Lubricants and Lubrication

Edited byTheo Mang and Wilfried Dresel

Second, Completely Revised and Extended Edition

InnodataFile Attachment9783527610334.jpg

Lubricants and Lubrication

Edited by Theo Mang and Wilfried Dresel

Each generation has its unique needs and aspirations. When Charles Wiley firstopened his small printing shop in lower Manhattan in 1807, it was a generationof boundless potential searching for an identity. And we were there, helping todefine a new American literary tradition. Over half a century later, in the midstof the Second Industrial Revolution, it was a generation focused on buildingthe future. Once again, we were there, supplying the critical scientific, technical,and engineering knowledge that helped frame the world. Throughout the 20thCentury, and into the new millennium, nations began to reach out beyond theirown borders and a new international community was born. Wiley was there, ex-panding its operations around the world to enable a global exchange of ideas,opinions, and know-how.

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1807–2007 Knowledge for Generations

Lubricants and Lubrication

Edited byTheo Mang and Wilfried Dresel

Second, Completely Revised and Extended Edition

Editors

Prof. Dr. Theo MangHolzweg 3069469 WeinheimGermany

Dr. Wilfried DreselTreppenweg 467063 LudwigshafenGermany

1. Edition 20012. Edition 2007

& All books published by Wiley-VCH arecarefully produced. Nevertheless, authors,editors, and publisher do not warrant theinformation contained in these books,including this book, to be free of errors.Readers are advised to keep in mind thatstatements, data, illustrations, proceduraldetails or other items may inadvertently beinaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.:applied for

British LibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationDataAcatalogue record for this book isavailable from theBritish Library.

Bibliographic information published by theDeutsche NationalbibliothekThe Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists thispublication in the Deutsche National-bibliografie; detailed bibliographic data areavailable in the Internet athttp://dnb.d-nb.de.

� 2007 WILEY-VCH GmbH, Weinheim

All rights reserved (including those oftranslation into other languages). No part ofthis book may be reproduced in any form –by photoprinting, microfilm, or any othermeans – nor transmitted or translated into amachine language without written permis-sion from the publishers. Registered names,trademarks, etc. used in this book, evenwhen not specifically marked as such, arenot to be considered unprotected by law.

Composition K�hn & Weyh, FreiburgPrinting betz-druck GmbH, DarmstadtBookbinding Litges & Dopf BuchbindereiGmbH, Heppenheim

Printed in the Federal Republic of GermanyPrinted on acid-free paper

ISBN 978-3-527-31497-3

V

List of Contributors

Thorsten BartelsDr.-Ing., Weisenheim am Sand, GermanyTechnical Service Management and Test LabManagement

Wolfgang BockDipl.-Ing., Weinheim, GermanyInternational Product Management Industrial Oils

J�rgen BraunDr. rer. nat., Speyer, GermanyR&D for Industrial Oils

Christian BuschDr.-Ing., Kaiserslautern, GermanyManaging Director

Wolfgang BussDr. rer. nat., Freinsheim, GermanyR&D and Product Management for FormingLubricants

Wilfried DreselDr. rer. nat., Ludwigshafen, GermanyR&D for Lubricating Greases (International)

Carmen FreilerDipl.-Ing., H�ttenfeld, GermanyR&D and Product Management for Metal CuttingFluids

Manfred HarperscheidDr. rer. nat., R�merberg, GermanyR&D for Engine Oils

Rolf-Peter HecklerDipl.-Ing., Neu-Isenburg, GermanyInternational Product Management forLubricating Greases

Dietrich H�rnerDr. rer. nat., Hassloch, GermanyInternational Product Management forMetalworking Fluids and Quenching Oils

Franz KubickiDipl.-Ing., Hockenheim, GermanyInternational Product Management for CorrosionPreventives and Sheet Metalforming

Georg LinggDr.-Ing., Mannheim, GermanyMember of the Executive Board, Technology andSupply Chain

Achim LoschDr. rer. nat., Westhofen, GermanyR&D for Corrosion Preventives, Metalforming andCleaners

Rolf LutherDipl.-Phys., Speyer, GermanyHead of Test Fields and Advanced Development

Theo MangProf. Dr.-Ing., Weinheim, GermanyGroup’s Executive Board, Technology, GroupPurchasing, Human Resources (until 2001)

Roman M�llerMannheim, GermanyInternational Know-How Transfer

Siegfried NollChemist, Mannheim, GermanyRaw Material Specifications, Central Purchasingand General Management († 2003)

