthat?Becausewithintheclausewherewhoeverlives,it’sthesubject.Soitdoesn’tmatterthatthenounclauseservesasanobject.Bythesametoken,inthesentenceWHOMEVERYOUCHOOSEisfinewithme,wesaywhomeverbecausetherelativepronounisthedirectobjectofthenounclause.Itmakesnodifferencethatthenounclauseisthesubjectofthesentence.Remember,inanounclausetherelativepronoundoesn'thaveanantecedent.It'snotmodifyinganything.OnequickthingaboutthewordTHAT:sometimesTHATdoesn'tserveagrammaticalpurpose.

Marthasaidthatshewasterrifiedoflemurs.Marthasaidshewasterrifiedoflemurs.

Thenounclausethatshewasterrifiedoflemursservesasthedirectobject.Butthatplaysnoroleintheclause.Itsimplyalertsthereader,"Hey,you'reabouttoseeanounclause."Thesentenceisfinewithoutit.Keepingitisreallyamatterofpreferenceandrhythm.Spendsometimeonthequizforthislesson.ItcoversafewvariationsIcouldn'tgettointhelesson.

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Quiz3.2A:NounClauses

Note:Someofthesesentenceshaveothersubordinateclausesinadditiontothenounclause.You'vebeenwarned!I.Whichevertableyoupickisfinewithme. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?II.Iamfinewithwhichevertableyoupick. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?

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III.IquicklylearnedthatGeorgehadhisownagenda. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?IV.IthoughtIwasbeinggenerouswhenIofferedmyhalf-eatenhotdog. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?V.Youshouldsendathank-younotetowhoeverinterviewedyou. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?

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VI.Youshouldsendwhoeverinterviewedyouathank-younote. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?VII.WhomevertheyappointwillonlyserveuntilthespecialelectioninAugust. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?VIII.WhoeverisappointedwillonlyserveuntilthespecialelectioninAugust. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?

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Quiz3.2B:NounClauses

Youhavenowstudiedallthevarietiesofdependentclauses:adjectiveclauses,adverbclauses,andnounclauses.Thisquizwillputthemalltogether.Foreachofthefollowingsentences,identifythehighlightedclauseasanadjectiveclause,anadverbclause,anounclause,oramainclause.I.Asshewalksuptothecounter,Marthapatsherhairnet,whichstillcovershertightly-woundbunofgrayhair.

A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause

C.NounClause D.MainClause

II.Asshewalksuptothecounter,Marthapatsherhairnet,whichstillcovershertightly-woundbunofgrayhair. A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause


III.Asshewalksuptothecounter,Marthapatsherhairnet,whichstillcovershertightly-woundbunofgrayhair.



IV.Thetravelerseeswhathesees;thetouristseeswhathehascometosee.(G.K.Chesterton) A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause


V.GodcannotgiveusahappinessandpeaceapartfromHimself,becauseitisnotthere.Thereisnosuchthing.(C.S.Lewis)



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VI.There'smanyabestsellerthatcouldhavebeenpreventedbyagoodteacher.(FlanneryO'Connor)



VII.ThelasttimeIencounteredsuchasmellwaswhenItouredacoleslawfactory.



VIII.ThelasttimeIencounteredsuchasmellwaswhenItouredacoleslawfactory. A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause


IX.Shelookedatniceyoungmenasifshecouldsmelltheirstupidity.(FlanneryO'Connor) A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause


X.Shelookedatniceyoungmenasifshecouldsmelltheirstupidity.(FlanneryO'Connor)



187

LectureNotes

Module3,Lesson3:GerundsandInfinitives

InfinitivesandGerundsarebothverbals—verbformsthatfunctionassomethingbesidesverbs.Everyverbyoucanthinkofhasbothagerundformandaninfinitiveform.Gerundsfunctionasnouns.InfinitivesCANfunctionasnouns.(WealreadycoveredadverbialandadjectivalinfinitivesinModule2.)Thegerundform=theSecondPrincipalPart(the-ingform)Theinfinitiveform=thewordto+theverb1.Thegerundformofswimis______________________________________________________________________.2.Theinfinitiveformofswimis____________________________________________________________________.3.Thegerundformofsnorkelis___________________________________________________________________.4.Theinfinitiveformofshuttleis__________________________________________________________________.[Answers:1.Swimming,2.Toswim,3.Snorkeling,4.Toshuttle]You'llnoticethatthegerundformlooksjustlikeapresentparticiple,whichalsolooksjustliketheformoftheverbusedintheprogressivetenses(wasswimming,isswimming,willbeswimming).You'llalsonoticethattheinfinitivefunctioningasanounlooksexactlyliketheinfinitivefunctioningasanadjectiveoradverb.Sohowdoyoutellthemallapart?Yourecognizeitsfunction.IfitanswersWHICHONEorWHATKINDaboutanoun,it’sanadjectivalmodifier.

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IfitanswersHOW,WHEN,WHERE,WHYorTOWHATEXTENTaboutaverb,anadjective,oranadverb,itisanadverbialmodifier.Otherwise,startlookingtoseeifitservesoneofthefunctionsthatanounserves:Subject,DirectObject,PredicateComplement,orObjectofaPreposition.Bytheway,wearedoinggerundsandinfinitivestogetherinonelessonbecauseinmanycasestheyarebasicallyinterchangeable.Iloveswimmingisn'tverydifferentfromIlovetoswim.Youcanalsoaddobjectsandadverbialstoformgerundphrasesandinfinitivephrases.Forexample:

IloveswimmingintheOkefenokeeSwampwhenthemoonisfullandthewatermoccasinsareasleep.(Everythinginboldtypeisonegerundphrase;everythingafterloveisservingastheDirectObject.)

IlovetoswimintheOkefenokeeswampwhenthemoonisfullandthewatermoccasinsareasleep.(EverythinginboldtypeisonelonginfinitivephraseservingastheDirectObject.)

1.SwimmingintheOkefenokeeswampismypassion.Thegerundswimmingisfunctioningasthe_______________________.2.SwimmingintheOkefenokeeswampismypassion.Thegerundswimmingisfunctioningasthe_______________________.3.MypassionistoswimintheOkefenokeeswamp.Theinfinitivetoswimisfunctioningasthe________________________.4.ToswimintheOkefenokeeswampismypassion.Theinfinitivetoswimisfunctioningasthe________________________.5.I’mabigfanofswimmingintheOkefenokeeswamp.Thegerundswimmingisfunctioningasthe_______________________.6.Ihavenochoiceexcepttoexpelyou.Theinfinitivephrasetoexpelyouisfunctioningasthe_______________________.

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[Answers:1.Subject,2.PredicateComplement,3.PredicateComplement,4.Subject,5.ObjectofthePreposition6.ObjectofthePreposition]Therearetimeswhengerundsandinfinitivesaren'tinterchangeable,butasanativeEnglishspeakeryou'renevergoingtomakethatmistake.You'llneveraccidentallysay,I'mabigfanoftoswim.Afewidiosyncrasiesofgerundsandinfinitives

1. Likeparticiples,agerundcannottakeasubject.Ittakesthepossessiveformofanouninstead.Soyoudon'tsay,Iappreciateyoustoppingby.Yousay,Iappreciateyourstoppingby.(Sometimes,ratherthansayingthatparticiplescan'thaveasubject,peoplesaythatthesubjectofagerundtakesthepossessivecase.)

2. AninfinitivephraseCANhaveasubjectinsomesituations—specifically,whentheinfinitivephraseisbeingusedasanobject.Hedoesn'twantmetocomealong.Thatrollsoffthetonguenaturallyenough,butdoyounoticehowstrangeitis?Asubjectisusuallyinthenominativecase(Iinsteadofme).Butyouwouldn'teversay,Hedoesn'twantItocomealong.Again,thisisn'tsomethingyou'regoingtogetwrongasanativeEnglishspeaker.

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Quiz3.3:GerundsandInfinitives

I.Theactofdefendinganyofthecardinalvirtueshastodayalltheexhilarationofavice.(G.K.Chesterton)

1. Istheitalicizedphraseagerundphraseoraparticipialphrase?2. Whatfunctiondoestheitalicizedphraseserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isita

subject,directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)

II.Traditionmeansgivingvotestothemostobscureofallclasses,ourancestors.(G.K.Chesterton)

1. Istheitalicizedphraseagerundphraseoraparticipialphrase?2. Whatfunctiondoestheitalicizedphraseserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isita

subject,directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)

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III.Adetectivestorygenerallydescribessixlivingmendiscussinghowitisthatamanisdead.Amodernphilosophicstorygenerallydescribessixdeadmendiscussinghowanymancanpossiblybealive.(G.K.Chesterton)

1. Aretheitalicizedphrasesgerundphrasesorparticipialphrases?2. Whatfunctiondotheitalicizedphrasesserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isitasubject,

directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)

IV.Acceptingoneselfdoesnotprecludeanattempttobecomebetter.(FlanneryO'Connor)



V.AccordingtoC.S.Lewis,TheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobebeganwiththementalimageofafauncarryinganumbrellaandparcelsinasnowywood.



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Thenextthreequestionsrefertothissentence:Headandshouldersabovemostpeoplefromhisearlyteens,spendingalmostsixdecadesatalmostsevenfeethaslefthimwithastoopthatbecomesmorepronouncedashegrowsolder.VI.Whatisthegrammaticalsubjectofthissentence?VII.Thatopeningphrase,Headandshouldersabovemostpeoplefromhisearlyteens,isadanglingmodifier.Explainwhythisphrasedangles.(Hint:theanswerisrelatedtothegerundthatimmediatelyfollowsthecomma.)VIII.Reworkthesentencewithoutthegerund(andwithoutthedanglingmodifier).Thenextfourquestionsallreferbacktothissentence:Ridingthenow-drenchedscooterbackhomewouldsoakmybackside,forcingachangeintodrypants.IX.Whatarethegrammaticalsubjectandverbofthissentence?

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X.Whatisthatphraseforcingachangeintodrypants?Agerundorapresentparticiple?Whatfunctiondoesitserve?(Inotherwords,ifit'sagerund,isitasubject,object,orcomplement,andifit'saparticiple,whatnoundoesitmodify?)XI.Whatthreeactionsaredescribedinthissentence?XII.Rewritethesentenceusingclausesinplaceofgerundsandparticiplessothatthesubjectsandverbsalignmorecloselywiththeactorsandactions.

195

LectureNotes

Module3,Lesson4:AppositivesIt'salittlemisleadingtoputappositivesinthenounequivalentsmodule,buttheydidn'tseemtofitwellanywhereelse.Theycouldhavebeeninwiththemodifiers,butthatlessonjustkeptgettinglonger.Sohereitis,inModule3aboutnounequivalents,whichseemedalittlesadandlonelywithoutit.Anappositiveisanoun(ornounequivalent)thatrenamesanothernoun(ornounequivalent).Itsitsrightnexttothenounornounequivalentthatitrenames(usuallyrightafter,sometimesrightbefore):

ZorbatheGreek.Mydog,apoodle.MydogRoxy.

GreekisanappositiverenamingZorba.Poodleisanappositiverenamingdog.Roxyisanappositiverenamingdog.Anappositiveisrightupagainstthenounitnames.Ifyougetmuchspacebetweenanounanditsappositive,thingsstartnotworking.Youespeciallycan'thaveaverbbetweenanounandanappositive.Ifyoudothat,you'vegotapredicatecomplement:

ZorbaisaGreek.Mydogisapoodle.

There'snothingwrongwithapredicatecomplement,butit'snotthesamethingasanappositive.Anappositivephrase=theappositive+anymodifiersattachedtoitSeeifyoucanidentifytheappositives(orappositivephrases)intheseexamples:

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1. Theoak-leafhydrangea,aspeciesnativetoTennessee,makesmesneeze.2. "STARWARS,"thebestmovieinthehistoryoftheworld,mademewhatIam

today:anerd.[Answers:1.Appositive:species.Appositivephrase:aspeciesnativetoTennessee.2.Firstappositivephrase:thebestmovieinthehistoryoftheworld.Secondappositivephrase:anerd.]ThatsecondexampleisactuallymoreinterestingthanIrealizedwhenIfirstwroteit.IinitiallythoughtthatanerdrenamedI,makingitanexceptiontotheruleabouttheappositivestayingnexttoitsnoun.Butitisn'trenamingI;it'srenamingthewholephrase:whatIamtoday.Soitobeystheruleafterall.Thatwasanexampleofaone-wordappositiverenaminganounclause.Itoftenhappenstheotherway,withanounclauserenamingasimplenoun:

ThisplayisbyWilliamShakespeare,WHOEVERTHATIS.

Ourcitycouncilmembersseemtosufferfrominsanity,DOINGTHESAMETHINGOVERANDOVERAGAINANDEXPECTINGDIFFERENTRESULTS.

(Inthatlastexample,theappositivephraseisalsoagerundphrase.)ErroneousAppositivesFinally,hereisanexampleofwhathappenswhentheappositiveDOESN'Trenamethenounit'snextto:

Agluttonforpunishment,thattrailrunwastoomuchevenforme.Agluttonforpunishmentsitsinanappositivespot.Butwhatnouncoulditberenaming?It'srightnexttothenountrailrun.Butthetrailrunisn'tagluttonforpunishment.Thewriterwastryingtorenameme.Youcouldcorrectthisbysaying:

Thattrailrunwastoomuchevenforme,agluttonforpunishment.Or,

EvenI,agluttonforpunishment,foundthattrailruntobetoomuch.Thebestsolution,however,probablydoesn'tuseanappositiveatall:

Icanbeagluttonforpunishment,butthattrailrunwastoomuch.

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Quiz3.4:Appositives

I.MycousinLeonardstoppedbywithhisiguana.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.cousin B.Leonard C.iguana D.noneoftheaboveII.IamexpectingavisitfromJohnBarber,mynemesis.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.I B.visit C.JohnBarber D.nemesis E.noneoftheaboveIII.IamexpectingavisitfrommynemesisJohnBarber.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.I B.visit C.JohnBarber D.nemesis E.noneoftheaboveIV.Theopossum,theonlymarsupialnativetoNorthAmerica,isalsotheonlynon-primatewithopposablethumbs.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.opossum C.NorthAmerica E.thumbs B.marsupial D.non-primate F.noneoftheabove

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V.SomebodyreleasedraccoonsinFinland,wheretheythrivedlikeanativespecies.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.Somebody B.raccoons C.Finland D.species E.noneoftheaboveVI.Ahockeyplayersincechildhood,Ilovebeingontheice.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.hockeyplayer B.childhood C.I D.ice E.noneoftheaboveVII.Vanderbilt'sfootballteamwentundefeatedin1922,thesameyeartheSovietUnionwasformed.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.Vanderbilt B.team C.1922 D.year E.SovietUnion F.noneoftheaboveVIII.Obviouslyfoodsnobs,theyturneduptheirnosesatmypicklestew.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.snobs B.they C.noses D.pickle E.stew F.noneoftheaboveIX.JohnnyCash,"theManinBlack,"hadhitsinmanymusicalgenres.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.JohnnyCash D.genres B.Man E.noneoftheabove C.hits

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X.JohnnyCash,whowasknownas"theManinBlack,"hadhitsinmanymusicalgenres.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.JohnnyCash B.Man C.hits D.genres E.noneoftheaboveXI.Inwhichofthefollowingsentencesis"Taylor"usedasanappositive?Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.MyfriendTaylorisafirefighter. B.Taylor,afirefighter,isafriendofmine. C.Thefirefighter,namedTaylor,isafriendofmine. D.Thefirefighter,afriendofmine,isnamedTaylor. E.noneoftheaboveXII.Thefollowingsentencecontainsmorethanoneappositive.Putacheckbesideeachwordthatservesasanappositive:LaterthatdayIreflectedonmyactions—theyelling,thecrying,thebangingofmysippiecup—andIrealizeditwastimetogrowup. A.day B.I C.actions D.yelling E.crying F.banging G.sippiecup H.time

201

LectureNotes

Module3,Lesson5:EssentialandNon-EssentialElements

Oneoftheusesofthecommaistosetoffso-called"non-essential"words,phrases,andclausesinasentence.Butwhatmakesanelement"essential"or"non-essential"?"Non-essential"doesn'tmean"unimportant"or"notaddingmeaning."Ifanelementdoesn'taddmeaning,youshouldn'taddittoyoursentenceinthefirstplace.Doestheelementchangetheessentialmeaningofthesentence?Thedifferencebetween"essential"and"non-essential"elementsisoftenexplainedintermsofwhetherornottheelementchangestheessentialmeaningofthesentence.Lookatthesetwosentences(whichtellamostlytruestory):

1. TheplaywrightSamuelBeckettgaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.2. SamuelBeckett,theplaywright,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.

