making the case for ecological design in settlements

1

Trustees: EG Annecke, ADH Enthoven, EA Pieterse, G Goven, L Boya, R Shabodien

Trust Reg. No.: IT3011/99. Vat Reg. No: 4110198795 P O Box 162, Lynedoch, 7603. Tel: 021 881 3196. Fax: 021 881 3294

R310, Lynedoch, Stellenbosch, South Africa NPO reg no: 051-245-NPO

Making the Case for Ecological

Design in Sustainable

Settlements

Lisa Thompson-Smeddle

2

Trustees: EG Annecke, ADH Enthoven, EA Pieterse, G Goven, L Boya, R Shabodien

Trust Reg. No.: IT3011/99. Vat Reg. No: 4110198795 P O Box 162, Lynedoch, 7603. Tel: 021 881 3196. Fax: 021 881 3294

R310, Lynedoch, Stellenbosch, South Africa NPO reg no: 051-245-NPO

Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Background ................................................................................................................ 3 Policy environment ..................................................................................................... 4

Post-Apartheid Housing .......................................................................................... 4 National Government Policy .................................................................................... 5 Western Cape Policy............................................................................................... 5

South African Building Codes ..................................................................................... 6 SA Country Report ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Sustainable Settlements: South African Case Studies ................................................ 8 Case Study: Densification and Community Participation in Missionvale; Port Elisabeth ............................................................................................................... 13 Case Study: Densification and Community Participation in Sakhasonke Village; Port Elisabeth ............................................................................................................... 19

Tehnological Interventions....................................................................................... 29 Ceilings ................................................................................................................. 29 Insulation .............................................................................................................. 30 Sky Lights ............................................................................................................. 35 Solar Water Heaters (SWH) .................................................................................. 36 CFL Bulbs ............................................................................................................. 53 Other Energy savings in buildings ......................................................................... 56

Life-Cycle Costs ....................................................................................................... 57 RDP Baseline: Life Cycle Costs ............................................................................ 57 Sustainable Neighbourhood Life Cycle Costs........................................................ 61

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 63

3

Ecological Design in South African Sustainable Settlements: August 7, 2007

Background

How does one configure a house (built unit) or settlement which reduces footprint, without

re-configuring the urban setting in which it is nested? In this age of specialised training,

sectoral decision making, and top-down approaches to service delivery, the proponents of

ecological design may seem to be speaking in a lost, ancient language, often misunderstood

by modern engineers, planners, architects and contractors. The core objectives of

Ecological Design might be “One Planet Living,” and integrated design approaches which

incorporate appropriate location, racial integration, economic empowerment, public/private

partnerships, socio-cultural sensitivity, sensitivity to vulnerable groups, materials, water and

energy efficiency, affordability and green finance, could be included in the definition of

ecological design.

The disjuncture between education and ecological design is immense. Modern educational

systems train engineers, architects, planners, social scientists and others in isolation from

one another. Few are trained to see sustainable neighbourhoods as living, active

communities, alive with history, calling out for justice, equity, and democratic participation. In

the South African context, planners, engineers and architects do not often encourage

communities to participate in building their own neighbourhoods. Nor do they examine the

natural systems in which these settlements are embedded. Water and energy efficiency and

waste recycling are overridden by the practicalities of ease in laying bulk infrastructure and

budget limitations. Those who are vulnerable and needy are overlooked.

There are countries where innovative educational approaches are beginning to bridge these

educational gaps, but there are few contextual models available for South Africa. The next

section will explore the context in which RDP housing delivery in post-apartheid South Africa

was birthed, and the evolution of the National and Western Cape Provincial policy

environments.

4


Policy environment

Post-Apartheid Housing

Quantity over quality could be the by-line for a story on South Africa‟s housing policies post-

apartheid. Between 1994 and 2005, approximately 1.8 million formal RDP houses were

delivered, or were under construction (retrieved from

http://www.childrencount.ci.org.za/content.asp?TopLinkID=9&PageID=25). For those

earning less than R3,500, and for those who were able to wade through the often arduous

application processes, a blanket funding mechanism was offered, and “one-size fits all”

RDP houses were allocated throughout the country. Though international communities were

impressed by this roll-out, beneficiary studies reveal that that the poor were often

unsatisfied with peripheral housing locations, sub-standard construction materials, and lack

of access to public services (Huchzermeyer, 2006).

South Africa‟s planning regulations, unchanged post-apartheid, continued to isolate

recipients by placing them on cheap land on the urban fringe, where RDP recipients were

burdened by excessive travel and other expenses. The quantity versus quality approach to

housing delivery is illustrated in the images below.

Image 1: Typical RDP Box House Image 2: Mass Housing

Image 3: Engineers Approach to Mass Housing

http://www.childrencount.ci.org.za/content.asp?TopLinkID=9&PageID=25

5


National Government Policy

In September, 2004, South Africa‟s National Department of Housing launched its new

housing policy: Breaking New Ground. This strategy brings a radical shift from the “quantity

over quality” mindset entrenched in RDP housing delivery, and points to participative, multi-

dimensional approaches which allow people to become part of sustainable human

settlements, rather than simply recipients of an RDP house. In this framework, the subsidy

recipient market has expanded as well, allowing those who are too well off to receive a

subsidy – but who cannot afford a down payment on a home – to access housing as well.

Multiple funding mechanisms which allow for the purchase of land, funding mechanisms for

infrastructure and social facilities for vulnerable communities are some of the key objectives.

These and other goals in National strategy allow a more integrated and participatory

environment for housing, service and settlement delivery.