J�rgen OmeisDr. rer. nat., Zwingenberg, GermanyR&D for Engine Oils (until 2004)

VII

List of Contributors V

Preface, Foreword 2nd edition XXXIII

AWord of Thanks XXXV

List of Abbreviations XXXVII

1 Lubricants and their Market 1Theo Mang

1.1 Preface 11.2 Lubricant Sales 21.3 The Lubricants Industry 31.4 Lubricant Systems 5

2 Lubricants in the Tribological System 7Theo Mang

2.1 Lubricants as Part of Tribological Research 72.2 The Tribological System 82.3 Friction 82.3.1 Types of Friction 92.3.1.1 Sliding Friction 92.3.1.2 Rolling Friction 102.3.1.3 Static Friction 102.3.1.4 Kinetic Friction 102.3.1.5 Stick–Slip 102.3.2 Friction and Lubrication Conditions 122.3.2.1 Solid Friction (Dry Friction) 122.3.2.2 Boundary Friction 122.3.2.3 Fluid Friction 132.3.2.4 Mixed Friction 132.3.2.5 Solid Lubricant Friction 13

Contents

VIII Contents

2.3.2.6 Stribeck Diagram 142.3.2.7 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 142.3.2.8 Elasto–Hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHD Regime) 152.3.2.9 Thermo-elasto-hydrodynamic Lubrication (TEHD) 152.4 Wear 172.4.1 Wear Mechanisms 172.4.1.1 Abrasion 172.4.1.2 Adhesion 172.4.1.3 Tribochemical Reactions 172.4.1.4 Surface Fatigue 172.4.1.5 Erosion 182.4.1.6 Fretting 182.4.1.7 Cavitation 182.4.2 Types of Wear 182.4.3 The Wear Process 182.4.4 Tribomutation 192.4.5 Nanotribology 202.4.6 Tribosystems of Tomorrow 22

3 Rheology of Lubricants 23Theo Mang

3.1 Viscosity 233.2 Influence of Temperature on Viscosity (V–T Behavior) 253.2.1 Viscosity Index 263.3 Viscosity–Pressure Dependency 273.4 The Effect of Shear Rate on Viscosity 283.5 Special Rheological Effects 303.5.1 Greases 313.6 Viscosity Grades 313.6.1 ISO Viscosity Grades 323.6.2 Other Viscosity Grades 323.6.2.1 Engine Oils 323.6.2.2 Automotive Gear Oils 323.6.2.3 Industrial Gear Oils 323.6.2.4 Viscosity Grades for Base Oils 333.6.2.5 Comparison of Viscosity Grades 33

4 Base Oils 34Theo Mang and Georg Lingg

4.1 Base Oils–A Historical Review and Outlook 344.2 Chemical Characterization of Mineral Base Oils 354.2.1 Rough Chemical Characterization 354.2.1.1 Viscosity–Gravity Constant (VGC) 354.2.1.2 Aniline Point 35

IXContents

4.2.2 Carbon Distribution 364.2.3 Hydrocarbon Composition 364.2.4 Polycyclic Aromatics in Base Oils 364.2.4.1 Aromatics in White Mineral Oils 374.3 Refining 384.3.1 Distillation 394.3.2 De-asphalting 394.3.3 Traditional Refining Processes 404.3.3.1 Acid Refining 414.3.3.2 Solvent Extraction 414.3.4 Solvent Dewaxing 434.3.5 Finishing 444.3.5.1 Lube Crudes 444.4 Base Oil Manufacturing by Hydrogenation and Hydrocracking 454.4.1 Manufacturing Naphthenic Base Oils by Hydrogenation 464.4.2 Production of White Oils 484.4.3 Lube Hydrocracking 494.4.4 Catalytic Dewaxing 504.4.5 Wax Isomerization 524.4.6 Hybrid Lube Oil Processing 524.4.7 All-Hydrogen Route 534.4.8 Gas-to-Liquids Conversion Technology 554.5 Boiling and Evaporation Behavior of Base Oils 554.6 Base Oil Categories and Evaluation of Various Petroleum Base Oils 59