Inthefirstsentence,SamuelBeckettisanappositiverenamingplaywright.Inthesecond,playwrightisanappositiverenamingSamuelBeckett.Whydoesthesecondhavecommasbutnotthefirst?Inthefirstsentence,SamuelBeckettisconsideredessential,becausetoleaveitoutwouldchangethemeaningofthesentence:TheplaywrightgaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.That'saverydifferentsentencefromTheplaywrightSamuelBeckettgaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.Playwrightsareadimeadozen.Butthatimageoftheblack-turtleneck-cladSamuelBeckett,iconoftheTheateroftheAbsurd,trundlingAndretheGianttoschoolisprettyirresistible.Inthesecondsentence—SamuelBeckett,theplaywright,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool—thecommasaroundtheplaywrightshowthereaderthatthisisbonusinformation.Inthiscase,theappositivemayhelpareaderwhocan'timmediatelyputher

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fingeronwhoSamuelBeckettis,butitdoesn'tchangetheessentialmeaningofthesentence.NarrowingandExpandingHowever,sometimesitfeelslikeajudgmentcalltosaywhetheranelementchangesthe"essentialmeaning"ofasentence.Anditcanbehardtotrustyourjudgment.Youmightfinditmorehelpfultoaskyourself:Doesthiselementaddmeaningbymakingthingsmoreprecise—bynarrowingfromgeneraltomorespecific?Ordoesthiselementaddmeaningbyexpanding—byprovidingbonusinformation?Essentialelementsaddprecision.TheyNARROWmeaning.Non-essentialelementsprovidebonusinformation.TheyEXPANDmeaning.ThenounSamuelBeckettisaboutasspecificasanouncanget.Itreferstooneman.SoanyappositiveormodifierImightattachtoSamuelBeckettwillbenon-essential.ItwillprovideadditionalinformationaboutSamuelBeckett,butitwon'tmakethenounmoreprecise.Beinganon-essentialelement,itwillneedtobesetoffbycommas,asintheseexamples:

SamuelBeckett,drivingaflatbedtruck,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.

SamuelBeckett,whohadahouseinAndretheGiant’shometown,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.

SamuelBeckett,notknowinghewasinthepresenceofgreatness,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.

NoneofthoseappositivesnarrowsSamuelBecketttoanythingmorespecific,sotheyareallsetoffbycommas.Propernounsarealwaysspecific,sowhenyouaddappositivesormodifiers,thosewillalmostalwaysbenon-essentialelements.

Ilikelivinginastatewherethereisnoincometax.IlikelivinginTennessee,wherethereisnoincometax.

Let'slookatonelastexample:

1. Cilantrothattasteslikesoapgrossesmeout.2. Cilantro,whichtasteslikesoap,grossesmeout.

Whichofthesetwosentencesiscorrectlypunctuated?Thatdependsonhowyoufeelaboutcilantro.Somepeopleactuallyhaveageneticpredispositionthatmakesthemthinkallcilantrotasteslikesoap.Sentence2communicatestheirposition.Sinceallcilantrotasteslikesoap,theclauseWHICHtasteslikesoapdoesn'tnarrowthingsdown.Formostpeoplehowever,cilantrodoesn'ttastelikesoap.However,iftheywereevertorunintosomecilantrothattasteslikesoap,itwouldgrossthemout.Sentence1

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communicatesthisposition.TheessentialelementsTHATtasteslikesoapnarrowsthecategorydownfromcilantrotocilantrothattasteslikesoap.Onemorehelpfulclue:Rememberourrelativepronouns,whichintroduceadjectiveclauses?Usethattointroduceessentialclausesandwhichtointroducenon-essentialclauses.Ofcourse,whendescribingapersonyouusewhoorwhom.Ifyouneedhelprememberingwhentousewhoandwhentousewhom,lookbackatLesson10ofModule2.

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Quiz3.5:EssentialandNon-EssentialElements

I.Anessentialelementaddsmeaningtoasentenceby: A.narrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise B.expandingorprovidingbonusinformationII.Anon-essentialelementaddsmeaningtoasentenceby: A.narrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise B.expandingorprovidingbonusinformationIII.Whichkindofelementshouldbesetoffwithcommas? A.essential B.non-essentialIV.Anessentialadjectiveclausecanstartwithwhichoftheserelativepronouns? A.that B.which V.Anon-essentialadjectiveclausecanstartwithwhichoftheserelativepronouns? A.that B.which

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VI.Elementsthatmodifyorrenamepropernounsarealmostalwaysnon-essential.Explainwhy.VII.Inthefollowingsentence,theclauseswhomarriedWilliamShakespeareandwhostarredinThePrincessDiariesareessential,eventhoughtheymodifypropernouns.Explainwhy.IwastalkingaboutAnneHathawaywhomarriedWilliamShakespeare,notAnneHathawaywhostarredinThePrincessDiaries.

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LectureNotes


Aswewrapupthismoduleonnounequivalents,Iwanttogivetwowarnings.1.NounEquivalentsalwaysintroduceabstraction.YourreaderalwayswantstoknowWHODIDWHAT.Yourreaderalwayswantssomethingtolookat.Whenyougiveyourreadersomethingtolookat,she'sabletogatherinformationaboutyourstorythesamewayshegathersinformationintherealworld:throughhersenses.Datacomesinthroughhereyesandears,allowinghertoreachconclusions,passjudgements,havefeelings,andmakeconnections.Writing(andreading)allowsustoskipoverthesensoryinformationandgostraighttologic/conclusions/emotions.Butjustbecauseyoucanskipoversensoryinformationdoesn'tmeanthatyoushould.Whenyouwriteinconcrete,sensorytermsinsteadofabstractterms,yourwritingfeelsalittlemorealive.Whenyouuseanounequivalentinanounspot,youareintroducingabstractionintoyoursentence.Nounequivalentsturnverbsintoabstractnouns.That'sjusthowtheywork.Theyare,bydefinition,abstract.Usingabstractlanguageisofteneasierforthewriterthanusingconcretelanguage.Butitisoftenharderforthereader.Ifyouhaveagoodreasontouseabstractlanguage,goahead.Butitcostsyourreaderextrawork.Makesuretheextraworkforthereaderisworthit(tothereader—nottoyou!).

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2.Yourreaderwantstofeelconfidentshecangetfromsubjecttoverbtoobject.Onewaytomakesureyourreadercandothisistogettothesubjectearlyinthesentence,andtotheverbsoonafterthat.Sometimesyouhaveagoodreasontomakeyourreaderworkalittlebit.Ifyoudo,goahead.Butkeepinmindthatalongnounequivalentinthesubjectpositiondelaysthearrivalofthemainverb,andthatmakeslifehardforyourreader.Lookatthissentence:

Watchingthekindofsoccergameinwhichtwoevenlymatchedteamsbattlemanfullyfor90minutesandendupinazero-zerotiemakesmehappy.

Everythingfromwatchingtotieisthesubject,meaningthereaderhastohold24wordsinherbrainbeforesheevengetstotheverb!Butlookhowmuchmorereadablethesentenceiswhenthat24-wordgerundphrasebecomestheobjectratherthanthesubject:

Ilovewatchingthekindofsoccergameinwhichtwoevenlymatchedteamsbattlemanfullyfor90minutesandendupinazero-zerotie.

Inthatsentence,thereaderfindsoutWHODIDWHATinthefirsttwowords.She'sreadytosettleinfortherestofthesentence.

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Quiz3.6:Review

I.Whichofthefollowingrelativepronounsusuallyintroduceadjectiveclauses?Chooseallthatapply. A.who B.whom C.which D.that E.whoever F.whomever G.whicheverII.Whichofthefollowingrelativepronounsalwaysintroducenounclauses?Chooseallthatapply. A.who B.whom C.which D.that E.whoever F.whomever G.whicheverIII.Whichoftherelativepronounsisoftenomittedinadjectiveandnounclauses?

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IV.Toreceivethisawardwouldbeoneofthegreathonorsofmylife.Rewritethissentencewithagerundinplaceoftheinfinitiveinthesubjectslot.V.Acreatureofhabit,theroutinethatIhadmadeformyselfwasveryrigid.Thesentenceabovehasanappositive-relatedproblem.Explaintheproblemandreworkthesentence.VI.Whichofthefollowingstatementsapplytoanessentialclause?Chooseallthatapply. A.Itaddsmeaningbynarrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise. B.Itaddsmeaningbyexpandingorprovidingbonusinformation. C.Itissetoffbycommas. D.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounthat. E.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounwhich. F.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounswhoorwhom.VII.Whichofthefollowingstatementsapplytoanon-essentialclause?Chooseallthatapply. A.Itaddsmeaningbynarrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise. B.Itaddsmeaningbyexpandingorprovidingbonusinformation. C.Itissetoffbycommas. D.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounthat. E.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounwhich. F.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounswhoorwhom.

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VIII.IntheModule3reviewlectureIsuggestedthatlengthynounequivalentsinthesubjectslotpotentiallycausemoreproblemsthanlengthynounequivalentsinobjectslots.Whyisthat?

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LectureNotes


Perhapsthemostimportantfunctionofgrammaristohelpyourreaderseehowthingsandactionsfittogether.Howdoesthisthingconnecttothisotherthing?Howdoesyourreadergetfromthisideatothenextidea?Yourgrammaticalstructuressetupconnectionsandtransitions.Alotofthathappensonthemainline:

Lindakickedtheball.(KickprettywellexplainsthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenLindaandtheball.)Lindaisasurgeon.(IsprovidestheconnectionbetweenLindaandsurgeon.Theyreflectoneanother;surgeonrenamesLinda.)

Inthismodule,we'regoingtotalkaboutotherwaysyoucommunicatetoyourreader,"Here'showthingsconnect."

• Conjunctions(bothcoordinatingandsubordinating)• Compounds• Parallelism• Agreement• Antecedents• Modification

Aswe'vealreadysaid,yourreaderwantstofeelconfidentthathecangetfromAtoBtoC.Yourconnectionsandtransitionscarryhimalongsothathedoesn'thavetothinkabouthowhe'sgettingfromoneideatothenext.Hecanpayattentiontotheaction.Goodtransitionsaretheantidoteforwordiness.Andwordinessdoesn'thavethatmuchtodowiththenumberofwordsorthecomplexityofagivensentence.Asentencefeelswordywhenthereaderisn'tsurehowthedifferentpartsfittogether.

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AreadercanhandleamazingcomplexityIFhehasclearmarkersusheringhimfromonepartofasentencetothenext.Forexample,ifsomebodygivesyoudirectionstogetfromPointAtoPointB,thosedirectionsmightrequire15turns.Andyoucanhandle15turns,aslongastheturnsareallcorrectlymarked.Ifsomeonegivesyoudirectionswithonly3turns,butatoneofthoseturnsthestreetsignismissing,you'regoingtohavealotharderofatime.Theconnectionsinthismodulearethestreetsigns.Infact,ifyou'vewrittenthemwell,hopefullyyourreaderwon'thavetopayattentiontothematall.Ifyouthinkaboutyourconnectionsandtransitions,yourreaderwon'thaveto.YouwantyourreadertoSEEwhatyoumean,notFIGUREOUTwhatyoumean.Grammarisneverjustgrammar.

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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson2:Subject-VerbAgreement

Disagreement.Itcausessomuchstressanduncertainty.Itmakesyourbloodpressuregoupjustbeingintheroomwithtwopeoplewhoaredisagreeingwithoneanother.Itcanbehardtothinkstraightinsuchasituation.Youwanttosay,"Can'twealljustgetalong?"You'veprobablyheardofsubject-verbagreementandpronoun-antecedentagreement.Whenverbsdon'tagreewiththeirsubjectsorwhenpronounsdon'tagreewiththeirantecedents,thereadergetsdistractedandstressed.Shemightnotbeabletothinkstraightaboutwhatyou'retryingtocommunicate.Subject-VerbAgreement=makingsurethatifyoursubjectissingular,yourverbissingular

Theotterlazesabout.(Otterissingular,lazesissingular.)Theotterslazeabout.(Ottersisplural,lazeisplural.)

SometimesIhearsomeonesay,"Mylicenseareexpired."IfyouwereraisedspeakingEnglish,youdon'tgenerallygetthiswrong.Thereareacoupleoftrickyspotswhereitispossibletogettrippedup:

Myfavoritefruitisapples.Applesaremyfavoritefruit.

Thenumberoftheverb(singularorplural)matchesthenumberofthesubject.Thenumberofthepredicatenominativedoesn'tmatter.Fruitis.Applesare.1.Thetitleofaworkofartisalwaystreatedasasingularnoun:StarryNightismyfavoritepaintingbyVanGogh.WarandPeaceisagreatnovel.

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2.CollectivenounstendtobesingularinAmericanEnglish:Thechoirissinginginthequad.Thebaseballteamisstayinginourhotel.3.InBritishEnglish,collectivenounstendtobeplural:Thecricketteamarestayinginourhotel.NativeEnglishspeakersdosometimeshaveaproblemwhenalotofothernounscomebetweenthegrammaticalsubjectandtheverb.Forinstance:

Myneighbor,alongwithtwohundredotherlibrariansthroughtheUnitedStates,isattendingtheAmericanLibraryAssociationConferenceinKansasCity.

Thegrammaticalsubjectisthesingularnounneighbor.Sotheverbhastobesingular:isattending.Itdoesn'tmatterthatlibrarians,cities,andUnitedStates(whichisactuallysingularbutlooksplural)areinterposedbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Infact,everythingfromalongthroughUnitedStatesisaprepositionalphrasemodifyingneighbor.Doyouremember,waybackintheintroductorylectureforthiswholecourse,Italkedaboutthedifferencebetweenthinkingofgrammarasproperusage,andthinkingofgrammarasawaytoloveyourreader?Properusagetellsmethatthesentenceaboutmyneighboriscorrect,thesubjectandverbagree,andI'vedonemyduty.Lovingmyreadermakesmerealizethatthesentenceisalittleconfusing.It'scorrect,butitfeelsabitodd.Isthereanotherwaytocommunicate?

MyneighborisoneoftwohundredlibrariansfromcitiesthroughouttheUnitedStatesattendingtheAmericanLibraryAssociationconferenceinKansasCity.

Theverbmovedclosertothenoun,andnowyourreaderisn'tthinkingaboutyourgrammar.

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Quiz4.2:Subject-VerbAgreement

I.TheBadNewsBearsis/arenotanespeciallygoodmovie.Selectthecorrectverb. A.is B.areII.Myfavoritemealis/areRamennoodles.Selectthecorrectverb. A.is B.areIII.Ramennoodlesis/aremyfavoritemeal.Selectthecorrectverb. A.is B.areIV.Thecommitteerecommend/recommendsthatyoustopeatingsomanyRamennoodles.Selectthecorrectverb. A.recommend B.recommendsV.Themembersofthecommitteerecommend/recommendsthatyoustopeatingsomanyRamennoodles.Selectthecorrectverb. A.recommend B.recommends

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VI.Theboys’choir,madeupofjuveniledelinquentsfromsmalltownsalloverthecountry,arrive/arrivesinanhour.Selectthecorrectverb(accordingtotheAmericanusage). A.arrive B.arrivesVII.Intheaboveexampleabouttheboys'choir,eventhecorrectverbformsoundsoddanddrawsattentiontoitself.Rewriteforclarity.(Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofbreakingthesentenceintwo.)VIII.Bonus(tricky)question:OneofthosethingsthathappenonlyonTVhappenedtometoday.ThesubjectofthissentenceisthesingularOne.Sowhyisthepluralverbhappencorrectinthissentence?(And,incaseyouwerewondering,happenIScorrecthere).

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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson3:PronounsandAntecedents

Youmightnotthinkofapronounasaconnectorword,thewayaconjunctionorevenaprepositionisaconnectorword.Butapronounisverymuchaconnector.Apronounisawordthatreachesbacktoanearlierphraseorclauseandsays,"Rememberthatnounweweretalkingaboutasecondago?Well,nowwe'retalkingaboutitagain."Thisisthepronoun-antecedentrelationship.Antecedent=thenounthatapronounrenamesThinkbacktorelativepronouns(who,whom,whose,which,that,where,when,etc.),whichwetalkedaboutbackinModule2.Theysitatthebeginningofadjectiveclausesandreferbacktonounsinthemainclause.Inthatway,therelativepronounCONNECTSthesubordinateclausetothemainclause.Lookatthissentence:

WhenIconfrontedMr.Purifoyabouthismessiness,hechallengedmetoafistfight.HisandhearebothpronounsreachingbacktoMr.Purifoy.Apronounanditsantecedentdon'thavetobeinthesamesentence.Veryoften,theantecedentisinthesentencebeforethepronoun.Butifthepronoungetstoofarfromitsantecedent,yourreaderwillhavetoworktoohardfiguringoutwhichnounthepronounissupposedtorename.Ifyourpronounandantecedentaremorethanasentenceapart,beabsolutelysurethatyourreaderwillbeabletoseetheconnectionwithoutanytrouble.Erronthesideofrepeatingyourantecedentratherthanassumingyourreadercanfigureitout.

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It'syourjobasthewritertopresentthingsinsuchawaythatyourreadercanSEEyourmeaning.Pronoun-AntecedentTroubleSpotsHere'sanexampleofpronoun-antecedenttroubleinonesentence:

AfterGovernorHaslamwatchedthetigerperform,hewastakentoMainStreetandfedfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinthetownsquare.

Heisprettyclosetoitsintendedantecedent,tiger.ButhecouldjustaseasilybereferringtoGovernorHaslam.GovernorHaslamisthesubjectofthesentence,sohe'sclosertothecenterofthereader'sattention.Also,thereadermightexpecttigertotakethepronounit.TheresultisthatweallendupenvisioningGovernorHaslameatingfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinpublic.Tofixthissentence,youcouldchangehetoit,orelserepeatthewordtiger.

AfterGovernorHaslamwatchedthetigerperform,itwastakentoMainStreetandfedfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinthetownsquare.

Or,

AfterGovernorHaslamwatchedthetigerperform,thetigerwastakentoMainStreetandfedfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinthetownsquare.

Here'sanotherexample:

Blame,bitterness,andrecriminationscanbeemotionallydestructivetoyouandyourchildren.Youmustgetridofthem.