Western Cape Policy

In June, 2007 the Provincial Minister of Local Government and Housing launched the

Western Cape Sustainable Human Settlement Strategy (WCSHSS), which is an

interpretation of the National Department of Housing's Breaking New Ground policy. The

WCSHSS breaks away from post-1994 allocations of subsidies to peripheral urban

greenfield developments, and encourages decision makers to allocate centrally located state

land for sustainable human settlements for the poor. The WCHSS also incorporates

essential resource-use issues like water, sanitation and energy, previously ignored in post-

1994 policies. There is an emphasis on and public/civil society participation, public

transportation, renewable energy, water efficiency and water recycling, waste recycling,

mixed racial communities and biodiversity. The WCSHSS will provide a more integrated

approach to settlement planning across the Western Cape.

The following statistics are based on the current housing model, which allocates land for the

poor on the urban fringe (WCSHSS, 2007):

“The current housing backlog for the Western Cape is 410,000 units, growing to

804,000 by 2040 if the current delivery rate remains constant;

R1 billion per annum is available via the DLG & H to fund a subsidised human

settlement programme aimed at eliminating the backlog;

6


The current RDP type housing will cost R8,1 billion to eliminate by 2010 and R4

billion to eliminate by 2015. With funding of R2 billion per year the backlog will only

be eradicated by 2030. With funding of R1 billion per year the backlog will not be

eradicated.”

The strategy goes on to say, “However, if the focus is to provide every intended beneficiary

with a fully serviced site – as envisaged by the Upgrading of Informal Settlements

Programme (UISP) -, the backlog could be eradicated by 2010 with funding of R2,5 billion

per year, by 2015 with funding of R1,8 billion per year and by 2030 with funding of R0,7

billion. However, if the focus was only on providing serviced sites in outlying areas, it would

condemn the poor to permanent poverty and reinforce apartheid divisions.” (WCSHSS,

2007).

In other words, an incrementalist approach via several interventions (densification, in-situ

upgrades, mixed developments which include social housing, greenfields, etc..) will allow the

poor greater access to essential services, it will encourage more effective use and re-use of

resources, and promote ecologically sustainability (WCSHSS, 2007).

South African Guidelines and Regulations

Guidelines and regulations can play an important role in encouraging ecological design in

building interventions. Without legislation, the building sector would be highly unlikely to

initiate and achieve efficiency goals. The South African national government is currently

examining ways of incorporating energy efficiency into National Building Standards. The

South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) are also developing energy efficiency standards

for residential and commercial buildings. Ultimately, energy efficiency standards will become

part of the Building Code of South Africa. These standards are currently structured as

(Reynolds, 2007):

SANS 204-1 – Energy Efficiency Performance Parameters for buildings

SANS 204-2 – Energy Efficiency in Naturally Ventilated Buildings

SANS 204-3 – Energy Efficiency in Artificially Controlled Buildings

SANS 204-1 has generic guide-lines for energy efficiency in buildings and contains two

tables (this standard is almost complete):

7


Maximum energy usage for different occupancies (kWhr/m2/annum).

Maximum energy demand for different occupancies.

Deemed-to-satisfy rules (Reynolds, 2007):

There are “deemed-to-satisfy” rules which approach building design holistically. The

interventions include correct orientation, shading, insulation, window design, etc... There are

rules for lighting, hot water cylinders, air-conditioning systems, lifts etc... The use of

renewable energies is encouraged by the standards as well. In the absence of national

standards cities can also implement energy efficiency measures (Reynolds, 2007).

South Africa‟s Country Report to the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (2006-

7) states that, “Low-cost houses have been built with no consideration to energy efficient

design principles, thereby condemning already poor and suffering households to low-

quality, uncomfortable and „costly‟ houses. Poor households have to spend large amounts

of money on fuel for space heating and normally, dirty, polluting fuels such as paraffin and

coal are used. By designing houses in an energy efficient manner, the amount of energy

required to keep the house comfortable can be reduced dramatically, thereby saving

money as well as improving the air quality inside and outside the house.”

The SA country report also states that “building without attention to thermal performance

may reduce initial costs slightly, but will expose residents to a lifetime of low thermal

comfort, high energy costs and cause the high levels of energy related air-pollution

encountered in low-cost residential areas to prevail in the future:”

Though policies are improving, and there‟s a thrust toward improved building codes, energy

efficiency and increased thermal performance in buildings, there‟s a distinct gap between

policy and implementation. Administrative and management systems at local government

level lack the capacity to deliver more integrated human settlements that consider social and

environmental impacts as well as the economics of delivering subsidised housing. Even in

this environment, pilot projects (often with external funding sources) incorporating the tenets

of ecological design – to one degree or another – have sprung up around the country. The

following table lists South African projects which demonstrate different approaches to

ecological design in sustainable settlements.

8


Sustainable Settlements: South African Case Studies Table 1: Good Practice Case Study Projects Which Demonstrate Approaches in Some of the Sustainable Housing and Settlements (Irurah, 2002; Irurah, 2006)

MOST COMPREHENSIVE WITH URBAN

INTEGRATION/EFFICIENCY AND/OR

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT

COMPREHENSIVE WITH ECONOMIC

EMPOWERMENT AS KEY COMPONENT

ONE TO THREE ISSUES ADDRESSED

1) Cato Manor Urban Regeneration

Programme – Durban (Urban integration,

Economic empowerment, Institutional

partnerships, Socio-cultural issues and

vulnerable groups, especially women, children)

1) Kutlwanong Integrated Housing –

Kimberley (energy efficiency, economic

empowerment, institutional/partnerships,

affordability/green finance etc)

1) Soweto energy efficient house -

Johannesburg (Energy and water

efficiency, passive solar design)