5 Synthetic Base Oils 63Wilfried Dresel

5.1 Synthetic Hydrocarbons 645.1.1 Polyalphaolefins 655.1.2 Polyinternalolefins 675.1.3 Polybutenes 685.1.4 Alkylated Aromatics 695.1.5 Other Hydrocarbons 705.2 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 715.3 Synthetic Esters 715.3.1 Esters of carboxylic acids 715.3.1.1 Dicarboxylic Acid Esters 725.3.1.2 Polyol Esters 735.3.1.3 Other Carboxylic Esters 745.3.1.4 Complex Esters 755.3.1.5 Fluorinated Carboxylic Acid Esters 765.3.2 Phosphate Esters 765.4 Polyalkylene Glycols 775.5 Other Polyethers 79

X Contents

5.5.1 Perfluorinated Polyethers 795.5.2 Polyphenyl Ethers 805.5.3 Polysiloxanes (Silicone Oils) 815.6 Other Synthetic Base Oils 835.7 Comparison of Synthetic Base Oils 875.8 Mixtures of Synthetic Lubricants 87

6 Additives 88J�rgen Braun

6.1 Antioxidants 896.1.1 Mechanism of Oxidation and Antioxidants 896.1.2 Compounds 916.1.2.1 Phenolic Antioxidants 916.1.2.2 Aromatic Amines 916.1.2.3 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus 926.1.2.4 Organosulfur Compounds 926.1.2.5 Organophosphorus Compounds 936.1.2.6 Other Compounds 936.1.2.7 Synergistic Mixtures 936.1.3 Testing of the Oxidation Stability 936.2 Viscosity Modifiers 946.2.1 Physical Description of Viscosity Index 946.2.2 VI Improvement Mechanisms 946.2.3 Structure and Chemistry of Viscosity Modifiers 966.3 Pourpoint Depressants (PPD) 976.4 Detergents and Dispersants 996.4.1 Mechanism of DD Additives 1006.4.2 Metal-containing Compounds (Detergents) 1006.4.2.1 Phenates 1006.4.2.2 Salicylates 1006.4.2.3 Thiophosphonates 1016.4.2.4 Sulfonates 1026.4.3 Ashless Dispersants (AD) 1036.5 Antifoam Agents 1056.5.1 Silicon Defoamers 1056.5.2 Silicone-free Defoamers 1066.6 Demulsifiers and Emulsifiers 1066.6.1 Demulsifiers 1066.6.2 Emulsifiers 1066.7 Dyes 1076.8 Antiwear (AW) and Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives 1076.8.1 Function of AW/EP Additives 1076.8.2 Compounds 1086.8.2.1 Phosphorus Compounds 108

XIContents

6.8.2.2 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Phosphorus 1096.8.2.3 Compounds Containing Sulfur and Nitrogen 1106.8.2.4 Sulfur Compounds 1116.8.2.5 PEP Additives 1126.8.2.6 Chlorine Compounds 1126.8.2.7 Solid Lubricating Compounds 1136.9 Friction Modifiers (FM) 1136.10 Corrosion Inhibitors 1146.10.1 Mechanism of Corrosion Inhibitors 1146.10.2 Antirust Additives (Ferrous Metals) 1156.10.2.1 Sulfonates 1156.10.2.2 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives 1156.10.2.3 Amine Neutralized Alkylphosphoric Acid Partial Esters 1166.10.2.4 Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors 1166.10.3 Metal Passivators (Non-ferrous Metals) 117

7 Lubricants in the Environment 119Rolf Luther

7.1 Definition of �Environmentally Friendly Lubricants’ 1197.2 Current Situation 1207.2.1 Statistical Data 1207.2.2 Economic Consequences and Substitution Potential 1217.2.3 Agriculture, Economy, and Politics 1237.2.4 Political Initiatives 1247.3 Tests to Evaluate Biotic Potential 1257.3.1 Biodegradation 1257.3.2 Ecotoxicity 1267.3.3 Emission Thresholds 1277.3.4 Water Pollution 1277.3.4.1 The German Water Hazardous Classes 1277.3.4.2 German Regulations for Using Water-endangering Lubricants

(VAwS) 1287.4 Environmental Legislation 1:

Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals (REACh) 1307.4.1 Registration 1327.4.2 Evaluation 1327.4.2 Authorization 1337.4.2 Registration Obligations 1357.5 Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling (GHS) 1367.6 Environmental Legislation 2: Dangerous Preparations Directive

(1999/45/EC) 1397.7 Environmental Legislation 3: Regular use 1407.7.1 Environmental Liability Law 1417.7.2 The Chemicals Law, Hazardous Substances Law 141