Waitasecond,getridofwhom?Yourchildren?Thepronounthemmakesyourreadernaturallygolookingforthenearestpluralantecedent,whichhappenstobeyourchildren.Here'sanothergreatone:

ThebatterhitanRBIsingleofftheshortstop'sleg,whichrolledintoleftfield.Nodoubtyouseetheproblemhere.Therelativepronounwhichintroducestheadjectiveclause.Theadjectiveclausesitsrightbehindthenounitmodifies,whichisalsotheantecedentforitsrelativepronoun.Youcan'thelpbutpicturethelegrollingintoleftfield.Itseemsashametofixit,butheregoes:

ThebatterhitanRBIsinglethatbouncedofftheshortstop'slegandrolledintoleftfield.

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Pronounsusedwellhelpfocusyourreader'sattention.Usedpoorly,theydistractyourreader.Lookatthisconfusingparagraphaboutaman'sbeard:

Atthedinnertableatnight,itisadeepredlikeanIrishman'sbeard.Inthesun,helookslikeaVikingfromScandinavia.Itsmellslikeatropicalfruitsmoothiefromthebeardbalmheuses.

Inthefirstandthirdsentences,itreferstothebeard.Inthesecondsentence,hereferstotheman.Inthethirdsentencewe'rebacktothebeard.Thisisjusttoomuchforyourreadertotryandfigureout.Thewriterwasprobablytryingtoaddvariety,butvarietyforitsownsakeisnothelpful.Rememberthis:Apronounneedstorefertoanoun(ornounequivalent)andnotawholesentenceorwholeidea.Here'sanexampleofapronounreferringtoawholeidea:

Butmydadreclaimedapieceofhimselffromhisdiseasethatnightandetcheditintothemindsoftenyoungmenforever.

Whatistheantecedentforit?Hisdisease?Apieceofhimself?Theantecedentisuncleartothereaderforthesamereasonthatitisperfectlycleartothewriter.Theeventisetchedsoclearlyintothewriter'smindthatheknowsexactlywhathemeanswhenhesayshisdadetcheditintothemindsoftenyoungmenforever.Hehasforgottenthatwedon'tknowwhatitis.NOTE:Therulethatapronounneedstohaveasinglenoun(ornounequivalent)foritsantecedent,ratherthanawholeideaorsentenceisalmostimpossibletokeep.Ibreakthisruleallthetime.However,youshouldtrytokeepthisrule;onlyletyourselfbreakitifyoucan'tfindagoodwaytokeepit. LessonSummary

• Everypronounneedsanantecedent.• Thatantecedentneedstobeanoun(ornounequivalent).• Thatnounneedstobenearby.• Besurethereisnotanotherpossibleantecedentclosetothepronoun.• Whenindoubt,repeattheantecedentratherthanusingapronounandaskingyour

readertofigureitout.

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Quiz4.3:PronounsandAntecedents

I.Betweenmyfingerseachpetalfeelslikesoftsuede,strongerthanTHEYappear.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounanditsantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.II.Asmymother’shealthdeteriorated,ITcausedproblemsintheirmarriagerelationship.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounanditsantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.III.SniffingahandfulofleavesandthrowingITintotheairwasevenmorefunthankickingthroughTHEM.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounsandtheirantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.

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IV.Lelo'sshopneartheedgeoftownprovidedhismainincome.Concreteandmudblockssupportedframesandshelvesofwidehome-craftedlumberofnon-standardizeddimensions.ITwasthesizeofourkitchen.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounanditsantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.V.Davelookedupathisfather’sangryexpression.Hisbrowwasknitted.Hiseyesflashed.Hismouthwaspinched.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweentheitalicizedpronounsandtheirantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.

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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson4:ConnectingClauses(Part1)

We'vealreadytalkedaboutcombiningclausesintocompoundandcomplexsentencesthroughcoordinationandsubordination.Inthislessonwewillrevisitthoseideas.Remember:1.Acompoundsentenceis:________________________________________________________________________.2.Acomplexsentenceis:___________________________________________________________________________.3.Thesevencoordinatingconjunctionsare:______________________________________________________.4.Acompound-complexsentenceis:______________________________________________________________.5.Subordinationis:______________________________________________________________________________6.Coordinationis:____________________________________________________________________________[Answers:1.Twoormoreindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunctionandacommaintoasinglesentence.2.Asentencecomprisedofoneindependentclauseandatleastonesubordinate(dependent)clause.3.For,And,Nor,But,Or,Yet,So4.Asentencecontainingtwoormoreindependentclausesandatleastonedependentclause.5.Expressinganideaoractionasadependent(subordinate)clauseandattachingittoanindependent(main)clause.Subordinationallowsyoutosetupdifferentrelationshipsbetweenideasandactions.6.Creatingbalancebetweentwoideasinasinglesentence.Coordinatingconjunctions(andsemicolons)allowyoutosay:"ThesetwoideasarethesameKINDofidea."]Didyougetallthat?Coordinationandsubordinationspellouttherelationshipbetweentwoclauses:coordinationcommunicatesarelationshipofbalanceandequality,whereassubordinationcommunicatesanunequalrelationship.Butdon'tforget:anotherwaytoconnecttwoclausesistoputthemnexttooneanotherastwoseparatesentences.Whereascoordinationandsubordinationspellouttherelationshipsbetweenideas,placing

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clausesinadjacentsentencesimpliesarelationship.Itleavesalittletoyourreader'simagination.Therewasapopsonginthe70sor80sthatsaid,"MyMaseratidoes185.Ilostmylicense.NowIdon'tdrive."Thoseideasarenotconnectedbyeithercoordinationorsubordination.Theyareconnectedbyproximity.Theproximitysuggeststhatthesethreeideasareconnected,butitisuptothereadertomaketheconnections.That'spartofthefun.Ioftentellwritersnottomakethereaderdoworkthatisthewriter'stodo.Buttheconversecanalsobetrue:sometimesitisgoodNOTtodotoomuchforthereader.AsemicolonjoinsINDEPENDENTclausesintoacompoundsentence.Youwriteacompletesentence;youwriteanothercompletesentence.Asemicolonsaystoyourreader"TheseideasaresocloselyrelatedthatIdidn'twanttheminseparatesentences.ButI'mgoingtoletyoufigureouttheirrelationship."Theinformationyoucommunicateinaclausedemandsalittlemoreofyourreader'sattentionthaninformationyoucommunicateinotherways(prepositionalphrases,participles,adjectivesandadverbs,etc.),becauseaclausetellsalittlestory.AclausetellsWHODIDWHAT.Lastly,Iwantyoutoconsiderthehierarchyofclauses.TheHierarchyofClauses

1. MainClause.Themainclausegenerallydemandsmoreattentionthananysubordinateclausesattachedtoit.

2. AdverbClause.Anadverbclauseisjustanindependentclausewithasubordinatingconjunctioninfrontofit,soitisonlyalittlelowerthantheindependentclauseinthehierarchy.

3. AdjectiveandNounClauses.Theactioninanadjectiveornounclausefeelslikeit'stuckedawaycomparedtotheactionofthemainclauseoranadverbclause.

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Quiz4.4:ConnectingClauses(Part1)

I.Whatarethesevencoordinatingconjunctions?(Hint:theirinitialsspellFANBOYS.)II.Whichofthecoordinatingconjunctionscommentstheleastontherelationshipbetweentwoideasorevents? A.for E.or B.and F.yet C.nor G.so D.butIII.Whichkindofconnectionisbestforcreatingbalance? A.coordination B.subordination C.proximity(asemicolonortwoadjacentsentences)IV.Whichkindofconnectionallowsforthemostsubtletyandnuancebycommentingmorespecificallyontherelativeimportanceofoneideaascomparedtoanother? A.coordination B.subordination C.proximity(asemicolonortwoadjacentsentences)

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V.Whichkindofconnectioncommentstheleastontherelationshipbetweentwoideas? A.coordination B.subordination C.proximity(asemicolonortwoadjacentsentences)VI.Andtherearenokeysforthose,atleastwedon’thaveany.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.VII.Next,shegrabbedalargepinkbottle;thisonefamiliartohim.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.VIII.Theneurotransmittersinmybrainwerecrackling,andfiringofflikeapoorlyplannedfireworksdisplay.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.

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IX.Therootsproutsandthewaitingisover,lifehasreturned.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.X.Pressgentlyandthefragilewebbends,pressharderanditdissolves.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.

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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson5:ConnectingClauses(Part2)

Someoftheideaswecoveredinthelastlessonaboutjoiningclausesandthehierarchyofclausesmayhaveseemedalittleabstract.Iwanttowalkthroughsomeexamplesfromstudentstoriestohelpbringtheseideasdowntoearth.Example1Mygrandfather'sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains,andithadanabundanceofdaffodils.Whatarethetwoclauses?1.Mygrandfather’sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains.2.Ithadanabundanceofdaffodils.Howarethejoined?Theyarejoinedbythecoordinationconjunctionand+acommaintoacompoundsentence.Remember,acoordinationconjunctionsuggeststhattwoclausesdeserveequalattentionandthesamekindofattention.Ithinkthat'swhythissentencefeelsalittleoff.Thetwoideasdon’tfeelcoordinate,thoughthegrammarsuggeststhattheyare.Hereisonewaytorevisethesentence:

Mygrandfather'sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains;ithadanabundanceofdaffodils.

Asemicolonjoinsthetwoclausesclosely,butitdoesn'tcommentonexactlyhowtheideasarerelated.Anotheroptionistousesubordination:

Mygrandfather'sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains,wheredaffodilsabounded.

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Or,

Daffodilsaboundedonmygrandfather'sfarm,tuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains.

Example2Afterclass,whenhestartstoheadupstairsforhismonthlyturnasgreeter,heneedssomeonetocarryhiscupofcoffeeforhimsohecanholdhisplateofdoughnutsandclementineswithonehandandholdontothestairrailingwiththeother.That'salotofactions.Whatarethesubjectandverbofthispackedsentence?Heneeds.Sohowareallthoseotheractionsandideascommunicated?

• Whenheheadsupstairsisanadverbclause.• Forhisturnasagreeterisaprepositionalphrase.• Someonetocarryhiscoffeeforhimisaninfinitivephraseservingasthedirectobject

ofneeds.• Sohecanholdhisplateofdoughnutsandclementineswithonehandandholdontothe

stairrailingwiththeotherisalongadverbialphrasewithacompoundverb(holdhisplateandholdthestairrailing).

Whew!Thereareprobablydozensofwaystoimprovethissentence.Thebestones,Isuspect,involvebreakingitdownintomorethanonesentence:

Afterclass,heheadsupstairsforhismonthlyturnasagreeter.Buthehastoasksomeonetocarryhiscupofcoffee.He'llneedonehandforhisplateofdoughnutsandclementinesandanotherhandforthestairrailing.

Example3Hedoesn'tlikethemicrophonebutusesitsohecanbeheardclearlybyIrena,whois96yearsoldandhardlyevermissesaSunday.Thiswriterhasused

• acompoundverbtocommunicateallthataction:doesn'tlikebutuses.• anadverbialclausewithapassiveverb:sohecanbeclearlyheard.• anadjectiveclausewithanothercompoundverb:is96andhardlymisses.

Thisisnotabadsentence.Buthereareafewchangesthatimproveit:

Hedoesn'tlikethemicrophone,butheusesitsoIrenacanclearlyhearhim.Irenaisninety-sixyearsold;sherarelymissesaSunday.

Thisversiongetsridofthepassiveconstruction,sohecanbeheard,andalsogivesalittlemoreattentiontoIrena.She'sninety-sixandalwaysmakesittochurch,soshegetstwomainclausesallherown.

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Promotingideastoindependentclausesordemotingthemtodependentclausescanmakesignificantchangesinthewayapassagereads.Still,sentenceconstructionisanart,notascience.

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Quiz4.5:ConnectingClauses(Part2)

QuestionsIthroughVIrefertothefollowingsentence:Whenherfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway,thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonherbed.Thiscomplexsentencedepictsthefollowingactions:

1. Thefatherwalkedaway.2. Thefatherleftablankspaceinthedoorway.3. Thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecream.4. Thelittlegirlwatchedhersister.5. Thesistercriedonherbed.

I.Inthesentenceabove,Action1(thefatherwalkedaway)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitive

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II.Inthesentenceabove,Action2(thefatherleftablankspaceinthedoorway)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitiveIII.Inthesentenceabove,Action3(thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecream)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitiveIV.Inthesentenceabove,whatparallelstructureconnectsAction3(thelittlegirlatehericecream)andAction4(thelittlegirlwatchedhersister)? A.compoundsentence B.compoundverbV.Inthesentenceabove,Action5(thesistercriedonherbed)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitive

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VI.ChangetheadverbialclauseWhenherfatherwalkedawayintoanindependentclauseandexpressthesentencebelowasacompoundsentence:Whenherfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway,thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonherbed.VII.CHALLENGEQUESTION:Thefollowingsentenceisgrammaticallycorrect.Butthere'ssomethingoddabouttheclauseinboldtype.Icarriedmypretzelontothebus,wherethebusdriver’saidedidn’tseeitasIwalkedtothebackofthebusandsatbesideawindow.Twoquestionsabouttheclauseinboldtype:

1. Whatkindofclauseisit?2. Whatfunctiondoestheclauseserve?(Inotherwords,ifit'samodifyingclause,what

worddoesitmodify,andifit'sanounclause,whatslotdoesitfillinthemainclause?)

HINT:Thatwordwhereismisleading.Whereisoftenasubordinatingconjunctionsignalinganadverbialclause.Buthereit'sarelativepronoun.Onceyourealizethat,youshouldbeabletoworkoutwhatkindofclausethisis,andwhatfunctionitserves.

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VIII.CHALLENGEQUESTION:Thisquestionreferstothesamesentenceasabove.Icarriedmypretzelontothebus,wherethebusdriver’saidedidn’tseeitasIwalkedtothebackofthebusandsatbesideawindow.

1. Wehavealreadyseenthattheclauseinboldisanadjectiveclausemodifyingbus.Doesthisadjectiveclauseseemlikeanappropriatewaytodepicttheactiondescribedintheclause?Whyorwhynot?

2. Howwouldyourevisethissentence?

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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson6:ParallelismHumanbeingslovesymmetry.Werespondtoit.Westriveforit.Westriveforitinarchitecture,interiordesign,visualarts.Werespondtoitinthecreatedworld,inthehumanface,inthehumanbody.Symmetryisafundamentalprincipleofbeauty.Now,therearelotsofbeautifulthingsthatarenotsymmetrical.Mostmountainsaren'tsymmetrical.Welikeplentyofthingsthataren'tevensupposedtobesymmetrical.WhatweDON'Tlikearethingsthataresupposedtobesymmetrical,butaren't.HaveyouseenToyStory3?OneofthebadguysisthisbabydollcalledBigBaby.He'sterrifying.Theonlythingunusualabouthisappearance,however,isthatoneeyeliddroopstobeingalmostclosed.Besidesthatlittleasymmetry,he'sjustaregularbabydoll.Asinotherartforms,weusesymmetryinwriting.Inthearchitectureofsentences,asinthearchitectureofbuildings,wesetupsymmetriesallthetime.Actually,Iusedsymmetryinthatlastsentence:"Inthearchitectureofsentences,asinthearchitectureofbuildings..."Anditwasn'tevenonpurpose.Wejustdoitnaturally.Symmetricalstructureslendbalanceandbeautytoyoursentences.Theyalsohelpyourreadergrasptheideasthatyouarepresenting.BUT,ifyousetupasymmetricalstructureandthenfillthatstructurewithwordsorphrasesthataren'tsymmetrical,youendupwithFaultyParallelism.FaultyParallelismwillbeaboutasdisturbingtoyourreaderasBigBaby'seyelidwastome.Threeofthecoordinatingconjunctions,AND,OR,andBUT,aswellasthecorrelativeconjunctionsEITHER/ORandNEITHER/NORcansetupparallelstructuresanywhereinasentence.

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Lookatthesecompounds:

Compoundsubject:MichaelJordanandIcombinedforseventypoints.

Compoundverb:Wesanganddanced.

Compounddirectobject:Weatehotdogsandrelish.

Compoundpredicatecomplement:Youareagentlemanandascholar.

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Compoundobjectofthepreposition:Isingofarmsandtheman.Asyoucanseeinthesesentencediagrams,acompoundistypicallyrepresentedwiththatbranchingstructurethatlookslikearocketship.Inaproperlyformedcompound,theitemsoneitherlegoftherocketshipwillbethesamekindofgrammaticalstructure.Englishgrammargivesyousomanywaystoexpressthesameidea,however,thatyoumightendupexpressingsimilarideasusingdifferentstructuresoneithersideofacompound.Here'sanexampleofFaultyParallelism:Ilikeswimmingandtoplaybasketball.

Herewehaveacompounddirectobject,butononelegisthegerundswimming,andontheotheristheinfinitivephrasetoplaybasketball.Theyaren'tthesamekindofnounequivalents,andthereforeourrocketshipisasymmetrical.Thesentencepromisedparallelism,butdeliveredfaultyparallelism.

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Hereareafewwaystocorrectfaultyparallelism:1.Iliketoswimandtoplaybasketball.(Twoinfinitives)2.Iliketoswimandplaybasketball.(Compoundinfinitives)3.Ilikeswimmingandplayingbasketball.(Twogerunds)4.Ilikeswimmingandbasketball.(Twoabstractnounsbothnamingasport)Hereisanotherexampleoffaultyparallelism:

Dogsmustlearntoobeybutthattheyareloved.

Inthecompounddirectobject,onelegoftherocketshipisaninfinitive,andtheotherlegisanounclause.Wecouldfixitbysaying:

Dogsmustlearnthattheyhavetoobey,butthattheyareloved.Or,

Dogsmustlearntoobey.Buttheyalsoneedtoknowthattheyareloved.