2) Alexandra Urban Renewal Programme –

Johannesburg (Urban integration, Economic

empowerment, Institutional/partnerships, Socio-

cultural issues and vulnerable groups, especially

women, youth and children)

2) Masisizane women’s housing co-operative

– Johannesburg (Empowerment, socio-cultural

issues and vulnerable groups, materials,

institutional/partnerships)

2) Kuyasa – Khayelitsha - Cape Town

(Energy efficiency, affordability/green

finance, institutional/partnerships)

3) Carr Gardens – Johannesburg (Urban

integration, Institutional/partnerships,

alternative/green finance)

3) Shayamoya – Durban (location, beneficiary

participation, high-density, economic

empowerment for women, sensitive to vulnerable

groups)

3) Lwandle Hostel to Homes - Cape

Town (energy efficiency: solar water

heaters, institutional/partnerships,

affordability/green finance)

9


4) Douglas Rooms – Johannesburg (urban

integration, Institutional/partnerships, socio-

cultural issues and vulnerable groups, especially

women, youth and children)

4) Khayelitsha – Cape Town (community

empowerment, housing choice, economic

empowerment through savings, environmentally

sustainable housing features, public private

partnerships)

4) All Africa Games Village -

Johannesburg (location, water and

energy efficiency)

6) Lynedoch Eco-Village - Stellenbosch

(economic empowerment, institutional

partnerships, socio-cultural issues and vulnerable

groups, water efficiency, energy efficiency,

affordability/green finance, materials efficiency,

on-site sewage treatment, racial integration)

5) Soweto Energy Efficient Houses –

Johannesburg (energy efficiency, passive solar

design, rainwater harvesting, ceilings, insulation)

5) Ntuthukoville Pieteraritzburg– (cost

savings for households, communities

and municipalities, stability and

replicability)

5) Moshoeshoe Eco-Village - Kimberley

(economic empowerment,

institutional/partnerships, socio-cultural issues

and vulnerable groups, water efficiency, energy

efficiency, affordability/green finance)

6) Missionvale – Port Elisabeth (increased

density, community participation, environmental

management)

6) Douglas Rooms Johannesburg -

(location, integration and land

conservation, materials efficiency,

economic empowerment)

6) Midrand Eco-City – Johannesburg (waste

management, alternative transportation,

economic empowerment, institutional

partnerships, socio-cultural issues and vulnerable

groups, energy efficiency, affordability/green

finance)

7) Thlolego – Rustenburg (innovative building

materials, waste efficiency, integrated planning,

empowerment, permaculture)

7) Troyeville – Johannesburg

(materials efficiency, location, resident

participation, training and education,

tenure options)

10


Adobe Brick House: Lynedoch Ecovillage

8) High Return Housing Project - East London

(innovative building materials, training, economic

empowerment, racial integration, tenure,

alternate finance)

8) Smuts Ngonyama – East London

(housing support, community

participation, training and empowerment)

Adobe Bricks Produced During Sustainable Construction

Course, Lynedoch Ecovillage

9) Witsands – Atlantis (energy efficiency,

innovative building materials, training, public

participation, monitoring and evaluation)

9) Quarry Heights – Durban (innovative

partnerships, flexible institutional

arrangements)

Primary School Learners, Lynedoch Ecovillage

14) Sakhasonke Village – Walmer

(densification, skills transfer, job creation, urban

agriculture, innovative design)

10) Mogopa – Klerksdorp (land

restitution, economic empowerment,

participation)

11


1

Renewable Energy at Mid-Rand Eco-City 2

Solar Water Heaters at Lwandle 3

11) Khutsong – Bloemfontein

(community participation, economic

empowerment for women through

community saving, alternate finance)

Organic Agricultural Project: Mid-Rand Eco-City 4

Public Participation Processes, Sakhasonke 5

12) Masisizane Women’s Club –

Mofokeng (empowers women, mobilises

personal savings, economic

empowerment and home building)

Cato Manor, Durban 6

High Density Housing in Missionvale 7

13) Emzweni – KZN (energy efficiency,

empowerment, community participation)

1 Source: http://www.ecocity.org.za/ 2 Source: http://www.ecocity.org.za/ 3 Source: Daniel Irurah

4 Source: http://www.ecocity.org.za/ 5 Source: Lance Greyling

6 Source: http://www.cmda.org.za/

12


Cato Manor, Durban8

Kutlwanong, Kimberley9

14) Belgravia – East London (rental

tenure, location, housing choice, racial

integration)

Carr Gardens, Johannesburg10

Solar Water Heaters at Kuyasa11

15) Red Location, Port Elisabeth

(increased density, innovative design)

Moshoeshoe Eco-Village, Kimberley12

High Density Sakhasonke Village13

16) Riverdene – Durban (modifications

to accommodate the disabled, pedestrian

access, variety of housing types)

7 Source: Lance Greyling

8 Source: http://www.cmda.org.za/ 9 Source: http://www.siteplanning.co.za/sustainablesettlements/CaseStudies/Kutlwanong.htm 10 Source: http://www.jhc.co.za/item.php?i_id=46&PHPSESSID=b21f1ac84be26dd087d808336ec6ef69

11 Source: http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article.php?a_id=113336 12 Source: http://www. tp.shf.org.za/moshoeshoe_village.pdf 13 Source: Lance Greyling

13


As can be seen in the table above, ecological design applications include societal interventions, sensitivity to vulnerable communities

(women, children, HIV/AIDS victims and the disabled), sensitivity to agricultural and natural biodiversity systems, local economic

development, appropriate land use planning, alternate financing mechanisms, efficient and appropriate building materials and

alternate technological applications. Two case studies incorporating several of these interventions are detailed below.