XII Contents

7.7.3 Transport Regulations 1427.7.4 Disposal (Waste and Recycling Laws) 1427.7.5 Disposal Options for �Not water pollutant’ Vegetable Oils 1437.8 Environmental Legislation 4: Emissions 1447.8.1 Air Pollution 1447.8.2 Water Pollution 1447.8.3 German Law for Soil Protection 1457.8.4 German Water Law 1467.8.5 Waste Water Charges 1477.8.6 Clean Air: German Emissions Law 1477.8.7 Drinking Water Directive 1477.9 Standardization of Environmentally Compatible Hydraulic Fluids 1487.9.1 The German Regulation VDMA 24568 1487.9.2 ISO Regulation 15380 1487.10 Environmental Seal 1537.10.1 Global Eco-labeling Network 1537.10.2 European Eco-label 1537.10.3 The German �Blue Angel’ 1577.10.4 Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland)– �White

Swan’ 1587.10.4.1 Requirements Concerning Renewable Resources 1607.10.4.2 Requirements Concerning Re-refined Oil 1607.10.4.3 Requirements Concerning Environmentally Harmful Components 1607.10.4.4 Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids, Mould Oil, Metalworking

Fluids 1607.10.5 The Canadian �Environmental Choice’ (Maple Leaf) 1607.10.6 Other Eco-labels 1627.10.6.1 Austria 1627.10.6.2 France 1627.10.6.3 Japan 1637.10.6.4 USA 1637.10.6.5 The Netherlands 1637.11 Base Fluids 1647.11.1 Biodegradable Base Oils for Lubricants 1647.11.2 Synthetic Esters 1657.11.3 Polyglycols 1667.11.4 Polyalphaolefins 1667.11.5 Relevant Properties of Ester Oils 1667.11.5.1 Evaporation Loss 1667.11.5.2 Viscosity–Temperature Behavior 1667.11.5.3 Boundary Lubrication 1677.12 Additives 1677.12.1 Extreme Pressure/Antiwear Additives 1677.12.2 Corrosion Protection 1687.12.3 Antioxidants 168

XIIIContents

7.13 Products (Examples) 1687.13.1 Hydraulic Fluids 1697.13.2 Metal Working Oil 1697.13.3 Oil-refreshing System 1707.14 Safety Aspects of Handling Lubricants (Working Materials) 1717.14.1 Toxicological Terminology and Hazard Indicators 1717.14.1.1 Acute Toxicity 1717.14.1.2 Subchronic and Chronic Toxicity 1727.14.1.3 Poison Categories 1727.14.1.4 Corrosive, Caustic 1727.14.1.5 Explosion and Flammability 1727.14.1.6 Carcinogenic 1737.14.1.7 Teratogens, Mutagens 1737.14.2 MAK (Maximum Workplace Concentration) Values 1737.14.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAK, PAH, PCA) 1747.14.4 Nitrosamines in Cutting Fluids 1747.14.5 Law on Flammable Fluids 1757.15 Skin Problems Caused by Lubricants 1767.15.1 Structure and Function of the Skin 1767.15.2 Skin Damage 1777.15.2.1 Oil Acne (Particle Acne) 1777.15.2.2 Oil Eczema 1787.15.3 Testing Skin Compatibility 1797.15.4 Skin Function Tests 1807.15.5 Skin Care and Skin Protection 182

8 Disposal of Used Lubricating Oils 183Theo Mang

8.1 Possible Uses of Waste Oil 1848.2 Legislative Influences on Waste Oil Collection and Reconditioning 1848.3 Re-refining 1858.3.1 Sulfuric Acid Refining (Meinken) 1858.3.2 Propane Extraction Process (IFP, Snamprogetti) 1868.3.3 Mohawk Technology (CEP–Mohawk) 1878.3.4 KTI Process 1878.3.5 PROP Process 1878.3.6 Safety Kleen Process 1888.3.7 DEA Technology 1898.3.8 Other Re-refining Technologies 190