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CorrelativeConjunctionsImentionedcorrelativeconjunctionsearlier.Theyare,

EITHER...ORNEITHER...NORBOTH...ANDNOTONLY...BUTALSO

Ifyouareusingacorrelativeconjunction,makesurethewordsonthefirsthalf(afterthefirstconjunction)areexactlythesamestructureasthewordsonthesecondhalf(afterthesecondconjunction.)Incorrect:Iamnotonlyscaredofalligatorsbutalsogrammarinstructors.Correct:Iamscarednotonlyofalligators,butalsoofgrammarinstructors.Intheaboveexample,eachhalfofthecorrelativeconjunctionisfollowedbyaprepositionalphrase.FaultyParallelisminCompoundVerbsWithcompoundverbs,sometimesyoucanloseparallelismbyaccidentallyswitchingfromactivetopassivevoice(orvice-versa).Forexample:

Ihadneverbeenslappedinthefacebeforeandsattherestunned.Youcouldfixthisparallelismwithaparticiple:

Havingneverbeenslappedinthefacebefore,Isattherestunned.Ormakeitacompoundsentence:

Ihadneverbeenslappedinthefacebefore,soIsattherestunned.Ihadneverbeenslappedinthefacebefore;Isattherestunned.

Onequicktip:Youdohavemoreflexibilitywithacompoundsentencethanwithotherkindsofcompounds.Aslongasyouhaveanindependentclauseoneithersideoftheconjunction,youhaveaparallelconstruction.Sometimesthebestwaytofixfaultyparallelismistogetridofit.Justbecausefaultyparallelismistheproblem,thatdoesn'tmeangoodparallelismisthesolution.

Thinkintermsof“equalsigns.”InasentencelikeLaszloisafireman,thatlinkingverb(is)iseffectivelyanequalsigninthemiddleofyoursentence:Laszlo=fireman.Justasinmathorscience,whenyouhavetopayattentiontounits,makesurethatthethingsoneithersideoftheequalsignarethesamekindofthing.

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Considerthissentence,forinstance:Achildundergoinganesthesiaisafearfulexperienceforanyparent.

Inthissentence,child=experience.Thewriterprobablyintendedforthegerundundergoingtobethesubject.Inthatcase,heshouldhaveusedthepossessive:Achild'sundergoinganesthesiaisafearfulexperienceforanyparent.Ipreferthatsentencewithouttheparallelism:Thethoughtofachildundergoinganesthesiaterrifiesanyparent.Ormaybefixingthissentenceisachancetogetmorecreative:Athousandfearsracethroughamother'sheadwhenherchildundergoesanesthesia.Willhefeelaloneontheoperatingtable?Willhewakeup?Willhebethesamewhenhedoeswakeup?Grammarisneverjustgrammar.Thinkofeverygrammarchallengeasanopportunitytomakeyoursentencemoreexpressive.ComparisonsandParallelismOnarelatednote:Whenyousetupacomparison,thethingsoneithersideofthecomparisonneedtobethesamekindofthing:

LikeEve'sbiteoftheforbiddenfruit,Ihadeatengriefandlostmyinnocence.UnlikeEve,Ihadn'tbeengivenachoice.

Those"likes"areequalsigns.Eve'sbite=I.ThewritermeanstosaythatsheislikeEve,notthatsheislikeEve'sbite.

LikeEvewhenshebittheforbiddenfruit,Ihadeatengriefandlostmyinnocence.Belowareacoupleoflastthingstowrapthisup.Dospendsometimeonthequizforthislesson.ItcoversseveralthingsIwasn'tabletogettointhelecture.

1. Don'ttrytomakeeverythingparallel.Ifsomethingisn'tquiteparallelbutfixingtheparallelismmakesthingsworse,don'tfixtheparallelism.Forexample,TheoiltycoonaddressedCongresspowerfullyandwithgreatconviction.Powerfullyisanadverb,andwithgreatconvictionisaprepositionalphrase,butitdoesn'tsoundbad.Thereisn'tagoodadverbequivalenttowithgreatconviction,soIwouldleaveitasitis.

2. Theseissuesofparallelismareoneofthereasonsyouneedtoknowyourgrammarprettywell.Ithelpstobeabletoidentify,Oh,here'sacompounddirectobject,butononesideithasagerundandontheotherthere'sanounclause.Youcanfeelyourwaythroughalotofwritingissueswhenyou'reediting,butithelpstohavethetechnicalknowledge.

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Quiz4.6:Parallelism

Eachofthequestionsinthisquizinvolvesasentencewithaparallelismerror.Foreachoftheseexamples,youwillanswertwoquestions:

1. Whatistheprobleminparallelisminthissentence?Hint:lookfortheAND,BUT,orORandcomparethestructuresoneithersideofit.Orelselookforcomparisonwords,especiallyLIKEorAS.YoumightfindithelpfultodeterminewhatkindofparallelstructureAPPEARStobesetupinthesentence(forexample:compoundverb,compoundsubject,compounddirectobject,compoundpredicatecomplement,compoundobjectofpreposition,etc.)andgofromthere.

2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.Hint:thismaymeanmakingthingsparallel,oritmaymeanthrowingouttheparallelismaltogether.

Here'sasamplequestionwithanswers:Jorgelikestoplayvideogames,boardgames,andjumpingonthetrampoline.

1. Thissentenceappearstohaveacompounddirectobjectfortheinfinitivetoplay.Thephrasesvideogamesandboardgamesworkfineasacompounddirectobject,butthegerundjumpingonthetrampolinedoesn'tworkasadirectobjectofplay.

2. Rewrite:Jorgelikesvideogames,boardgames,andjumpingonthetrampoline.(Inthisversion,videogames,boardgames,andjumpingonthetrampolineformacompounddirectobjectoflikes.)

I.Hecamewalkingupourdrivewayincowboybootsandbandylegs.

1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.

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II.Ibegantopanic:myheartthuddedandquicksucksofair.1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.

III.Hepickeditup,tookabite,buthalfthecontentsspilledoutontotheplate.


IV.Cynthiawasthefirsttocallme'Grandma'andcausedmetothinkaboutfuturegenerations.


V.ThepolicemantoldmetogetmycaroutoftheroadandalsothatIshouldgetanewwardrobe.


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VI.Myarmsareheavyandyetjitterylikehavinglowbloodsugar.1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.

VII.Henolongerhasthebronzedtwenty-year-oldhandsImetaroundtheswimmingpoolin1979.


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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson7:NominativeAbsolutes

TheNominativeAbsoluteisoneofthosegrammaticalstructuresthatyoudon'thearalotabout,thoughyouseeitanduseitallthetime.TheNominativeAbsoluteisastructurewithinasentence,madeupofanounanditsmodifiers(usuallyincludingaparticiple)thathasnogrammaticalconnectiontoanythingelse.ThewordabsolutecomesfromtheLatinwordabsolutus,whichmeanssetfree.Nominativeisanotherwordfornoun,soaNominativeAbsoluteisanounphrasethatisfloatingfreefromthesentenceit'sin.ANominativeAbsoluteusuallysitsatthebeginningofasentence,sometimesattheveryend,andoccasionallysomewhereinthemiddle.Hereareafewexamples:

Allthingsconsidered,thatwasn'tsuchabadriot.

Allthingsbeingequal,Iliketeabetterthanspoiledmilk.

Mydoghavingchewedupmyretaineragain,Imadeyetanothertriptotheorthodontist.

You'llnoticethatyoucouldeasilymoveanyofthoseNominativeAbsolutestotheendofthesentence:

Thatwasn'tsuchabadriot,allthingsconsidered.

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Let'slookatwhataNominativeAbsoluteismadeof,itsform.

• NominativeAbsolute=Noun+modifiers...almostalwaysaparticiple(eitherpresentorpast)

• Forexample:Things(noun)+considered(pastparticiple)Theparticipialphrasecanbeaslongasyouwant.Forexample:

MydoghavingchewedupmyretainerinthedarkofnightwhileIsleptthesleepoftheblessed,completelyunawareofthenefariousdeedsbeingcommittedinthenextroom,Imadeanothertriptotheorthodontist.

Ofcourse,thatlongparticiple("havingchewedup...")delaysthemainverblongerthanwenormallylike,butthegrammarallowsforsuchalongandcomplicatednominativeabsolute(thoughconsiderationforthereaderprobablydoesn't).Nowlet'slookatthefunctionofaNominativeAbsolute.

• ANominativeAbsolutedoesnothaveagrammaticalconnectiontothesentencewhereitlives.Itisn'tanobjectoracomplement.It'sjustthere.Andtheparticipialphraseisjustasidekicktothefloatingnoun.

• TheNominativeAbsolutehasalogicalconnectiontoitssentence.Itprovidesexplanatoryinformationthataddsmeaningtothemainsentence.Inthatsense,it'salmostadverbial,commentingonthewholeactionofthesentence.

Youwouldn'tsay:

Mygrandmother,havingbeenbornin1918,Ipickedupsomegrocery-storesushi.It'sgrammaticallyfinetosaythat,butthere'snologicalconnectionbetweentheNominativeAbsoluteandthemainclause.ACoupleofFinalThoughtsTheNominativeAbsolutelooksalotlikeaparticipialphraseatthebeginningofthesentence.Havingchewedupmyretaineragain,mydoglookedashamed.Thedifferenceisthattheparticiplemodifiesthesubject,mydog.IntheNominativeAbsolute,thenounismovedintothephrase.Sonowitisself-containedandcanmovearound.Iwarnwritersagainstover-usingNominativeAbsolutes.They'recomplexstructures,sotheysoundverysophisticated.Buttheytendtobecomeasortofverbalhabit,andthatgetswearyingforyourreader.Bydefinition,aNominativeAbsoluteintroducesadisconnectintoyoursentence.You'reshootingforconnection,soalwaysaskyourselfiftheNominativeAbsoluteisreallynecessary.

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Quiz4.7:NominativeAbsolutes

I.Whatgrammaticalroledoesanominativeabsoluteserveinthesentencewhereitlives? A.Itisasubject. B.Itisaverb. C.Itisanobject. D.Itisacomplement. E.Itisamodifier. F.Ithasnogrammaticalconnection,onlyalogicalconnection.II.Anniesitsslumpedonaconcreteslab,herbackcurvedlikeanautilusshell.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?III.Warm,freshbreadtuckedundermyarm,Iwaitedformynewneighbortoanswermyknock.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?

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IV.Billpushedthewheelbarrowupthedriveway,Sadiewalkingbesidehim.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?V.Ibookeditoff-stage,myfriendswaitingtohelpmeintoabluedresswhilethechoruscontinuedtosinganddanceunderthelights.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?VI.He’scoming,determinedlittlelegscrossingcarpetexpanse,enteringthedogzone.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?

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LectureNotes

Module4,Lesson8:CourseWrapUp

Havealookatthisverylong,verycomplexsentence:Thisisthefarmersowinghiscorn,Whokepttheroosterthatcrowedinthemorn,Thatwokethepriestallshavenandshorn,Whomarriedthemanalltatteredandtorn,Whokissedthemaidenallforlorn,Whomilkedthecowwiththecrumpledhorn,Thattossedthedog,Thatworriedthecat,Thatkilledtherat,ThatatethemaltThatlayinthehousethatJackbuilt.Thatsentencehas70words.Ithas11adjectiveclauses,3prepositionalphrases,and3participialphrases.Andyouunderstooditjustfine.Thisisaverycomplexsentence,andyetquitereadable.Why?Becauseitfollowstwoprincipleswe'vebeendiscussingallalonginGrammarforWriters.

• Itgetsimmediatelytothesubject/verbnexus:Thisisthefarmer.• Allofthemodifierssitimmediatelynexttothewordstheymodify.

Areadercanhandletremendouscomplexityaslongasyouareprovidingthemarkersheneedstonavigateit.Whenyouloveyourreaderyouaresaying,"I'vegotthisthingIwanttoshowyou.It'salittlecomplicated.SoI'mtosticktotheserulesthatyouandIshare,andthatwaywecangetthroughthistogether."Languageallowsfornearlyinfinitecomplexity.Butthatcomplexityrestsonacombinationofformsthatarethemselvesprettysimpleandoftenprettyrigid.That'swhysomething

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likeMadLibsworks.Youcanpluginalmostanynounorverboradjectiveandstillhaveaworkingsentence,aslongasyouplugitintoaspotwhereanounorverboradjectivegoes.Asquirrelateanacorn.Asquirrelstoleanacorn.Aplumberstoleanacorn.Aplumberstolethepettycashbox.Almosteverywordofthatsentencehaschanged,andthemeaninghaschangedentirely.Buttheunderlyingstructurehasn't.It'sstillSubject-Verb-Object.Aslongasyouputtherightkindofwordineachslot,grammardoesn'tcareaboutthespecificwords.Sothecombinationsofwordswithinthegrammaticalstructuresareeffectivelyinfinite.Andthepossiblecombinationsofthegrammaticalstructuresareeffectivelyinfinitetoo.Butthegrammaticalstructuresthemselvesarenotinfinite.Infact,you'veinteractedwithprettymuchalloftheminthiscourse.Youknowallthegrammaryouneedtoconnecteffectivelywithyourreader.Ifyouhavetroublerememberingsomeforms,gobackandwatchthelecturesagain,orreviewthelecturenotes,orhaveanotherlookatthequizzes.Andhere'ssomethingelse:youknowallthegrammaticalstructuresyouneed,andyourreaderknowsthemtoo.Hemightnotknowheknowsthem,buthisbrainknowsthemwhenitseesthem.Youarereadytocommunicate.Asfarasvocabularygoes,youprobablyalreadyknowenoughwordstowritewhatyouwanttowrite.Itneverhurtstolearnmorevocabulary,butifyoureadalotyourvocabularywillgrownaturally.Don'tlearnvocabularyjusttoimpresspeople;thatjustputsthemoff.Languageiscomplex.Complexitymeanstherearealotofopportunitiestogetthingswrong.ANDYET,complexityalsomeansthatyouhavealotofdifferentoptionsforreachingouttoyourreaderandmakingconnections.Ihopethiscoursehasmadeyoulessafraidofthosepossiblepitfallsingrammarandmoreconfidentinyourabilitytoconnectreadersyoucareaboutwithideasandstoriesthatyoucareabout.Now,gowritesomethingbeautiful.

QuizAnswers

Dr.JonathanRogers

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Quiz1.2AnswerKey

I. Thissentenceconsistsofasingleclause,themainlineofwhichisIworked.

Everythingelseisamodifier.OncetellswhenIworked,andataplumbingcompanytellswhereIworked.Here'sadiagram.

II. ThemainlinehereisIhaveadmiration.Theotherwordsarealladjectival,

modifyingadmiration.Here'sadiagram:

III. Thissentenceconsistsoftwoclauses,butonlyoneisamain(orindependent)

clause.Thatmostofusrunawayfromisadependent(adjective)clausemodifyingproblems.ThemainclauseisPlumbersconfrontproblems.Hereisadiagram:

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VI. Thissentencejusthasthemainclausewithoneadjectiveandoneadjectivalphrase.ThemainlineoftheclauseisIcannotimaginesociety.

V. Themainlinehereisfriendswere(not)civil.Everythingelseisamodifier.Here's

adiagram:

VI. ThemainlinehereisPlumbersconductfeud.

VII. Again,wehaveasentencewithtwoclauses.Itstartswithadependent(adverbial)

clausethattellswhen,orunderwhatconditionsyoushouldhugaplumber'sneck.Butthemainclauseisyoushouldhugneck.