Case Study: Densification and Community Participation in Missionvale; Port Elisabeth

Image 4: Site Planning 14

Image 5: Space Characteristics15



14


IMAGE 6: HOUSE TYPES 16


15


Image 7: House Types – 48m2 17

Image 8: House Types – 48 –52m2

Image 9: House Types – 56m2

17 Source of images 7-9: Lance Greyling

16


Table 2: Financing Options 18


17


Diagram 1: Implementation 19


18


Image 10: Missionvale -1999 Low Density 20

Image 11: Missionvale – 2004 Higher Density

20 Source of photos: Lance Greyling

19


Case Study: Densification and Community Participation in Sakhasonke Village; Port Elisabeth

Project Highlights: 21

• A demonstration project which builds further on the experiences in densification

gained at Missionvale.

• Social process theme is reinforced.

• Skills transfer, job creation remains an important issue to promote sustained

survival of beneficiaries

• Life skills training, Urban agricultural projects, programmes for pre-school and

youth groups are important.

• Aimed at the poorest sections of the Community – (R0 – R1500/month) “give

away housing sector”

• Financed by a PHP State subsidy (R23100.00) plus variances

• Medium density Housing (77 units/ha gross)

• Trade-off of erf/house size theme is applied

• again

• Housing types & choices simplified

• Strong skilling and local employment focus

• Good basis for rental housing at the lower end

• Free-hold Title


20


DEVELOPING THE HOUSE TYPE 22


21


Plan 1: Double Storey Semi-Detached House 46m2 23 Plan 2: Double Storey Row House 46m2

23 Source of Plans 1 & 2: Lance Greyling

22


Image 12: Housing Presentation Workshops

24 Image 13: Housing Presentation Workshops

Image 14: Testing the response Image 15: Show House

24 Source of images 12-15 : Lance Greyling

23


PLAN 3: LAYOUT PLANNING 25 PLAN 4: PEDESTRIAN WAYS & COURTYARDS

PLANNING STANDARDS

• Plot - 6m x 12m (72m2)

• Building Line – 1.5 to 2.0m

• Coverage at Construction – 32%

• Minimum Distance between Building Fronts – 6m

• Road Reserve – 9m (5.5m surface)

• Pedestrian Paths – 3m (1.4m paving)

• Parking – 0.5 Bays per unit and less

THE DELIVERY PROCESS

• Formation of a Housing Development Trust

• Managed People‟s Housing Process

• Skills Training at E.T.C. & I.B.R.S

• Small Local Building Teams and Workers

mostly from beneficiary group.

25 Source of Plans 3 and 4: Lance Greyling

24


PLANS 5 & 6: COMPARATIVE HOUSE TYPES 26

26 Source of Plans 5 & 6: Lance Greyling

25


Vital Statistics 27

LOW MEDIUM

Area of Settlement (m2) 44900 44900

Residential Area (nett) 27185 24629

Number of Houses 126 337

Average Size of Plot (m2) 216 73

Gross Residential Density 28 75

Nett Residential Area 46 137

Average House Size 35 46

Coverage 19 31

Population Potential (@ 5persons/House) 630 1685


26


PHP Subsidy 28

LOW MEDIUM

BASIC PHP SUBSIDY: R23100.00 R23100.00

VARIANCE ALLOWANCES:

Locational Allowance (>40U/ha – 5%) R0.00 R1279.00

Geotech (10%) R2558.00 R2558.00

S.C.C.C.A. R3900.00 R3900.00

TOTAL R29558.00 R30837.00


27


Project Costs29

LOW MEDIUM

Professional Fees R1000.00 R1000.00

Land Cost @ R3.00/m2 R687.00 R219.00

Services R8000.00 R5500.00

Top Structure: R18371.00 R22618.00

Area of House 35m2 46m2

Building Cost/m2 R525.00 R492.00

Other Costs R1500.00 R1500.00

TOTAL R29558.00 R30837.00


28


ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES30

LOW MEDIUM

Contribution to Limiting Urban Sprawl Less Greater

Contribution to Urban Integration Less Greater

Initial Houses Size 35m2 46m2

Extension of House Possible up to 60m2 & more Possible up to 24m2

Vehicle on Site Possible in all cases Possible in some cases

Surveillance/Security Poor Better potential

Sense of Place Poor Better potential

Maintenance of Public Areas More Costly Less Costly

Infrastructural Costs Less Cost Effective More Cost Effective

Design Issues Requires Less Design Input Requires More Design Input


29


Tehnological Interventions

In “A Sourcebook of Integrated Ecological Solution,” Janis Birkeland (2002) explains that

present built environment configurations are the result of a modern, industrial modes of

development, rooted in fossil fuel and non-renewable resource use. This is inherently

unsustainable. With technological interventions that are already available today, Janis states

that resources and energy consumed by the built environment can be reduced dramatically

through ecological design.

Ceilings

The benefits associated with ceiling installations include a reduction in expenditure on indoor

heating, improved health as a result of improved air quality and more stable internal air

temperatures (particularly in households which use paraffin, coal and other heating systems

which damage respiratory health), increased productivity resulting from improved health and

increased quality of life.

Heat loss through the roof is often greater than heat loss in other areas of the house, thus

one of the most effective ways to insulate a house is to put in a ceiling. In cold climactic

regions, or regions with cold winters, a ceiling can reduce space heating costs by up to 50%.

The Department of Housing‟s Draft Framework on Environmentally Efficient Housing has

identified ceilings as important intervention within the social housing frameworks.