Bearinmindthatalmosteverythingthatistrueofamainclauseisalsotrueofadependentclause.Asyoucanseefromthediagrambelow,thetwoclausesinthissentenceareverysimilarinstructure.Still,thedistinctionbetweendependentandindependentclausesisimportantandnottobeignored.Here'sthatdiagram:

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Quiz1.3AnswerKey

I. Hopefullythiswasaneasyoneforyou.IfyouapplytheVerbFinder,chasedis reallytheonlywordthatfits. Well,Isupposeit'spossiblethat'mob'couldfit...itseemsliketheBeatleswere alwaysgettingmobbed.Dopopsingersstillgetmobbed?II. IfyouuseyourVerbFinderhere,shoneistheonlywordthatfitsintheblank: I[blank].You[blank].He/She/It[blank].III. Fromthelastquestion,youknowthattheverbforthissentenceisshone.Plugthat verbintoyourSubjectFinder:Whoorwhatshone?Wisdomshone. Thewords"manyyears'rough"modifywisdom.Theytelluswhatkindofwisdom we'retalkingabout.Eyeistheobjectoftheprepositionfrom,anditismodifiedby thewords"onegood,"whichtelluswhatkindofeye.IV. PulloutthatVerbFinderagain:I[blank].You[blank].He/she/it[blank]. Inthiscase,morethanonewordcouldfitinthoseblanks.Frightenedcouldfit.Cried couldfit.*Sowhichofthoseistheverb?Well,theactionhere iscrying.Frightenedstartedoutlifeasaverb,buthereitisnotaverbbuta modifier—apastparticipledescribingJohnBarber'spitiablestateofmind. Criedistheverb.Plugthatverbintothesubjectfinder—Whocried?—andyoueasily findyoursubject.JohnBarbercried. *IfthiswereLatin,possumwouldalsobeacandidatefortheverb.PossumisLatin for"Iamable."V. I'msureyou'vealreadymemorizedyourlistoftobeverbs,soyouwouldn'thave hadanytroubleseeingthatwas(aformoftobe)pointstoyourverb.The

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questioniswhetherornotwasisthewholeverborahelpingverb.Inthiscase,it's ahelpingverb.Thewholeverbiswaschased.VI. Youknowfromthepreviousquestionthattheverbhereiswaschased.Whenyou applytheSubjectFinderandaskWhowaschased?it'srelativelyeasytoseethatthe subjectispirate. Remember,identifyingthegrammaticalsubjectisnotthesamethingasidentifying theactor.Theangrymobistheactor.Thatpoorpirateisreceivingtheactionof chasing,notdoingtheaction(though,nodoubt,itfeelsplentyactivetohim).Froma logicalperspective,iftheactionischasing,heistherecipientofthataction,notthe agent.Butthewholepointofthepassivevoiceistoallowsomethingorsomebody besidestheactortobethesubject.TheSubjectFinderwillalwaysidentify thegrammaticalsubject,nottheactor.InalaterlessonI'llhavealotmoretosay aboutaligningthesubjectwiththeactor.VII. Inonesense,thisisaneasyone.Anytimeyouseeaformoftobe,youhavefound theverb(oratleastpartoftheverb).And,asyouknow,isisaformoftobe.So that'sourverb. However,thisisanothersentencethatdemonstratesthedifferencebetweenthe actioninasentenceandtheverbinasentence.Chasingfeelsmoreactivethanis.So, forthatmatter,doesactivity.ButifyouuseyourVerbFinder,neitherchasing noractivityfitsintheblank.Onlyisdoes.VIII. Youmayhavefoundthisoneatadtricky.But,asalways,theSubjectFindercomesto therescue.Weknowfromthepreviousquestionthattheverbisis.SoourSubject FinderquestionisWhatis? Ifthiswereashort-answerquestionratherthanamultiple-choicequestion,you probablywouldhaveansweredchasingcars.Thatwouldhavebeenagoodanswer. ButIdidn'tgiveyouthatchoice,becauseIwantedyoutohavetochoose betweenchasingandcars.Andsinceyou'rehavingtochoose,thecorrectchoice ischasing.Thedog'sfavoriteactivityischasing,notcars.IX. Thesubject/verbnexusofthefirstclauseisIarrange. Thesubject/verbnexusofthesecondclauseisyoudestroy.

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Quiz1.4AAnswerKey

I. Thesubjectisyear(thefirstone),theverbiswas,andthepredicatecomplement isyear(thesecondone). Here'sthediagram:

II. Thesubjectofthissentenceisstep.Towardrecoverymodifiesstep,andofself- esteemmodifiesrecovery. Self-awarenessisapredicatecomplement.Itrenamesstep.Theto-beverbisisa cluethatwehaveapredicatecomplementratherthanadirectobject. Here'sthediagram:

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III. Thissentencedoeshaveadirectobject—thenounclauseiftheyweretalking

aboutme.Iwonderedwhat?Iftheyweretalkingaboutme.WewilldiscussnounclausesinModule3.Meanwhile,bearinmindthattheDirectObjectFinderworksnotonlywithsimplenouns,butwitheverykindofnounequivalent.

Here'sthediagram:

IV. Subject:oldman Verb:was Here'sasimplifieddiagram(technicallyspeaking,theverbinthewhoclauseis turnedoutandtobeGeorgeJonesisaninfinitivephraseservingasthepredicate complement,butatthispointinourjourneythissimplifiedversionseemed adequate):

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Quiz1.4BAnswerKey

I. ThemainlinehereisMikeleaned.Everythingelseisamodifier.The adverbforwardtellshowheleaned,asdoesthephraseontherail.Everythingelse tellsuswhichrail.Thereisasecondclauseinthissentence--"thatseparatedthe porch..."--butthisisanadjectiveclausetellinguswhichrail,notamainclause. Here'sthediagram:

II. ThemainactionhereisHemakes(his)trot.Everythingelseisa modifier.Slowandgloatingtelluswhatkindoftrot.Aroundthediamondtells uswherehetrotted.Squeezedintothebackyardtellsuswhatkindofdiamond(or possiblywhichdiamond).Here'sthediagram:

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III. Themainlinehereisfamilymoved.ToPhoenixandfromChicagobothtell uswherethefamilymoved,andwhenIwasseventellsuswhenthefamilymoved. Here'sthediagram:

IV. Themainlineistruckhasbeensitting.Theverbhereisthreewords—hasbeen sitting.Hasandbeenarehelpingverbs.Inmydrivewaytellsuswherethetruck hasbeensitting,andformonthstellsuswhenthetruckhasbeensitting.Here'sthe diagram:

V. Themainlineisfamilytradedtornadoes.Goingwestisamodifier.Technically, thisisaparticipialphrasemodifyingfamily,butreallyitfeelsmoreadverbialhere, tellingusunderwhatcircumstancesthefamilytradedtornadosfortumbleweeds andearthquakeaftershocks.Everythingaftertornadosis,technicallyspeaking,a compoundprepositionalphraseservingtotellhowthefamilytradedtornadoes. Here'sthediagram:

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VI. ThemainlinehereisTheyhadnottouchedthebirdfeeder.Ihungtwoweeks agoisaclausetellinguswhichbirdfeeder.Here'sthediagram:

VII. Thisoneisalittletricky.Thesubject/verbnexusofthemainclauseistruth broke.Thatopeningclause,Asthemists...cleared,tellsuswhenthetruthbroke, andthephrasewithalightthatpiercestothisdaytellsushowthetruthbroke.

VIII. Forthefirstindependentclause,thesubject/verbnexusiswaterwas.Forthe secondindependentclause,thesubject/verbnexusisthatwas. Hereisthediagram:

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IX. Forthefirstindependentclause,thesubject/verbnexusisitwas.Forthesecond independentclause,thesubject/verbnexusiswehadcamped. Here’sthediagram:

X. TheonlycompletesentenceisLikethebackofmygrandmother’shands,the delicateveinsarevisible.(Thissentencehassomeissues,asyouwilllearnwhen wediscusspassivevoiceinLessons7and8ofthismodule,andwhenwediscuss parallelisminModule4,butitisasentencewithbothmainsubjectandamainverb, unliketheotherthreegroupsofwordsabove.)XI. Trickquestion!There'snomainverbhere.Thisisasentencefragment.Madeisa verb,butitisaverbinadependent(adjective)clause.And'todrink'isaninfinitive ratherthanaverb.Thesethingswillmakesenselateriftheydon'talready.

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Quiz1.5AAnswerKey

I. E.NemesisrenamesJohnBarber,soitisapredicatecomplement.II. C.DirectObjectFinder:JohnBarbersoldwhat?Afakeelevatorpass.IndirectObject

Finder:JohnBarbersoldafakeelevatorpasstoorforwhom?Me.I'mstillmadaboutit.

III. D.OnceyouhaveidentifiedJohnBarberastheDOinthissentence,youstillneedto accountforsneakymonkey.ThephraserenamestheDOJohnBarber,soitisanOC.I couldhavecalledhimmuchworse.IV. B.ThephrasewithagloveisamodifiertellinghowJohnBarberslapped.It'snoton themainline.ThatleavesJohnBarberslappedmeonthemainline,anditis relativelyeasytoseehowthatclauseconformstotheS-V-DOpattern.V. B.Theverbhereiscould(not)ignore.Icouldnotignorewhat?Theinsult.Idaresay youcouldn'thaveignorediteither.VI. A.Thephraseinthevestibuleisadverbial,tellingwherewefought.ThatleavesWe foughtonthemainline,soit’sobviouslytheS-Vpattern.VII. B.Thestoryhasahappyending.

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Quiz1.5BAnswerKey

I. B.S-V-DO

II. E.S-V-PC

III. E.S-V-PC

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IV. B.S-V-DOAsyoucanseeinthediagrambelow,howtochangethebedsheets...isanounclause

servingasthedirectobjectoftheverbshowed.[Itlooksliketheleftsideofthe diagramgotcutoff.Sorryaboutthat,butforthepurposesofthisquestion,themore relevantpartsofthediagramareallthere.]

V. A.S-V

VI. E.S-V-PC

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VII. A.S-V

VIII. C.S-V-IO-DO

IX. D.S-V-DO-OC

X. C.S-V-IO-DO

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Quiz1.6AnswerKey

I. Therearetwoactionsinthatsecondsentence:Irenecallsout,andJimmylaughs.But theverblaughsbecomesthenounlaughter,tuckedawayasthedirectobjectinan adjectiveclause.AndJimmyhasdisappearedcompletelyfromthatsecond sentence.Hereisonewaytoreworkthesentence:Irenewouldcallout"Jimmy,stop it!"andJimmywouldlaughallthemore.II. Lookatthesubjectandverbofthissentence:furniture,clothing,andeducation madethemotherwilling(thisclausepatternisS-V-DO-OC).Therealactionhere— themothermakingchoices—getsmovedtoaparticiple(willing)modifiedbyan infinitivephrase(tostretch…)modifiedbyanadverbialclause(thatthey sometimesdisappearedaltogether).Bringingthegrammarinlinewiththeaction willprobablyinvolvemakingthemotherthesubjectofthesentence.

• Mymothersometimesstretchedourlimitedmeanstothebreakingpointinordertogiveusfinefurniture,goodclothes,andprivateeducation.

• Mymotherthoughtitwasimportantforustohavefinefurniture,goodclothes,andaprivateeducation.Shewaswillingtostretchourmeanstothebreakingpointtomakesurewehadthosethings.

Asalways,thesearejusttwoofmanypossiblewaystoreworkthesesentences.III. Thatphrasesnappedoffandneverreattachedisaparticipialphrase(actually,two participialphrases).Snappedandreattachedlooklikeverbs,buttheyserve asmodifiers.Theverbhereisthepassiveis[presumed]lost. Soherearetheactions:

• Askipoleissnappedoff.• Askipoleisneverreattached.• Askipoleislost.

(Ihaveexpressedallthreeoftheseactionsaspassiveconstructions,butsincewe don'tknowtheactorshere,Ihopeyouwillforgiveme.) Here'sonewaytobringtheverbsandsubjectsmoreinlinewiththeaction:The rightskipolesnappedoffandwasneverreattached.Itislosttothetundra.

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IV. Thesubject-verbnexusofthemainclauseismomentfilled.Thesubject-verbnexus ofthesubordinateclauseisthat[surge]wasabouttoensue.Here'sadiagram:

Whataretheactions?

• Apersonsneezes(or,rather,isabouttosneeze).• Apersonfeelsdread.• Apersonknowsthatpainiscoming.

Therearelotsofwaystorevisethissentence.Here'sone:EverytimeIfeltasneeze comingon,Iwasfilledwithfear.IknewIwasabouttofeelasurgeofpain.I'mnot convincedthisisthebestwaytorevisethissentence,butasyoucansee,the grammarmorecloselyalignswiththeactionthanintheoriginal.V. Quicknote:Whenyoustartasentencewith"thereis/was/are/were,"youwill

ALWAYShaveamismatchbetweenactors/actionsandsubjects/verbs.

Actions/StatesofBeing:• Eventsandvenueswerescarce.• Mothergladlypaidthecostofroadtrips.

SubjectsandVerbs:• Scarcitywas• Costwas

Possiblerevision:

Culturaleventswerescarceinourhometown,somymothergladlypaidthecostof frequenttripstothecity.

Orperhaps,

Wehadfewculturalopportunitiesinourhometown,somymothergladlymade frequenttripstothecity.

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VI. Actorsandactions:• Aseventh-graderbegshermothertotakehertoaplay.• Themotherenthusiasticallysays“Yes.”• Theseventh-graderisn'tsurprised.

Subjectsandverbs:

• "Yes"was(not)surprising.• Ibegged.

Here'sonewaytorevise:InseventhgradeIbeggedmymothertotakemetoaplayattheTivoliTheater.Iwasn'tsurprisedwhenshegavemeanimmediateandenthusiastic"Yes!"

274

Quiz1.7AnswerKey

I. No.Thisisactive.Theverbhadbeatenisinpast-perfect.Likepassivevoice,the past-perfecttenseusesthefourthprincipalpart(beaten).Sointhatregardit resemblespassivevoice.Butthinkintermsoffunction,notform.Inthiscase,the bearisthegrammaticalsubject,andthebearistheactor(he'stheonewhodoesthe beating).ThepassiveformwouldbesomethingalongthelinesofWewerebeaten herebythelargebear...II. No.Thissentenceisnotinpassivevoice.Inthiscase,theto-beverbwasdepictsa stateofbeing.Remember,ifthiswereinpassivevoice,thegrammaticalsubject wouldbereceivingsomeaction.III. Yes.Thissentencestartswithadependentclause,Whenallelsefails.Thatclauseis inactivevoice.Butthemainclause,adogcanbecountedon,ispassive.IV. Yes.Thisisaprettygrosspassiveconstruction.Itwouldbebettertosay,Wesawa creatureswimming—abeaver?”V. No.Inthiscase,theto-beverbwasisusedasahelpingverbinthepast-progressive

verbwasstudying.Thegrammaticalsubject(He)istheactor(Heisdoingthestudy,notgettingstudied),sothisisnotpassivevoice.

VI. Bothofthesesentencesarepassive.ThedifferencebetweenthemisthatinSentence 1theactors(wolves)arenamed,andinSentence2theactorsareomitted.Who raisedJohnBarberinabarninSentence2?Wolves?Hisparents?French mimes?There'snowayofknowing.VII. Elvisusedthishandkerchief.VIII. AglassofwaterwasgiventoLindabyUncleThurston. or(ifyouwishtoleaveUncleThurstonoutofit) AglassofwaterwasgiventoLinda.

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IX. LindawasgivenaglassofwaterbyUncleThurston. Alsoacceptable: Lindawasgivenaglassofwater.X. Revisedversion:Twohourslater,afterwehadeatenthesandwiches,thethunder came.(I'mjustguessing,ofcourse,thatwearethecorrectactorsforthisaction, sincethepassiveconstructionconcealstheactor(s).Youmayhaveguessed differently.That'sfine.)XI. 1.Thatlastsentenceisinpassivevoice.

2.Thisisanunfortunatechoice,becausequick-thinkingCurtis,themanofthehour,completelydisappearsjustathismomentoftriumph.Actually,therearetwopassiveverbsinthatlastsentence.Thesecond—Iwassurroundedbyfriends—isn'tsoegregiousasthefirst—Iwastossed—whicheffectivelyerasesourhero.3.Revised,activeversion:Hetossedmeinthepool,andfriendssurroundedmewithinseconds.Ifyouprefertoleavethesecondpassiveconstruction,thatworksfine:Hetossedmeinthepool,andIwassurroundedbyfriendswithinseconds.Inthatsecondversion,noticethatthenarrator,thereinthecenterofherfriends,isthegrammaticalsubjectofherownclause,andthatisentirelyappropriate.

276

Quiz1.8AAnswerKey

I. A.Intheactivevoice,theactoristhesubject.Inthepassivevoice,theactorismoved outofsubjectposition.Theactormaybetuckedawayastheobjectofapreposition (TheflowersweregiventoBarbieBYKEN),ortheactormaydisappearaltogether (TheflowersweregiventoBarbie).II. CandD.Inapassiveconstructiontheactorismovedoutofthesubjectposition,to bereplacedbyadirectobject(FlowersweregiventoBarbiebyKen)oranindirect object(BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen).III. AthruD.Alloftheanswersareproblemsassociatedwiththepassivevoice.IV. 1.Whenconcealing/denyingagency

2.Whentheactorisunknown3.Whendirectingthereader'sattentiontosomethingbesidestheactor4.Whenexpressingpassivity(thesubjectofthesentencewasthevictim/receiverofanaction)

277

Quiz1.8BAnswerKey

I. Iwouldgivehispassiveconstructionahardno.Thepainterisholdinghisbrush, dabblingitinthepaint,brushingitonthecanvas...andthenjustwhenhe'saboutto finishhismasterpiece,POOF!,apassiveconstructionrendershiminvisible.II. Byusingthepassivevoice,thiswritergivesthesubjectpositiontothecatalogs ratherthangivingittothetruck.Thetruckisn'tasimportantasthecatalogsandthe bills.Idon'tknowifthewriterwasdoingthisonpurpose,butthissentence structurecreatesanicebalancebetweenthecatalogsandthebills,withthetruckas thefulcrumoftheteeter-totter.Ithinkthepassivevoiceisagoodchoicehere.III. Iwouldsaythetwopassiveconstructionsinthesecondsentenceareentirely appropriate.Itdoesn'tseemrelevanttosaywhobroughtthewaterfromthe mountainsanddistributeditthroughthecanals,evenifweknew.Asforthefirst sentence,thatpassiveconstructionisn'tterrible,butIfinditalittledistracting.You couldsay"Farmersgrowcitrustrees,almondtrees,etc.,"butIthinkIwouldjustsay "Citrustrees,almondtrees,cotton,andgrapesgrowsuccessfully..." Here'swhatmyrevisionwouldlooklike: Citrustrees,almondtrees,cotton,andgrapesgrowsuccessfullythanksto irrigation.Thewaterisbroughtdownfromthemountainsthroughanaqueductand distributedbyacanalsystem.IV. Idon'tthinkitmakesalotofsensetointroducetheanonymousartisthere.Iwould probablymakethewholethingpassive,orperhapsjustuseagoodoldlinkingverb ortwotodescribethescenesothatIhavelesspassivevoicebutIdon'thavetotalk abouttheartist.Here'sanall-passiveversion: Heisgluedtothickskisthatsitatopawoodenplank.Thewoodenplankisacanvas onwhichthecedarsceneisset.Intocedarwoodiscarvedatinyfirtreestuntedat halfthebear’sheight.