Ekurhuleni has a target goal of 100% installed ceilings installed in households by 2020

(SEA, 2007). According to Sustainable Energy Africa, “If Ekurhuleni achieves its targets by

2024, 550 thousand MWh of electricity will have been saved. In power station capacity

terms, in 2024, it will negate the need for an 8MW facility (including transmission line losses

and a reserve capacity of 30%). This is slightly more than the Darling Wind Farm produces.”

SEA also suggests that over 380 thousand tonnes of CO2 will be saved by 2024 if this

strategy is implemented.

A recent study out of the Energy Research Centre (University of Cape Town) states that,

“Energy efficiency in social housing is an area where a policy of direct state financial support

to promote energy efficiency seems warranted. In practice, municipal government would

30


need to play an important role in administering a subsidy scheme and providing bridging

finance.” (Winkler, et al, 2006).

Some of the challenges with regard to ceiling installation in RDP households:

Capital cost of at least R2,000 per household. Subsidisation is required in

households outside the Southern Cape Condensation (where subsidies are

available)

Energy savings will not necessarily cover the capital costs over a 20 year period in all

instances

Insulation

Heat resistance gained by ceiling and SA Climate Zones

insulation applications (SEA, 2007)

One of the best ways to make a house more energy efficient is to reduce the flow of heat

into and out of the house. This is achieved through insulation. Insulation keeps a house

cooler on a hot day and warmer on a cold day. As can be seen by the image above, Cape

Town rests within the temperate coastal climactic region. Climactic regions can make a

difference in the level of insulation necessary for a comfortable living environment within a

home. In mild climates like the Western Cape, comfort can be achieved without much

31


heating or cooling, if appropriate thermal designs are implemented. Ceiling and roof

insulation serve to conserve heat in winter, and cool in summer.

The expense of installing well-insulated ceilings or tiled roofs is often beyond the reach of

many middle to lower income people. Ceilings can take up a substantial amount of loft

space, which household owners often require for additional living space. There is therefore a

need for unique, cost-effective airflow systems, which can be installed in existing structures

in order to regulate temperatures in lofts or roof spaces.

In June 2007, Lauren Beviss-Challinor, a Master‟s student at the Centre for Renewable and

Sustainable Energy Studies (Stellenbosch University) compiled a list of insulation materials

available in the Western Cape, and their efficiency values and cost comparisons. Lauren

built several small roof models in order to test the efficiency of various insulation types.

These insulation materials can be seen in table 3 below.

Lauren also built a test-rig loft consisting of three sections (a roof with a solar chimney, a

roof with plain insulation, and one without insulation), which was constructed with wood,

polystyrene board and corrugated iron roofing sheets. For this comparison, a solar chimney

was constructed at an incline inside one loft space (see #1 in figure 9 below). The loft with

the chimney was compared to the loft with normal roof insulation, and the loft without any

insulation. The idea: to determine whether a roof chimney is a suitable and effective device

for RDP and lower income households. The rig was erected on the roof of one of the

Mechanical Engineering buildings of the Stellenbosch University.

32


Figure 9: Proposed test-rig showing three separate sections (summer air flow)

The aim of the experiment was to compare the actual temperatures of the three

compartments (the solar chimney, versus the bare roof versus the compartment with plain

insulation) with the outside ambient temperature. This, in turn, was compared to liveable

temperatures within the room. Thus, the temperature measurements of the three rooms, as

well as the ambient temperature inside and outside, were taken over a number of days and

the readings were plotted on a common graph.

The chimney section consisted of: a corrugated iron roof, an air gap, insulation and a ceiling

board in order to create a channel for air flow (see Figure 6, below). The design used a plain

sheet of corrugated iron as a solar collector. The purpose was to determine whether this

collector would create an efficient passive heating and cooling intervention.

33


Figure 6: Left - sketch of usual solar chimney design; Right - sketch of proposed chimney design

The solar chimney concept drives a layer of air between the bare roof and a layer of

insulation. The sun‟s rays heat the iron, which in turn heats the layer of air by radiation and

convection, causing the air to rise towards the apex of the roof, whilst drawing air from the

loft space through the lower sides of the insulation layer.

In winter, warm air will re-circulate back into the room, and in summer, vents at the top of the

roof will allow the hot air to escape to the outside. See Figure 7 and Figure 8 below:

Figure 7: Expected operation of test-rig during winter

34


Figure 8: Expected operation of test-rig during summer

Results Measured to Date:

As the test rig was only built in June, 2007, summer tests have not yet been measured. The

following figure shows a sample graph of the results obtained over a three day period in the

middle of winter:

19-21July

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2007/07/18

12:00

2007/07/19

00:00

2007/07/19

12:00

2007/07/20

00:00

2007/07/20

12:00

2007/07/21

00:00

2007/07/21

12:00

2007/07/22

00:00

2007/07/22

12:00

2007/07/23

00:00

2007/07/23

12:00

Time (hours)

Tem

pera

ture

(C

)

Chimney middle Roof middle Insulation middle amb temp

35


The labelling is explained as follows:

Chimney middle – Centre of the loft space of the compartment containing the solar

chimney

Roof middle - Centre of the loft space of the compartment with just a plain

corrugated iron roof

Insulation middle - Centre of the loft space of the compartment containing a roof with

normal roof insulation

Amb temp – temperature of ambient air

Unfortunately, results revealed that all three compartments acted similarly during the later

hours of the afternoon and night. This is probably due to the fact that corrugated iron cools

down very quickly when the sun sets, allowing cold air into the loft space at the bottom of the

chimney. For winter operation, this system could be feasible if the chimney inlet can be

closed off as the roof cools down, to prevent the cool air from sinking into the loft space.

Conclusion

The winter results show that solar chimney does warm the room up a certain degree higher

than the insulated room at midday for about 2-3h but unfortunately performs the same during

the evening and night.

Experiments will be continued further towards the warmer summer months in order to

determine whether this low-cost, simplified solar chimney will enhance air flow and

effectively cool the room down during the day compared to warming it up as seen above.

Sky Lights

A skylight is a window placed in the roof of a building or in the ceiling of a room to admit light

into the room. This could be in the form of a transparent roof plate, a glass window or a

plastic dome with a circular duct connected to the room.

Skylights should ideally be incorporated in the building design to keep the costs down.

Skylights can, however, be retrofitted to existing buildings with significant contributions to

building light levels and accompanied energy savings.

36


Solar Water Heaters (SWH)

Solar water heater works on two basic principles: hot water rising and black objects

absorbing heat. Solar water heaters comprise three main components: collector, storage

tank and energy transfer fluid. Solar water heaters are classified as either active or passive

and direct or indirect systems. They may make use of “flat plate collectors” or “evacuated

tubes” (SEA, 2007).

Active systems use a pump to circulate fluid/water between the collector and the storage

tank. Passive systems use natural convection to circulate the fluid/water between the

collector and the storage tank. In direct systems, water is heated in the collector, then it

circulates between the collector and the storage tank. Direct systems can only be used in

frost and lime free areas, and they cannot be used with borehole water. In indirect systems,

water is stored in a storage tank, where it is heated by heat transfer fluid, which flows in a

jacket that surrounds the water tank in the collector. Indirect systems can be used in all

conditions (SEA, 2007).

Where installation is concerned, close coupled systems are the most energy efficient – and

the most commonly used. In this instance, a roof mounted solar collector is combined with a

a horizontally-mounted storage tank, immediately above the collector (SEA, 2007). See

images below.

37


In split coupled systems, the water storage tank is usually housed within the roof (SEA,

2007). See images below.

A standard water heater (geyser) uses around 40 % - 60 % of the total energy in a

household (SEA, 2007). A significant electricity reduction can therefore be maintained by

installing a solar water heater. Cape Town‟s solar water heater by-law, currently in comment

phase, will require new buildings in the Cape Metropolitan area to be fitted with solar water

heaters. Solar water heaters are simple, reliable and a mature technology that needs little or

no maintenance and technical support. The graphs below reveal the savings which can be

achieved using SWHs.

38


(SEA, 2007)

If one considers residential energy use alone, a city‟s CO2 emissions can be reduced by

about 2.6 tons per household per year (Eskom) by rolling out solar water heaters in

households. A useful comparison is if an average family car drives 7800km, it will produce

the same amount of CO2 (SEA, 2007). For households, SWHs have several benefits which

include: an average 25% to 30% reduction on average monthly electricity bills in mid to

higher income households, improved quality of life and a reduction in energy costs in low

income households, where these costs are often a large component of household

expenditure. SWHs may replace the use of “dirtier” fuels, such as paraffin, for water heating

as well.

For mid to high income households, solar water heaters are financially viable and the

payback period is relatively short. For low income households, less electricity is used for

water heating, thus make solar water heating is not a viable option without subsidies (SEA,

2007). See graph below.

39


Table 4: Measuring household level interventions (SEA, 2007).

It should be noted that good quality, small (55litre) solar water heaters are available for around R3000 fully installed. If these systems were

installed instead of the larger and more expensive ones modelled, the rollout would be financially viable, even without being subsidized.

55


On a project level, the graphs below reveal that higher cost solar water heaters in

low income sustainable settlement projects are not viable without a subsidy (SEA,

2007).

Assumptions: Systems cost R10000 paid back over 10yrs @12% p.a., electricity

price increase of 5% p.a., SWH price increase of 5% p.a.

Assumptions: System cost R6000 paid back over 10yrs @12% p.a., electricity

price increase of 5% p.a., SWH price increase of 5% p.a.

However, if this low-income SWH settlement projects received a 50% subsidy,

they would be financially viable (SEA, 2007):

Assumptions: System cost R3000 (subsidized) + R3000 paid back over 10yrs

@12% p.a., electricity price increase of 5% p.a., SWH price increase of 5% p.a.

53


Once again, if lower SWH cost options are made available on a project level,

subsidisation would not be necessary. Lack of access to hot water can cause

negative safety and health impacts on low income households, as can the use of

dirtier fuels such as paraffin and coal. Also, the time lost in heating water by using

more „traditional‟ fuels, such as wood, could be saved by using solar water

heaters. SWHs in the low income sector should become a stronger focus.

CFL Bulbs

The use of energy efficient lighting is one of the best and most cost effective ways

of reducing energy consumption. The residential and commercial sectors in South

Africa together consume 21% of the country‟s electricity. Lighting makes up

approximately 12% of the total electricity used in these sectors. By replacing

existing incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent tubes with compact fluorescent

light bulbs (CFLs) and efficient fluorescent tubes, this figure can be reduced by up

to 75% (SEA, 2007). Efficient lighting will reduce energy consumption and in

particular peak demand, which will improve energy security, Eskom also

recognizes that efficient lighting will play a major role in its demand side

management (DSM) process.

CFL statistics (SEA, 2007):

CFLS use five times less energy than an equivalent incandescent bulb

CFLs are expected to last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs

Life cycle analysis‟ reveal that the capital cost of a CFL (approximately

R18) is nearly half that of 10 incandescent bulbs (approximately R30).