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Andhere'saversionthatuseslinkingverbsinthoselasttwosentences: Heisgluedtothickskisthatsitatopawoodenplank.Thewoodenplankisacanvasfor thecedarscene.Atinyfirtreecarvedfromcedarstandsstuntedathalfthebear’s height.V. Iwoulddefinitelykeepthefirstpassiveconstruction.Thereisnoactive-voicewayto communicatetheideaofbeingtransported(thoughyoucould,ofcoursecomeup withsomethingfresherthatmightbeactive).I'mnotassureIwouldkeepthe secondpassiveconstruction,thoughit'shardtoknowhowbesttoreviseit.Iassume thatPedroandIfromthefirstclauseexploredtheircreativity.Didtheyfosterit too,ordidtheirparentsfosterit?Didtheenvironmentfosterit?Noticehowthe passivevoiceallowsawritertogetawaywithsomeimprecision.Here'sonewayto revise: PedroandIhavelittlecontactthesedays,butwhenIthinkbackonourfriendshipI’m transportedbacktothatredbrickhouseonSpruceStreetwherewefosteredcreativity andexploredourimaginations.

279

Quiz1.9AnswerKey

I. AbstractionII. ComplyIII. RevealIV. Here'sonepossiblerevision:Leonardwasn'tpayingattention,sohecollidedwitha telephonepole. Ifyouwanttobemorespecific,youcansaysomethinglikethis: Leonardlookedupfromhistelephonejustbeforehecollidedwiththetelephonepole.V. Mariaarguedthatshewouldbeexposedtonewriskswhenthepolicyexpired.VI. Ioriginallywasn'tinterestedinknowingher;Ionlywantedhertoacceptme.

VII. Here'sonewaytodoit:AfterDalefellfromaladderatawarehousejobandinjured hisshoulderworkingasajanitoratthecountyjail,hewasnonetoosteadyonhisfeet.VIII. Someofmyfavoriteswerebooksandbaseballcards,butingeneralIwasunderthe impressionthatthebiggerthegiftthebetter,andIhadlittlerespectforbirthday cards.IX. Onthoseoccasionswhenheremovedhisshades,herevealedglassy,bloodshoteyes.

Or, Occasionallyheremovedhisshades.Whenhedid,Icouldseehiseyeswereglassyand bloodshot.

280

Quiz1.10AnswerKey

I. am,is,are,was,be,being,beenII. Thisstatementisfalse.Communicatingastateofbeingisaperfectlyrespectablejob foraverb.Thetobeverbisthemostcommonstateofbeingverb.Thisverbhasa badreputationbecauseitisoftenanaccompliceinwritingcrimessuchas inappropriatepassivevoiceandexcessivenominalization.Butthereisnoshamein usingatobeverbtocommunicateastateofbeing,noristhereanyshameinusing thetobeverbasahelpingverbintheprogressivetenses(whichyouwilllearn aboutinafuturelesson).III. Icanenvisionhairthatisasexpansiveasanexplosion;it'savividimage.AndIcan envisiontight,brownringlets.Butit’shardtoenvisionbothatthesametime.Ifyou wantmetoenvisiontight,brownringlets,don’taskmetoimaginethemasan explosion.Ifyouwantmetoenvisionanexplosion,don’taskmetoenvisionitas somethingtightandcontrolled.IV. Cliffsdon'thover.Actually,theystayverystillandsolid.Theremaybe circumstancesunderwhichyoucoulddescribeacliffashoveringinsome figurativesense.Buthere,whereapersonisjumpingoffaclifftogohang-gliding, thecliffistheleasthover-ythinginthesentence.Thehang-glidermighthover.The personattachedtothehang-glidermighthover.Butthecliffistheonethingthatjust sitsthere.V. Whenathingmelts,itgetssofter.Butwedon'tthinkofadefiantfaceasbeingsofter thanabewilderedface.Infact,weusuallythinkofitasquiteabitharder.Iwould saysomethingmorealongthelinesof:Hisbewilderedfacehardenedintodefiance.VI. IsuspectthisisoneofthosesituationsinwhichthewriterstartedoutwithThe rectangularstudiohadpolishedwoodfloors...anddecidedthatheldwouldbea moreinterestingverbthanhad.Idon'tagreethatheldismoreinterestingthan had.

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Whenyounoticethataverbisn'tasinterestingasyouwantittobe,remember,the answerisn'tnecessarilyamatterofplugginginadifferentverb.Maybeyouneedto domorereworkingthanthat. ThestudiowasarectangleabouthalfthesizeofanOlympicswimmingpool—more thanenoughroomformytenlittledancerstoplieandpirouette.Thegleamofits polishedwoodfloorwasreflectedinafullwallofmirror.Abarreranthelengthofthe mirror,thenturnedthecornertorunalongasidewallinagreat"L."VII. Painting,brushing,andpattingareverydifferentactionsfromchiseling.Thewriter herewantstoconveytheideathatthisexhilaratedexpressionisaspermanentasif ithadbeenchiseled,butbecausehehasalreadycommittedtopainting,brushing, andpatting,chiselingisnolongeravailabletohim. Theuseoftheprepositionontoinsteadofintomakesmethinkthiswriterisn’t tooseriousabouttheverbchiselanyway.

282

Quiz1.11AnswerKey

I. Subject:pain Verb:wouldsurge Thatcommajustbeforetheverbisacluethatthereisaproblem.Anytimeyou're temptedtoputacommabeforetheverb,youprobablyneedtogetthesubjectand theverbclosertogether.Here'sonepossiblerewrite: EverytimeItriedtogetoutofbed,liquidpainsurgedthroughmyback,sointensethat itstolemybreath.II. Oneoption:Shehadneverbeforeexperiencedtheeerie,emptydarknessthatnow envelopedthethree-storyfoyerofherfather'sbig,glassed-inoffice.III. Onepossibility:Hisponytailcomeslooseandthreefeetofgrayingbrownhairdrapes hisshoulders;thissightistypicallyonlyobservedbyimmediatefamilyoranyonelucky enoughtocatchhimsippingcoffeeonadayoff.IV. Onepossibleanswer:Mygreat,greatuncleMarionwasaneccentricartist.Heframed hiswatercolorswithplanksfromtheporchandworehisteethonlyforimportant events.AfewyearsafterhediedTheVaseappeared,andwejokedthathissonBert hadputhisashesinitandplaceditonhismantel.V. Here'soneoption:Intheredbrickhomeofthewomannextdoor,aweeklyrhythm bandfortheneighborhoodchildrenputthedelighttomusic.VI. Here'soneoption:Thirtyfeetfromthewaterafringeofgnarledpinerootsreached outintotheemptyair,markingtheborderbetweenbarerubbleandstubbornforest. Thisalterationlookslikeitdidn'tmovethesubjectatall,butitactuallychangesthe verbfrommarkstoreached.

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VII. Onepossibility:Loadedwithpurse,emptiedpicnicbasket,andtissue-filledgiftbag, themothertrudgedupthebackstepswiththreesweatykids,readytoescapetheJuly sun.VIII. Here'sonepossibility:Sheerexhilarationmixedwithutterterror.Launchingfromthe swing,Ifeltweightless,suspendedinmidair,untilIfeltthepulloftheearthdownward andsawthegrowingpuddlebelowme.Thejourneywasastonishing.

284

Quiz1.12AnswerKey

I. AtoD.Anythingonthemainlinecanbecompounded.II. for,and,nor,but,or,yet,soIII. Run-onsentence CommaspliceIV. 1.Thecompoundcomplementisbell-bottoms+sweater. 2.Therearethirteenwordsbetweenbell-bottomsandsweater.Simplyflip-flopping thetwomakesabigdifference: 3.Maybethatdayitwasapilledtansweaterandgreenplaidbell-bottomsayearor twopasttheirheightofcoolness.V. 1.Thecompoundverbiswasfurnished+smelt. 2.Youmightflip-flopthetwoverbphrases:Theroomsmeltmustyandwasfurnished withpiecesthatcouldeasilyhavebeenfroma1960scatalog. Oryoumightgiveuponthecompoundverbandcommunicatethemustysmellwith aparticiple:Themusty-smellingroomwasfurnishedwithpiecesthatcouldeasilyhave beenfroma1960scatalog. VI. 1.Thisisarun-onsentence.Ifinishedplayingandthehissoftherespiratoronce againfilledtheroomlikeincenseareindependentclauses.Tojointhemintoa compoundsentence,youneedacoordinatingconjunction(and)alongwitha comma. 2.Technically,thisiscorrect:Ifinishedplaying,andthehissoftherespiratoronce againfilledtheroomlikeincense.However,theactionsofthetwoclausesareso differentthatIthinkthissentencemakesmoresensedividedintotwosimple

285

sentences:Ifinishedplaying.Thehissoftherespiratoronceagainfilledtheroomlike incense.VII. Mysisterhadaskedforadozendolls,andmybrother'swishlisthadafrontandback.VIII. 1.Thecompoundobjectoftheprepositionisdoll+heart. 2.Mydollandarepentantheartvarysowidelyinnaturethatitishardtopicture Brianwalkinginthedoorholdingboth.Writersoftendothissortofthingfor humorouseffect,andthatisfine.Justbeawarethatyoudon'twanttodothisthingif you'renotbeingfunny. Onerevisionmightbe:Briancamehomewitharepentantheart,holdingmydollin hishand.

286

Quiz1.13AnswerKey

I. Thistimetomorrowisthetimeflag.II. Irealizedafterafewminutesthatmydadhadnotdrivenawaybutwassittinginthe carwatching.

Theflagonthetimelineisafterafewminutes.Thesentencealsousesthepastprogressivetense:wassitting.Sequentially,hadnotdrivencomesbetweenthosetwoverbsandiscompleted,sothepastperfecttensemakesthemostsense.

III. I.Thetimeflagisthistimetomorrow,soyouknowitwillbeoneofthefutureforms.

Willbe+-ingsignalsfutureprogressive.IV. B.SincethetimeflagisDecember11,1941,youknowtheverbtensewillbeoneof thepastforms.Thehelpingverbhad+the-edendingsignalsthepastperfecttense. ThedeclarationsofwarwerecompleteasofDecember11,1941.V. B.Thebestoptionhereis:Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpour started.Ifeltbadformywife;sheHADBEENhanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleft thehouse. Inthatlastsentence,theflagonthetimelineiswhenIleftthehouse.Thelaundry- hangingwasinprogressatthatpointinthepast,sothepastprogressivewas hangingshouldbecomehadbeenhanging.VI. D.Thesentenceisbetteras-is.

287

Quiz2.2AnswerKey

I. B,C,F Ineachoftheseexamples,simplytryingthewordandbetweenthetwoadjectives givesyoutheanswer.Youwouldn'tsaybasicandhumandecencyortediousand planningmeetingorplainandgoldband,soyoudon'tneedcommasbetweenthose pairs.Butyoucouldsayripeandsweetberriesorlongandtediousplanningmeeting orfatandsoftsheep. AnothertrickthatIfailedtomentioninthelectureistotryflip-floppingthe adjectives.Iftheyworkjustaswellinthereverseorder,youdefinitelyneeda commabetweenthem.There'snorealdifferencebetweenfatsoftsheepandsoftfat sheep,soyouneedacommathere.Ontheotherhand,sweetspringgrassandspring sweetgrassarenotinterchangeable,soyoudon'tneedacommathere.II. A,B,E,G,H,J

Hyphenatetwoormorewordswhentheyserveasasingleadjectivebeforethenountheymodify—butnotwhentheyformapredicateadjective.Soyouwouldhyphenatemytwo-year-oldnephewbutnotmynephewistwoyearsold.

Donoticethatwhenyouhaveanadverb,youdon'tneedahyphen.Neitherheavily paintednorclearlyimpossibleshouldbehyphenated.Doyouseethedifference betweenheavilypaintedandhand-painted?Thewordhandisn'tanadverb.Ifthis doesn'tmakesensenow,itmaymakemoresenseafterwegetintoparticiples.III. B,D,GIV. SloppilyisanadverbtellingHOWJohnBarbercried. V. Lazyinasadjectivemodifyinggoat.IttellsWHATKINDofgoat(orpossiblyWHICH goat.) VI. Tomorrowisanadverbmodifyingtheverbcall.IttellsWHENIwillcall.

288

Quiz2.3AnswerKey

I. Iwouldomitbothdigitallyandrelationally.Theseadverbssimplyrepeatthe meaningofthephrasestheyinhabit.BeingconnectedtotheInternetisnecessarily digital,andbeingconnectedtopeopleisnecessarilyrelational.Theresulting sentenceiscleanerwhilestillkeepingobviousthecontrastbetweendigital connectionandrelationaldisconnection:TheymaybeconnectedtotheInternet,but theyaredisconnectedfromoneanother.II. Thissentenceisagoodexampleofwhyadverbshaveabadreputation.Theadverb loudlyallowsthewritertobelazy.Insteadoffindingthemostpreciseverb,the writerhasjustaddedan-lyadverbtothegenericverbshut.There'saneasyfixhere: theverbslammeanstoshutloudly.Butthiswouldalsobeagoodopportunityto thinkthroughamorevividdepictionofthescene.Maybesomethinglikethis:A momentlaterhisdoorswungopen,thenshudderedonitshingesasheslammedit behindhim.III. Theadverbquicklyisentirelyunnecessary.Ifshe’shalf-running,she’smoving quickly.IV. Inthiscase,theadverbscontributemeaning.Thiswriter(whohappenstobe WendellBerry)isnotusingtheseadverbsasasubstituteforabetterverb,norishe beingredundant.There'snoshameinusing-lyadverbswhentheyaddspecificity andclarity.V. Thiswriterwastryingalittletoohardtoavoid-lyadverbs.Thatfour-word prepositionalphrase,inafranticmanner,isnotanimprovementovertheadverb frantically.Hebouncedfrantically,yippingandbarking.

289

Quiz2.5AnswerKey

I. Theprepositionalphraseaftermeisadverbial,tellingwhenyoucanhaveaturn.II. Theprepositionalphraseaftermeisadverbial,tellingwhenyoucanhaveaturn. Noticethatanadverbialphraseismovable.Itdoesn’tmatterwhetheritappearsat thebeginningofthissentenceortheend.III. Theprepositionalphraseintotheburningbuildingisadverbial,tellingwhereJohn Barberran.(ThephrasetosavehisBeanieBabycollectionisaninfinitivephrase,not aprepositionalphrase,eventhoughtoisusuallyapreposition.We’lldiscuss infinitivephrasesinacoupleoflessons.)IV. Theprepositionalphraseofbirdsongisadjectival,tellingwhatkindofcacophony.V. Theprepositionalphraseunderthemattressisadjectival,tellingwhichmoney.VI. Theprepositionalphraseunderthemattressisadverbial,tellingwhereIhidthe money.VII. Theprepositionalphraseonthefloornearbyisadverbial,tellingwherethefansat.VIII. Theprepositionalphrasewithastraightfaceisadverbial,tellinghowHelenlooked.IX. Theprepositionalphrasewiththemermaidtattooisadjectival,tellingwhichgirl.X. Theprepositionalphraseiswithbinoculars.Butit’snotentirelyclearwhetherit’s supposedtobeadverbial,tellinghowHelenlooked,oradjectival,tellingwhichgirl.

290

Quiz2.7AnswerKey

I. Thegrammaticalsubjectofthesentenceissmile.Butthesmile,ofcourse,didn't

wipeteafromitsmustache.Here'sonewaytofixit:Thehusbandwipesteafromhishandlebarmustache.Hissmileiswideenoughtodriveatractorthrough.

II. Thegrammaticalsubjectisbird.Butthebirdisn'tbreakfastingonthepatio.Here's onewaytofixit:OnawarmOctobermorning,whiletheybreakfastedonthepatio,a birdswoopeddownandlandedontheirtable.III. Here'sonefix:IspentfivehoursansweringalltheERnurses'questions,nevergetting clarityonanyofmine,beforethedoctorfinallyenteredtheroom.IV. Thetemperapaintersarehalf-clothed,butthankstothepassiveconstruction,they havedisappearedfromthesentencealtogether,sotheparticiplehalf-clothedhasno nountomodify(neitherabackyardnortheabstractnountempera-paintingcanbe half-clothed).Changethepassiveconstructiontotheactive,andthesentencefixes itself:Wedidallofourtempera-paintinginthebackyard,half-clothed.V. Dampeningisaparticiple,notaverb.Ifyouchangeitbackintoaverb,thesentence fixesitself:Theforestdampenedtheinsects'choruslikestagecurtainsdeadeningan orchestra'stuningbeforeaconcert.VI. Thisisprobablythetidiestwaytodoit:Thedogfollowedhimeverywhere,growling, yipping,andbarking.Thisoptionlosestheideaofthedogalternatingthrougha repertoire(thoughitisimplied).Thewriterwouldhavetodecidewhetherthatidea isimportantenoughtojustifytheawkwardnessoftheoriginalphrasing.

291

Quiz2.8AnswerKey

I. TonestisanadverbialinfinitivetellingWHYtheblackbirdscome.(Thephraseto

themarshisaprepositionalphrase,thoughitstartswithto,likeaninfinitive.)II. Thephrasetowinherlovewithtubasolosisanadjectivalinfinitivephrasetelling WHATKINDofattempts.Notethattheprepositionalphrasewithtubasolosisan adverbialphrase(modifyingtowin)withinthelargeradjectivalphrase.III. Toleavequicklyisadverbial,tellingWHYRichieturned.IV. ThephrasetoeatisaninfinitivetellingWHICHmushrooms.V. Thisoneisalittletricky.Tomaketheundergrowthsparseisanadverbialinfinitive phrase.Butwhatisitmodifying,andwhatquestionisitasking?Iwouldsayit modifiestheadjectiveenough,answeringTOWHATEXTENT.VI. Toseasonyourbrothisadverbial,tellingHOW(possiblyWHY?)youneed.VII. Tositatthebenchatthebendinthetrailisadverbial,tellingWHYIwouldtradeit all.