A CFL is 80% more efficient than an incandescent bulb, which means that

1/5th the power is used over the lifetime of one 18W CFL (the equivalent of

a 100W incandescent)

Approximately 10 000 hours can be saved (a saving of 800kWhrs of

electricity amounting to R300 of electricity saved per CFL using today‟s

rates).

Approximately 800kg of CO2 will be saved over the lifetime of one CFL

compared to the equivalent incandescent

Improved quality of life can be achieved through a reduction in electricity

costs for a low income household where the proportion of energy costs to

income is very high.

54


The following graph compares the cost comparison between a CFL and an

incandescent bulb over the same time period. In this case an 18W CFL (costing

R18 with a lifespan of 10 000 hrs) is compared with a 100W incandescent bulb

(costing R3 with a lifespan of 1000 hrs).

Projected cumulative savings: Long term CFL rollout (SEA, 2007)

55


There is great potential for a mass rollout of efficient lighting in cities throughout

South Africa. The following graphs illustrate the cumulative and CO2 savings that

can be achieved through energy efficient lighting (SEA, 2007)

56


Challenges and constraints:

In 2006, over 5 million CFLs were distributed within the Western Cape as part of

Eskom‟s DSM programme. Many stakeholders, however, raised concern about the

safe disposal of these lamps at the end of their life, because of the mercury found

in the lamp. CFLs are hazardous waste and will need to be disposed of safely.

A task team, made up of Eskom, government, lighting manufacturers, waste

disposal experts and NGOs has been established to look at safe ways of disposing

CFLs. A recycling plant for CFLs is being investigated and the safe disposal of

CFLs will be implemented (SEA, 2007).

Other Energy savings in buildings

Some benefits of energy efficient design can be listed as: (IIEC, 2003):

“Improved comfort of the home all year-round;

Reduced household space heating requirements in winter, i.e less emissions

and smoke inhalation if burning fossil fuels to heat the home;

Up to 60 percent reduction in electricity use associated with environmentally

sound houses in South Africa;

Reduced energy bills that will allow home-owners to have spare money to

pay for services or other priorities;

57


Improved health and safety of occupants from reduced indoor smoke and

fewer fires from faulty heating and cooking devices;

Improved air quality of life for residents and communities, and

Climate change mitigation and emissions reductions.”

Life-Cycle Costs

According to Fuller and Petersen (1995) the following data would need to be

captured in order to ascertain life cycle cost comparisons between conventional

and sustainable neighbourhood settlements:

• Conventional neighbourhood capital costs.

• Conventional neighbourhood operating costs.

• Sustainable neighbourhood capital costs.

• Sustainable neighbourhood operating costs.

Each of these costs can be further subdivided into those borne by the

purchaser/resident, and costs that are carried by other entities, (external costs).

Capital external costs for things like bulk services are generally known (can be

calculated directly in relation to a project), because they are allocated to the project

by local authorities in the form of subsidies and grants (e.g. CMIP funds).

However, they are not standard. They are actually the most variable costs when

considering "typical" low cost projects.

Other broader costs (like the upgrading of sewerage treatment works) are more

difficult to allocate to a project. Nominal costs are generally levied per project in

the form of Bulk Services levies. For the purposes of this study, and assumption

will be made that these levies inform external costs. Though these levies are

reasonable estimates given by Local Authorities, they may vary in degrees of

accuracy.

RDP Baseline: Life Cycle Costs

A typical RDP project will be used as a baseline to compare against a sustainable

neighbourhood's costs. For the purposes of this study a free standing house of 30

- 40 m2 with single skin concrete block masonry and either a fibre cement roof or a

zinc roof with a ceiling will be considered “conventional.”

58


The City of Cape Town‟s Human Settlement Department currently has

approximately 80 projects on its budget31. The graph in Figure 10 indicates the

servicing and top structure allocations for projects which have a servicing and a

top structure component on the budget (i.e. some projects are servicing only

projects and some are top structure only projects).

Figure 10: City of Cape Town Human Settlement Budget Program 2006 - 2010.

(Adapted from New Developments 2007/2008 Capital & Operating Budget - 15 January 2007)

These projects are ordered from largest (by unit) to smallest. Budgets are

allocated over a 5 year period, however, some of the projects identified started

before this period, and others are scheduled to finish after this window period

(projects with smaller servicing components in the graph).

It is evident from the graph and from discussion with CoCT officials that project

values are largely determined by the subsidy level (approximately R48,000) and do

31 Wiseman, Gavin on various occasions in June 2007.

-

10 000.00

20 000.00

30 000.00

40 000.00

50 000.00

60 000.00

70 000.00

80 000.00

90 000.00

100 000.00

TS/erf

Service/erf

59


not offer a realistic indication of the actual cost of the projects32. Top-up funding is

generally allocated from the Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG) and from a

Counter fund called the EFF.

For the purposes of this study, it was deemed appropriate to identify representative

projects, in consultation with City officials and project managers, and to list funding

sources and hidden subsidies. The following factors are considered to be of

importance when identifying suitable projects.

Project should be of a representative size and must be representative of

RDP housing.

Projects should be in a City of Cape Town electrical supply area (The City

is willing to provide consumption data, while Eskom is not).

Full project financials are available from a City official or a project manager.

The graph in Figure 11 below gives an indication of the sizes of housing projects

by number of units. This shows that approximately three quarters of the projects

are below 1000 units and approximately half are 500 units or less. It should be

noted that the larger projects tend to be in early planning and design stages and

are usually broken down into smaller phases the closer they get to implementation.

These phases are then sometimes broken down further into servicing and top

structure projects. Occasionally top structure projects are even further subdivided

into smaller Peoples Housing Projects (PHPs)5.