292

Quiz2.10AnswerKey

I. TheadjectiveclauseTHATILIKEBESTmodifiesgoat.TherelativepronounTHATis theDirectObjectoftheclause.II. WHEREIGOTMYSTARTisanadjectiveclausemodifyingpostoffice.Therelative pronounWHEREfunctionsasanadverbintheadjectiveclause.III. TheadjectiveclauseABOUTWHICHITOLDYOUmodifiesalligator.Therelative pronounWHICHistheobjectoftheprepositionaboutwithintheadjectiveclause.VI. TheadjectiveclauseITOLDYOUABOUTmodifiesalligator.Therelativepronoun THAThasbeenomitted,butitwouldbetheobjectoftheprepositionabout.V. WHOINSTALLEDOURICEMACHINEmodifiesplumber.TherelativepronounWHO isthesubjectoftheadjectiveclause.VI. TheclauseWHOSECARITOTALEDmodifiesguy.TherelativepronounWHOSEisan adjectivemodifyingcar.

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Quiz2.11AnswerKey

I. TheadverbialclauseisAFTERJOHNBARBERSHOWEDUP.Thesubordinating conjunctionaftertellsWHENthepartygotlame.Sincetheadverbialclauseisat thebeginningofthesentence,youneedacommatoseparatetheadverbialclause fromthemainclause.II. TheadverbialclauseisAFTERJOHNBARBERSHOWEDUP.Thesubordinating conjunctionaftertellsWHENthepartygotlame. Remember,anadverbialmodifyingaverbismovable.Thisisthesamesentenceas theoneabove,exceptthattheadverbialclausehasbeenmovedfromthebeginning ofthesentencetotheend.NoticethatyouDON'Tuseacommatoseparatethemain clausefromadverbialclauseiftheadverbialcomesattheend.III. TheadverbialclauseisUNLESSSOMEONEASKEDFORIT.IttellsWHY(or,you mightsay,UNDERWHATCONDITIONS)thespeakerofferedinformation. Notethateventhoughafterservedasasubordinatingconjunctionintheprevious twosentences,itisaprepositioninthissentence.Howdoyouknow?Itdoesnot introduceaclause.Instead,itprecedesthenounpoint.Afterthatpointisan adverbialprepositionalphrasetellingWHENthespeakerdidn'tofferinformation.IV. TheadverbialclauseisTHANHECOULDHAVEKNOWN.Itmodifiestheadjective closer,answeringthequestionTOWHATEXTENT.V. TheadverbialclauseEVERYWHERETHEYGOtellsWHEREslugsleaveatrailof slime.VI. TheadverbialclauseisASANTONIOBROUGHTTHEBANANAPUDDINGINTOTHE DININGROOM.IttellsWHENLinda'seyesburnedwithtearsofgratitude.

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VII. Thisisatrickquestion.Thisisasentencefragment.Asisasubordinating conjunction,whichsuggeststhatASTHECASHIERTOOKHERPLACEBEHINDTHE COUNTERshouldbeanadverbialclause.Butthere'snomainclauseforthe adverbialclausetomodify.Withoutamainclause,asubordinateclauseisjusta sentencefragment.VIII. TheadverbialclauseASIHAVEEVERBEENmodifiesangry,tellingTOWHAT EXTENTthespeakerisangry. Notethatintheprevioussentence,asintroducesaWHENclause,butinthis sentence,asintroducesaTOWHATEXTENTclause.IX. Thissentencehastwoadverbialclauses:WHENIWASFOURTEENandAFTERMY MOTHERDIEDANDMYFATHERRANOFF.ThefirstclausetellsWHENthe grandmothersentthespeakertothegrouphome.Thesecondclauseisactuallya compoundsentencerenderedsubordinatebythesubordinatingconjunctionafter. Likethefirstclause,ittellsWHENthegrandmothersentthespeakertothegroup home.

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Quiz2.12AnswerKey

I. A.Whentheantecedentisaperson,youdon'tusetherelativepronounthat.Since therelativepronounservesasthesubjectofthesubordinateclause,usethe nominative-casewho.II. B.SincePeanutisaperson,thatisoutofthequestion.Sinceheistheobjectofthe

verbhadinsulted,theobjective-casewhomiscorrect.III. A.Again,sincepeoplearehuman,it'sdowntowhoorwhom.Sincetherelative pronounisthesubjectofthesubordinateclause,whoiscorrect.IV. B.Therelativepronounrenamespeople.Andthosepeoplearethedirectobjectof theverbknows.(JohnBarberknowswhomorwhat?People.)Sotheobjective-case whomiscorrect.V. B.Hopefullythiswasaneasyone.Therelativepronounistheobjectofthe prepositionof.VI. A.Thepronounishalfofacompoundsubject.Sousethenominative-caseI.(You wouldn'tsayMechasedapanther.)VII. B.Thepronounishalfofacompounddirectobject.Sotheobjective-casemeis correct.(Andyouwouldn'tsayApantherchasedI.)VIII. Thanheiselliptical,ashorteningoftheclausethanheistall.Thepronounheisthe subject,thereforeinthenominativecase.IX. Becausetheverbisismissingfromtheellipticalclause,thepronounlooksalot likeanobjectofapreposition.(True,thanisnotapreposition,butnevertheless,it feelslikeoneifyoudon'trealizethatthisisanellipticalclause).Andtheobjectofa prepositionisintheobjectivecase.Hencehim.

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Quiz2.13AnswerKey

I. Theclausebecauseheknowshowtotrainchampionsisadverbial,answeringthe questionWHY.Butwhichverbdoesitmodify?Doesittellwhythecoachyells,or doesittellwhythespeakerputsupwiththecoach'syelling?Onesuspectsthe writermeansthelatter:sheiswillingtoputupwiththeyellingcoachbecausehe knowshowtotrainchampions.Buttheclauseisclosertotheverbyells,sothe grammarisatoddswiththelogicofthesentence.Itgivestheimpressionthatthe coachyellsbecauseheknowshowtotrainchampions.Startbymovingthat adverbialtothebeginningofthesentence: Becauseheknowshowtotrainchampions,Iputupwithacoachwhoyellsatme. That'sallright,butit'snotgreat.Hereareacoupleofotheroptions: Mycoachknowshowtotrainchampions,soIputupwithhisyelling.

Iputupwithacoachwhoyellsatme.Why?Becauseheknowshowtotrainchampions.(Inthisconfiguration,Becauseheknowshowtotrainchampionsisasentencefragment.Nevertheless,it'sdefinitelyacontender.)

II. Noticehowthepassivevoicecausesthedanglingmodifierhere.Ifyouturnthe passiveconstructionintoanactiveconstruction,thesentencefixesitself: Fromtheagesoftwelvetoeighteen,IspenthalfmyweekendsatRandall'shouse makingmovies.III. Liketheprevioussentence,thisonestartswithadanglingmodifier.It'sthe microchipthatisnearweightless,notyou.Here'sapossiblerevision: Themicrochipisnearweightless.Youcannotfeelitrestinginyourpalmifyouclose youreyes.IV. Whohasthehardface?Mikeorhisson?IthinkthepointisthatMikehasahard face.Thephraseisadverbial:HOWdidMikelook?Withahardface.Asyouarewell

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awarebynow,adverbialsarehighlymovable.Butinthiscase,thewritermovedthe adverbialtoaplacewhereitcouldbemistakenforanadjectivalmodifyingMike's son(WHICHson?Theonewithahardface).Here'sthegoodnews:themovabilityof theadverbialcausestheproblemhere,butitalsomakesforaneasysolution: Withahardface,Mikelookedathiseldestson.

Or,

Hard-faced,Mikelookedathiseldestson. Andwhilewe'reatit,wemightaswelllookforamorepreciseverb:Hard-faced, Mikeglaredathiseldestson.V. There'salothappeninginthissentence.Peoplearecrossinglogbridges.Peopleare clearingwebs.Thewebsaredrippingwithmorningmist. Onequicksolutionissimplytomovetheadverbialphrasefromthelogbridgeswe crossedtothebeginningofthesentence(onceagain,themovabilityoftheadverbial isahelpfulthingtoremember):Fromthelogbridgeswecrossed,weclearedaway websdrippingwiththemorningmist. That'salittlebetter,butnotawholelotbetter.Trysomethinglikethis:Aswe crossedthelogbridges,weclearedawaywebsdrippingwithmorningmist.VI. Thatphraseatthebeginningofthesentenceisadanglingparticiple.The grammaticalsubjectisballet,butballet,ofcourse,wasn'tbornwithGermanbones orraisedalongsideapuppy. IwasbornwithGermanbonesandraisedalongsideapuppy,frolickinginan overgrownpasture,oftencrawlingalongacreekbedtocatchtadpoles.Butballet mademefeellovelyanddainty. Butevenwhenthedanglingparticipleisfixed,youseethatthissentenceneeds morethanagrammarmakeover.WhatareGermanbones,andhowarethey differentfromotherpeople'sbones?Whataboutthatpuppy?Whatisits relationshiptoballet?Iwouldkeeprevisingthispassagetosomethingmorelike this: Iwasbig-bonedlikemyGermanforbears.AndIwasatomboyaswell,always frolickingwithapuppyinanovergrownpastureorcrawlingalongacreekbedto catchtadpoles.Balletwastheonethinginmylifethatmademefeellovelyanddainty.

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VII. Here'sonepossibility:Myfavoriteprojectwasashadowboxofheroldjewelry.Imade itin2004tohanginherbathroom. Orpossibly, Myfavoriteprojectwasashadowboxofheroldjewelry.Imadeitin2004andhungit inherbathroom.

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Quiz3.2AAnswerKey

I. ThenounclauseWhichevertableyoupickservesasthesubjectofthesentence.II. Thissentenceisverysimilartotheprevioussentence.Thenounclause,asbefore,is whichevertableyoupick.Butinthisversion,thenounclauseisanobjectofthe prepositionwith.Theprepositionalphrasewithwhichevertableyoupickis adverbial,modifyingfine.III. ThenounclausethatGeorgehadhisownagendaservesasthedirectobject.I learnedWHAT?thatGeorgehadhisownagenda.IV. A.ThenounclauseisIwasbeinggenerouswhenIofferedmyhalf-eatenhotdog.This isalittletrickyfortworeasons.First,therelativepronounthathasbeenomitted. Thatomissionisperfectlyacceptable,ofcourse,butitdoestakeawayoneofthe cluesforeasilyidentifyinganounclause.Secondly,thisnounclausecontainsan adverbclause.TheclausewhenIofferedmyhalf-eatenhotdogmodifiesthenoun beingwithinthenounclause. B.Thenounclauseservesasadirectobject.IthoughtWHAT?thatIwasbeing generous.V. Thenounclausewhoeverinterviewedyouservesastheobjectoftheprepositionto. (Theprepositionalphraseisadverbial,modifyingtheverbsend.WHEREshouldyou sendanote?towhoeverinterviewedyou.) Bonusquestion:Iftheclauseservesasadirectobject,whyistherelativepronoun thenominative-casewhoeverinsteadoftheobjective-casewhomever? Answer:becausetherelativepronounservesasthesubjectWITHINthedependent clause.Theroleofthedependentclausewithinthemainclausehasnobearingon thecaseoftherelativepronoun.VI. Thenounclauseisthesameasintheprevioussentence:whoeverinterviewedyou.In thisversion,however,thenounclauseservesasanindirectobject.Youshouldsend athank-younotetowhom?Towhoeverinterviewedyou.

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VII. ThenounclauseWhomevertheyappointservesasthesubjectofthesentence.Note thateventhoughtheclauseisinthesubjectslot,therelativeclauseWhomeverisin theobjectivecasebecauseitservesasadirectobjectwithinthedependentclause.VIII. ThenounclauseWhoeverisappointedservesasthesubjectofthesentence.Thereal reasonIincludedthisquestionwassoyoucouldthinkaboutthatrelativepronoun whoever.ItwasWhomeverintheprevioussentence.WhyisitWhoeverhereinthis sentencethatlookssoverysimilar?Inthisversion,theuseofthepassive construction(WhoeverisappointedratherthantheactiveWhomevertheyappoint) movesthedirectobjectintothesubjectspotofthedependentclause.Andasubject, asyouknow,hastobeinthenominativecase.

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Quiz3.2BAnswerKey

I. B.Theclauseisadverbial,tellingWHENMarthapatsherhairnet.II. D.Thisissimplythemainlineoftheclause:WHODIDWHAT?Marthapattedthe hairnet.Therestofthesentencewillprovideadditionalinformation,butthishair- net-pattingisthecentralaction(andthegrammaticalkernel)ofthesentence.III. A.ThisclausetellsWHICHhairnet,soitisadjectival.IV. C.WhenyouuseyourDirectObjectFinder,itisrelativelyeasytoseethatyouhavea nounclauseservingasadirectobject.Thetravelerseeswhat?whathesees.Inthat secondmainclauseafterthesemicolon,theclausewhathehascometoseeworksin exactlythesameway.V. B.Thewordbecauseisasubordinatingconjunction;itturnstheindependentclause itisnotthereintotheadverbialclausebecauseitisnotthere.Thisclauseanswers thequestionWHY.WHYcan'tGodgiveahappinessapartfromhimself?Becauseitis notthere.VI. A.Thisadjectiveclausemodifiesbest-seller.WHICH(orWHATKINDOF)bestseller? Onethatcouldhavebeenpreventedbyagoodteacher.VII. A.Therelativepronounthat(orpossiblywhen)isomittedfromthisclause,which mightmakeithardeventorecognizeitasadependentclauseatall.Butitisan adjectiveclausemodifyingtime.WHICHtime?Thetime(that)Iencounteredsucha smell.VIII. C.Thisoneisprettytricky.Thatwhenatthebeginningoftheclausemakesitlook likethisisanadverbclause.Buttakeacloserlook:themainlineofthissentenceis Thelasttime…was______.Thatverbwasisalinkingverb,andassuchitneedsa complement—eitherapredicateadjectiveorapredicatenominative.Theclause whenItouredacoleslawfactoryisanounclauseservingasapredicatenominative. ItanswersthequestionWHAT,notWHEN.

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IX. A.Thisisamainorindependentclause.WHODIDWHAT?Shelooked.(Atniceyoung menisn'ttechnicallypartofthemainline.It'sanadverbialprepositionalphrase tellingHOWorWHEREshelooked.)X. B.Thephraseasifisasubordinatingconjunctionturningtheindependentclause shecouldsmelltheirstupidityintoanadverbialclause.HOWdidshelookatyoung men?asifshecouldsmelltheirstupidity.

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Quiz3.3AnswerKey

I. Defendinganyofthecardinalvirtuesisagerundphraseservingastheobjectofthe prepositionof.II. Thisisagerundphraseservingasthedirectobjectoftheverbmeans.Tradition meansWHAT?Givingvotestoourancestors.III. Thetwoitalicizedphrasesarebothpresentparticiplesmodifyingmen.IV. Acceptingoneselfisagerundphraseservingasthesubjectofthesentence.V. Carryinganumbrellaandparcelsinasnowywoodisaparticiplemodifyingfaun. WHICHfaun?Onecarryinganumbrella...VI. Thegrammaticalsubjectisthegerund,spendingalmostsixdecadesatalmostseven feet.VII. Whenasentencebeginswithamodifyingphrase,thatphrasemustmodifythe subject.Inthiscase,thesubjectisthegerundspending.But,ofcourse,spendingisn't headandshouldersaboveanybody.Thepersonwhoisheadandshouldersabove everybodyisthehimmentionedabouttwo-thirdsthroughthesentence.VIII. Here'sonewaytodoit: Hehasspentalmostsixdecadesatalmostsevenfeet,headandshouldersabovemost peoplesincehisearlyteens.Thestrainhaslefthimwithastoopthatgrowsmore pronouncedashegetsolder.IX. Ridingthenow-drenchedscooterbackhomeisagerundphrasethatservesasthe grammaticalsubject.Theverbiswouldsoak.X. Thisisatoughquestion;todecidewhatthisphraseisandwhatit'sdoing,yourbest betisprobablytousetheprocessofelimination.Thereisnonounfunctionitcould

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possiblyserve:it'snotasubject,notadirectorindirectobject,notanobjectofa prepositionorapredicatenominative.Soitcan'tbeagerund. Itmustbeapresentparticiple.Butparticiplesareadjectival;theymodifynouns. Whichnounmightthisparticiplemodify?DoesitmodifythegerundRidingthe scooter?Well,itfeelsmorelikeit'sthebackside-soakingthatforcesthechange,not theriding.Butthatphrasewouldsoakmybacksidedoesn'tprovideanynounor nounequivalentthattheparticiplecouldmodify. Soforcingachangeintodrypantsisaparticiple,butithasnocleargrammatical dutyinthesentence.XI. 1.Apersonridesanow-drenchedscooter. 2.Thescooter-rider’sbacksidegetssoaked. 3.Thescooter-riderneedstochangepants.XII. Here'soneway: IfIweretoridethenow-drenchedscooter,mybacksidewouldgetsoakedandIwould needtochangemypants.

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Quiz3.4AnswerKey

I. B.Leonardrenamescousin.II. D.ThewordnemesisrenamesJohnBarber.Thewholeappositivephraseismy nemesis.III. D.Thissentenceisverysimilartothesentenceabove,butinthiscasenemesisis theobjectoftheprepositionfromandJohnBarberrenamesnemesis.IV. B.Theappositiveinthissentenceismarsupial,whichrenamesthesubject opossum.ThewholeappositivephraseistheonlymarsupialnativetoNorth America.Notethatnon-primateisthepredicatecomplement(thewholephraseis theonlynon-primatewithopposablethumbs).V. E.Thissentencedoesnothaveanappositive.VI. A.Thisisasituationinwhichtheappositiveappearsbeforethenounitrenames. WhydowesaythathockeyplayerrenamesIratherthantheotherwayaround? BecauseIisthesubject.Wholovesbeingonice?Ido.VII. D.Thewordyearrenames1922.ThewholeappositivephraseistheyeartheSoviet

Unionwasformed.TherehasneverbeenabettertimetobeaVanderbiltfan.VIII. A.Thisisanothersentenceinwhichtheappositivecomesbeforetheworditnames. Thesubjectofthemainclauseisthey.Foodsnobsrenamesthey.IX. B.TheManinBlackrenamesJohnnyCash.Theone-wordappositiveisMan.X. E.WhileManinBlackrenamesJohnnyCashasintheprevioussentence,thephrase

isnotanappositivebecauseitappearswithinanadjectiveclausemodifyingJohnnyCash.

XI. A.

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XII. D,E,andF.Remember,gerundsarenoun-equivalentsandthereforecanserveas appositives.Thegerundsyelling,crying,andbangingareallappositives renamingthenounactions.XIII. Anappositiveneedstoberightnexttothenounitrenames.Inthissentence,za creatureofhabitappearstobeanappositive,butitisrightnexttoroutine.A routine,ofcourse,can'tbeacreatureofhabit.ThewritermeansthatIama creatureofhabit.Here'stheeasiestwaytofixthesentence:Acreatureofhabit,I madeaveryrigidroutineformyself.

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Quiz3.5AnswerKey

I. A.II. B.III. B.Thecommasaroundanon-essentialelementsaytothereader,"Here'salittle extrainformation,alittlebonus."IV. A.V. B.Ifithelps,rememberthatwhichclausesaresetoffwithcommas.Thatclauses aren't.Ifanadjectiveclausemodifiesaperson,itstartswithwhoorwhom, whethertheclauseisessentialornon-essential.VI. Thewholepointofapropernounistonarrowacategorydowntosomethingvery precise.(Thecommonnouncityisabroadcategory;thepropernounHonolulu narrowsthecategorydowntoonespecificcity).Anyappositiveormodifierthatis appliedto,say,Honoluluisn'tgoingtomakeitanymorespecificthanitalreadyis.VII. ThoughAnneHathawayisapropernoun,thissentenceinvolvestwodifferent peoplewiththatname,andtheadjectiveclausesnarrowaverysmallcategory (peoplenamedAnneHathaway)downtospecificindividuals.That'swhytheclauses areessentialratherthannon-essential.

308

Quiz3.6AnswerKey

I. A,B,andC.Who,whom,andwhichtypicallyintroduceadjectiveclauses.Whereand whenoftendoaswell,butthesewordsjustasoftenintroduceadverbclauses.The relativepronounthatisatoss-up:itisaslikelytointroduceanounclauseasan adjectiveclause.II. E,F,andG.Whoever,whomever,andwhicheveralwaysintroducenounclauses. Wheneverandwherevermayintroducenounclauses,ortheymayintroduceadverb clauses.That,asmentionedintheabovequestion,maysignalanounclauseorit maysignalanadjectiveclause.III. Therelativepronounthatisoftenomittedinadjectiveandnounclauses.In adjectiveclauses,thatcanbeomittedwhenitservesasanobject,thoughnotwhen itservesasasubject.Youcansay"themanthatItoldyouabout"or"themanItold youabout."Eitherisacceptable.Youcansay"thechickenthatIgaveyou"or"the chickenIgaveyou." Butyoudon'tevenhavetodothatmuchanalysisofthegrammar.Inbothadjective clausesandnounclauses,ifitfeelsrighttoomittherelativepronounthat,itis acceptabletodoso.IV. Receivingthisawardwouldbeoneofthegreathonorsofmylife.V. Anappositiveneedstoberightnexttothenounitrenames.Inthissentence,a creatureofhabitappearstobeanappositive,butitisrightnexttoroutine.A routine,ofcourse,can'tbeacreatureofhabit.ThewritermeansthatIama creatureofhabit.Here'stheeasiestwaytofixthesentence: Acreatureofhabit,Imadeaveryrigidroutineformyself.VI. A,D,andFVII. B,C,E,andF

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VIII. Oneoftheprinciplesofthiscoursehasbeentheideathat,allthingsbeingequal,the sooneryougetthroughthesubject-verbnexusthemoreclearyoursentencewillbe. Alengthynounequivalentinthesubjectslotdelaysthearrivalofthesubject. Onceareadergetsthroughthesubject-verbnexus(thatis,afterheknowswhodid what),heisbetterabletoprocesscomplexityintheremainderofthesentence. Complexstructuresthatcomeaftertheverbdon'tfeelascomplextothereaderas thecomplexstructuresthatcomebeforetheverb.

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Quiz4.2AnswerKey

I. A.TheBadNewsBearsisthetitleofamovie,soitistreatedasasingularnouneven thoughitlooksplural.II. A.Asingularsubjecttakesasingularverb,regardlessofthepredicatecomplement.III. B.Apluralsubjecttakesapluralverb,regardlessofthepredicatecomplement.IV. B.Committeeisacollectivenoun.InAmericanEnglish,collectivenounsare typicallytreatedassingular.IfyouareBritish,however,youwouldsay,"The committeerecommend..."V. A.Inthissentence,thesubjectisthepluralmemberssothepluralverbrecommend

isappropriate.Nowcommitteeistheobjectoftheprepositionof,soallofus,BritsandAmericansalike,canagreethatweneedthepluralverbhere.

VI. B.Thesubjectofthissentenceischoir,acollectivenountreatedassingularin

AmericanEnglish.Thepluralnounsboys,delinquents,andtownsdon'tfigureinthequestiononewayoranother.

VII. Here'sonewaytorevisethesentence: Theboys'choirarrivesinanhour.Thechoirismadeupjuveniledelinquentsfrom smalltownsalloverthecountry. Oryoumightsay: Madeupofjuveniledelinquentsfromsmalltownsalloverthecountry,theboys' choirarrivesinanhour.VIII. Oneisthesubjectofthemainclause,buthappenisnottheverbofthemainclause;

rather,itispartoftheadjectiveclausethathappenonlyonTV.Thesubjectofhappenisthepluralthings(technically,thesubjectistherelativepronounthat,whichrenamesthepluralthingsandisthereforeplural).Sotheverbhappenispluraltoo.

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Quiz4.3AnswerKey

I. TheantecedentofTHEYispetal,whichissingular.Sothepluralpronounisn't correct. Betweenmyfingerseachpetalfeelslikesoftsuede,strongerthanitappears.II. Really,theonlyavailableantecedentforITishealth.Butthemother'shealthdidn't causeproblemswiththemarriagerelationship.Quitetheopposite:the deteriorationofherhealthcausedproblems. Possiblecorrections: Asmymother'shealthdeteriorated,problemsgrewintheirmarriagerelationship. Thedeteriorationofmymother'shealthcausedproblemsintheirmarriage relationship. Asmymother'shealthdeteriorated,sodidtheirmarriagerelationship.III. Thisisaninterestingcase.ITisn'twrong,sinceyoucouldeasilymakeacasethatthe antecedentisthesingularhandfulratherthanthepluralleaves.ButifITis correct,THEMcan'tbecorrect.Really,THEMcan'tbecorrectinanycase,sinceyou can'tkickthroughahandfulofleaves.Unlessyou'rereally,reallysmall. Here'soneoptionforcorrectingthissentence: Sniffingahandfulofleavesandthrowingitintotheairwasevenmorefunthan kickingthroughaleafpile.IV. Whatwasthesizeofourkitchen?Goback26words:Lelo'sshop.That'salongway togoforanantecedent. Iwoulddoatleasttwothingstothispassage:FirstIwouldreversethefirst sentencesothatLelo'sshopcomesattheendofthesentence,signalingtothe

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readerthatthesecondsentenceisallaboutLelo'sshop.Then,ratherthanusingthe pronouninthethirdsentenceIwouldrepeattheantecedent. Lelo'smainincomecamefromhisshopneartheedgeoftown.Concreteandmud blockssupportedframesandshelvesofwidehome-craftedlumberofnon-standardized dimensions.Thewholeshopwasthesizeofourkitchen.V. Thegrammardoesn'tmakeitclearwhosebrowwasknitted,whoseeyesflashed,or whosemouthwaspinched.Presumablyit'sthefather.Grammaticallyspeaking, Daveisaslikelyacandidatefortheantecedentasfather,especiallysincefatheris turnedintothemodifierfather's. Onepossiblerewrite: Davelookedupathisfather'sangryexpression.Theoldman'sbrowwasknitted.His eyesflashed.Hismouthwaspinched.

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Quiz4.4AnswerKey

I. For,And,Nor,But,Or,Yet,SoII. B.Theconjunctionanddoesn'tsetupacontrastoracause-and-effectrelationship oranythingmoresubtlethantheideathattwothingshappenedortwothingsare true.III. A.CoordinationsuggeststhattwoideasdeserveasimilarAMOUNTofinterestanda similarKINDofinterest.IV. B.Subordinationallowsyoutosetupallkindsofrelationshipsbetweenideas. Subordinationalwayssays,"Betweenthesetwoideas,oneismoreimportantthan theother,onedependsontheother,oneservestheother."V. C.VI. Thisisacommasplice.Therearenokeysforthoseisanindependentclause.Sois atleastwedon'thaveany.Toconnecttwoindependentclauses,youneeda commaANDacoordinatingconjunction,orelseasemicolon.Whentwo independentclausesareconnectedwithjustacomma,that'sacommasplice. Correction:Andtherearenokeysforthose;atleastwedon'thaveany.VII. Thisisafaultyuseofasemicolon.Asemicolonjoinstwoindependentclauses.The phrasethisonefamiliartohimisnotaclause(noticeithasnoverb).Actually,it's anappositive.Sothesemicoloniserroneous. Correction:Next,shegrabbedalargepinkbottle,thisonefamiliartohim.VIII. Thissentencecontainsacompoundverb,cracklingandfiringoff.Witha compoundverb,youonlyneedacoordinatingconjunction(inthiscase,and),nota comma.

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Correction:Theneurotransmittersinmybrainwerecracklingandfiringofflikea poorlyplannedfireworksdisplay.IX. Herewehavebotharun-onsentenceandacommasplice.Toconnecttwoclauses, youneedBOTHacommaandacoordinatingconjunction,orelseasemicolon. Betweenthefirsttwoclauses(Therootssproutandthewaitingisover)we're missingacomma.Betweenthesecondtwoclausesthewaitingisoverandlife hasreturned),we'remissingacoordinatingconjunction. Correction:Therootsprouts,andthewaitingisover;lifehasreturned.X. Thisisyetanothercommasplice.Onepossiblecorrection: Pressgentlyandthefragilewebbends.Pressharderanditdissolves.

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Quiz4.5AnswerKey

I. B.Whenherfatherwalkedaway...isanadverbclause.II. E.Leavingablankspaceinthedoorwayisaparticiplewithintheopeningadverb clause.Itmodifiesfather.III. A.This(togetherwithAction4,thegirlwatchinghersister)isthemainactionofthe sentence.IV. B.There'sonlyonemainclauseinthislongsentence,butthatclausecontainsa compoundverb:ateandwatched.Theysharethesubjectlittlegirl.V. E.Thephrasecryingonherbedisaparticipialphrasemodifyingsister.VI. Herfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway,andthelittlegirltooka biteofmintchocolateicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonthebed. Oryoucoulduseasemicolon(Ipreferthisversion): Herfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway;thelittlegirltooka biteofmintchocolateicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonthebed.VII. Asstrangeasitseems, 1.Thisisanadjectiveclause.

2.Itmodifiesbus.VIII. Considertheactionsinthissentence: 1.Aschool-childcarriesapretzelontoabus.

2.Theschool-childwalkstothebackofthebuswiththepretzel. 3.Thebusdriver'saidedoesn'tnoticethepretzel-sneaking.

Actions2and3seematleastasimportantasAction1;youmightsaytheyarethe mainpointofthesentence.Thefactthatthosetwoactionsaretuckedintoan

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adjectiveclausemodifyingbusismisleading.Thisisagoodexampleofthe grammarofasentencegettingcrosswayswiththelogicofthesentence. Possiblerewrites: Icarriedmypretzelontothebus,butthebusdriver'saidedidn'tnoticeitasIwalked tothebackofthebusandfoundaseatbesideawindow.

Icarriedmypretzelontothebus.Iwalkedpastthebusdriver'saideonthewaytomyseatintheback,butshedidn'tnoticethepretzel.

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Quiz4.6AnswerKey

I. 1.Cowboybootsandbandylegsappeartoformacompoundobjectofthe prepositionin.Apersoncanbeincowboyboots,butnotinbandylegs. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Thebandy-leggedstrangercamewalkingupourdrivewayin cowboyboots.(Remember,justbecausefaultyparallelismistheproblem,that doesn'tmeancorrectparallelismisthesolution.Justasoften,it'sbettertogetridof theparallelstructurealtogether.)II. 1.Ononesideofandisanindependentclause(myheartthudded),butonthe othersideisthenounphrasequicksucksofair. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Ibegantopanic:myheartthudded,andItookinquicksucks ofair.(Inthisversion,Iturnedthatlastnounphraseintoanindependentclause, creatingacompoundsentenceafterthecolon.)III. 1.Itappearsthatwehaveacompoundverb:pickeditupandtookabitehavethe samesubject.Butthatthirdactionisexpressedasanindependentclause.The subjectofspillediscontents,nothe. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Hepickeditupandtookabite,buthalfthecontentsspilled outontotheplate.(Inthisversion,thesimpleinsertionofandbetweenthetwoparts ofthecompoundverbseparatesthecompoundverbfromthesecondindependent clausethatstartswithbut.Inotherwords,theinsertionofandtakesawaythe reader'sexpectationthattherewillbeathirdverbinthecompound.)IV. 1.ThisisaSubject-Verb-PredicateComplementsentence:Cynthiawasthefirst...The andappearsatfirsttosignalacompoundpredicatecomplement.Infact,thewriter wasthinkingofthisasacompoundverb:Cynthiawasandcaused.Theproblemhere isthatwasisalinkingverbandcausedisanactionverb.Thatmakesitverytrickyto combinetheminacompoundverb:thefirsthalfofthecompoundisaS-V-PA pattern,andthesecondhalfofthecompoundisaS-V-DOpattern.

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2.Afewpossiblerewrites:Cynthiawasthefirsttocallme'Grandma.'Shecausedmetothinkaboutfuturegenerations.ThefirsttocallmeGrandma,Cynthiacausedmetothinkaboutfuturegenerations.

CynthiawasthefirsttocallmeGrandma,andshewasthefirsttomakemethinkaboutfuturegenerations.

V. 1.Thissentencehasacompounddirectobject.Thepolicemantoldmetwothings:a) togetmycaroutoftheroad,[aninfinitivephrase]andb)thatIshouldgetanew wardrobe[anounclause].Eitheraninfinitivephraseoranounclauseisan acceptablewaytophraseanindirectquotation,butthewriterneedstochoose. 2.Threepossiblerewrites: Thepolicemantoldmetogetmycaroutoftheroadandtogetanewwardrobe. ThepolicemantoldmethatIshouldgetmycaroutoftheroadandalsothatIshould getanewwardrobe. ThepolicemantoldmethatIshouldgetmycaroutoftheroadandgetanew wardrobe.VI. 1.Ifwethinkofthelikeasanequalsign(oraniscongruentsign),itbecomeseasier toseetheparallelismproblemhere.Thewordsheavyandjitteryareadjectives.The wordshavinglowbloodsugarareagerundphrase—thatis,anounequivalent.A noundoesn'tequalanadjective.There'sourparallelismproblem. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Myarmsfeelheavyandjittery,thewaytheyfeelwhenIhave lowbloodsugar.VII. 1.Thismaynottechnicallybeaparallelismproblem,butitisarelatedproblem.The waythissentenceisphrased,thewriterspeaksofhavingmetapairofhandsin 1979.Thatisanoddthingtosay. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Henolongerhasthebronzedtwenty-year-oldhandsofthe manImetaroundtheswimmingpoolin1979.

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Quiz4.7AnswerKey

I. F.ThatwordabsolutecomesfromtheLatinabsolutus,meaning"setfree."Soa nominativeabsoluteisanounthatisfloatingfreefromthesentencewhereitlives. Nogrammaticalconnectiontothesentenceisholdingitback.II. Thenominativeabsoluteisherbackcurvedlikeanautilusshell.III. Warmfreshbreadtuckedundermyarmisthenominativeabsolutehere.IV. Sadiewalkingbesidehimisanominativeabsolute.V. Thenominativeabsoluteismyfriendswaitingtohelpmeintoabluedresswhile thechoruscontinuedtosinganddanceunderthelights.VI. Thenominativeabsolutehereisdeterminedlittlelegscrossingtheexpanseofthe carpet.Thoughnominativeabsolutesusuallyappearatthebeginningortheendof asentence,sometimestheyappearmid-sentence,asinthisexample.

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