32 The projects to the right of the graph with total budget allocations above R50,000 are small restitution project that are not limited by the normal housing subsidy regime.

60


Figure 11: City of Cape Town Human Settlement Project Sizes by units. (Adapted from New Developments 2007/2008 Capital & Operating Budget - 15 January 2007)

Data is currently being compiled for the following projects. The Browns Farm

project in Philippi, which was developed by the City of Cape Town and managed

by private sector project managers and is within the CoCT supply area33. Delft,

which was a large award winning project a few years ago, was developed by

Power Developments. Lwandle which was developed by ASLA a private

developer. Table 5 reflects the capital costs per erf of the Browns Farm project

Phases 4 and 5. The net present value of the operating costs will be added to

these numbers to complete the table and the life cycle analyses.

Bulk Infrastructure 8,189.74

Internal Infrastructure 9,380.51

Building 26,000.00

Subtotal 43,570.25

Resident Costs

Government Cost

Subtotal

Capital Cost

Operating Cost (20yrs)

discounted to Present

Value

Total Life Cycle Cost

Table 5: Actual Expenditure Browns Farm Phases 3 to 5 (Source: adapted from expenditure spreadsheets received from Charl Nieuwoudt on 30 June 2007)

33 Nieuwoudt, Charl at Africon offices 30 June 2007 and Roger McFairlan telephonically on various occasions in June 2007.

-

10 000.00

20 000.00

30 000.00

40 000.00

50 000.00

60 000.00

70 000.00

80 000.00

90 000.00

100 000.00

TS/erf

Service/erf

61


The City of Cape Town is currently extracting consumption data from its GIS

(Geographic Information System) for the above mentioned projects. This data will

include electrical and water consumption data as well as waste water, refuse and

rates billing data for a period of two years. Officials have indicated that this data

may not be complete in all areas and for all months34.

Sustainable Neighbourhood Life Cycle Costs

Monitoring and evaluation of sustainable neighbourhood projects in the South

African context has been limited. Monitoring of consumption and operating costs is

often not undertaken, and in some cases this data is proprietary and unavailable

for general research purposes. Lynedoch Eco Village has however undertaken

consumption monitoring except for non electrical energy for cooking and space

heating35.

A rudimentary survey was conducted (S. Forder, 2007) among the low income

residents and a consensus was reached among residents that on average they

use one 9kg gas bottle per month for cooking and space heating and table 6 below

reflects the average monthly consumption costs for low income households at

Lynedoch36.

ServiceQuantity/

mnthUnits Rate Amount

Electricity 125 kWh 0.50R 62.26R

Gas 9 kg 15.56R 140.00R

Water 17.01 kl 2.67R 45.42R

Rates & Taxes 1 mnth 50.00R 50.00R

Sewerage incl. litres incl. incl.

Refuse Removal incl. rem./mnth incl. incl.2 9 7 . 6 8

R

Table 6: Operating Costs Lynedoch Eco Village

(Compiled from data received from Stephen Forder & Frans Turck Lynedoch Home Owners Association)

34 Le Roux, Pieta City of Cape Town GIS department telephonically on various occasions during June 2007.

35 Forder, Stephen Agama Energy and Lynedoch Resident: At Lynedoch 14 June 2007

36 It should be noted that while all of these households received subsidies, the houses constructed at Lynedoch

are larger than average and some families have since moved towards middle income status, and the consumption figures may therefore not be typical of low income households.

62


These consumption figures over a period of 20 years have been added to the

capital costs of the project in table 6 below and reflect three scenarios of real cost

increases of the above listed services. The figures are a present value of all costs

but exclude the cost of capital to the resident. The cost of capital will be included

and evaluated when compared to the baseline of a typical RDP project. The

figures also still exclude any unrecovered cost of providing services by the

government.

5% 10% 15%

Bulk Infrastructure - - -

Services Costs 38,527 38,527 38,527

Building Costs 187,147 187,147 187,147

Subtotal 225,674 225,674 225,674

Consumption Costs 71,444 281,440 526,273

Government Cost - - -

Subtotal 71,444 281,440 526,273

297,117 507,114 751,946

Capital Cost

Operating Cost

(20yrs) discounted to

Present Value

Total Life Cycle Cost

Real Resource Cost Escalation

Table 7: Life Cycle Cost Summary – Lyedoch Eco Village

(Source: Compiled from data received from Mark Swilling, Stephen Forder and Frans Turck June 2007)

Figure 12: Life Cycle Costs at Lynedoch Ecovillage

LYNEDOCH LIFE CYCLE COST

-

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

800,000

5% 10% 15%

Real Escalation in Resource Costs

So

uth

Afr

ican

Ran

d

Consumption Costs

Building Costs

Services Costs

63


Conclusion

Sustainable human settlements in South Africa incorporate various different tenets

of ecological design – and to varying degrees. Ecological design applications

include appropriate location, racial integration, economic empowerment,

public/private partnerships, socio-cultural sensitivity, sensitivity to vulnerable

groups and to local eco-systems, materials, water and energy efficiency, public

transportation, affordability and green finance.

The disjuncture between education and ecological design is immense. Few

professionals are trained to see sustainable human settlements in a holistic

manner. Though policy interventions in South Africa are beginning to recognise the

need for inclusive, integrated interventions, there are few contextual models

available in the South African context. This study has emphasised technological

interventions, as this data is more readily available.

Apart from the evaluation of individual technological interventions, there is little

empirical data on the consumption and cost benefits of sustainable neighbourhood

developments. Existing project-level data tends to be out-dated or proprietary, thus

a future commitment to monitoring and evaluation on a project level is essential.

64


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making the case for ecological design in settlements

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