9 Lubricants for Internal Combustion Engines 191Manfred Harperscheid and J�rgen Omeis

9.1 Four-stroke Engine Oils 1919.1.1 General Overview 191

XIV Contents

9.1.1.1 Fundamental Principles 1929.1.1.2 Viscosity Grades 1939.1.1.3 Performance Specifications 1959.1.1.4 Formulation of Engine Oils 1969.1.1.5 Additives 1969.1.1.6 Performance Additives 1969.1.1.7 Viscosity Improvers 1979.1.2 Characterization and Testing 1979.1.2.1 Physical and Chemical Testing 1989.1.2.2 Engine Testing 1989.1.2.3 Passenger Car Engine Oils 2009.1.2.4 Engine Oil for Commercial Vehicles 2019.1.3 Classification by Specification 2029.1.3.1 MIL Specifications 2029.1.3.2 API and ILSAC Classification 2039.1.3.3 CCMC Specifications 2059.1.3.4 ACEA Specifications 2069.1.3.5 Manufacturers’ Approval of Service Engine Oils 2099.1.3.6 Future Trends 2149.1.3.7 Fuel Efficiency 2149.1.3.8 Long Drain Intervals 2169.1.3.9 Low Emission 2179.2 Two-stroke Oils 2189.2.1 Application and Characteristics of Two-stroke Oils 2189.2.2 Classification of Two-stroke Oils 2209.2.2.1 API Service Groups 2209.2.2.2 JASO Classification 2209.2.2.3 ISO Classification 2219.2.3 Oils for Two-stroke Outboard Engines 2229.2.4 Environmentally Friendly Two-stroke Oils 2239.3 Tractor Oils 2249.4 Gas Engine Oils 2259.4.1 Use of Gas Engines–Gas as a Fuel 2269.4.2 Lubricants for Gas Engines 2269.5 Marine Diesel Engine Oils 2279.5.1 Low-speed Crosshead Engines 2279.5.2 Medium-speed Engines 2289.5.3 Lubricants 229

10 Gear Lubrication Oils 230Thorsten Bartels

10.1 Introduction 23010.2 Requirements of Gear Lubrication Oils 23110.3 Tribology of Gears 233

XVContents

10.3.1 Friction Conditions of Gear Types 23410.3.1.1 Toothed Wheels 23410.3.1.2 Load and Speed Conditions during Tooth Engagement 23410.3.1.3 Static and Dynamic Load Distribution within Tooth Engagement 23610.3.1.4 Lubrication Film Generation within Tooth Contact 23610.3.1.5 Lubrication Conditions 23810.3.2 Specific Gear and Transmission Failure 24010.3.2.1 Wear 24010.3.2.2 Scuffing and Scoring 24110.3.2.3 Micro-Pitting 24210.3.2.4 Pitting 24410.3.2.5 Tooth Fracture 24510.4 Gear Lubrication Oils for Motor Vehicles 24510.4.1 Driveline Lubricants for Commercial Vehicles 24610.4.2 Driveline Lubricants for Passenger Cars 25010.4.3 Lubricants for Automatic Transmissions and CVTs 25410.4.3.1 Fluid Requirements for Hydrodynamic Transmissions 25610.4.3.2 Fluid Requirements for Wet Clutches and Brakes 25710.4.3.3 Fluid Requirements for CVTApplications 25910.4.3.4 B-CVT Push Belt and Link Chain Drives 25910.4.3.5 T-CVT Traction Drives 26110.4.3.6 H-CVT Hydrostatic Dynamic Powershift Drives 26210.5 Multifunctional Fluids in Vehicle Gears 26210.6 Gear Lubricants for Industrial Gears 26410.6.1 Viscosity-Temperature Characteristics 26610.6.2 Fluid Shear Stability 26710.6.3 Corrosion and Rust Protection 26710.6.4 Oxidation Stability 26810.6.5 Flash Point and Pour Point 26810.6.6 Demulsibility and Water Separation 26810.6.7 Air Release 26810.6.8 Paint Compatibility 26910.6.9 Seal Compatibility 26910.6.10 Foaming 26910.6.11 Miscibility with Mineral Oils 26910.6.12 Environmental and Skin Compatibility 26910.6.13 Open gear drives 27010.7 Cost-to-benefit Ratio of Gear Lubrication Oils 270

11 Hydraulic Oils 274Wolfgang Bock

11.1 Introduction 27411.2 Hydraulic Principle–Pascal’s Law 27511.3 Hydraulic Systems, Circuits, Components 276

XVI Contents

11.3.1 Elements of a Hydraulic System 27611.3.1.1 Pumps and Motors 27611.3.1.2 Hydraulic Cylinders 27711.3.1.3 Valves 27911.3.1.4 Circuit Components 27911.3.1.5 Seals, Gaskets and Elastomers 27911.4 Hydraulic Fluids 28111.4.1 Composition of Hydraulic Fluids (Base fluids, additives) 28111.4.1.1 Base Oil, Base Fluid 28111.4.1.2 Hydraulic Fluid Additives 28111.4.2 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Characteristics of a Hydraulic

Fluid 28211.4.3 Selection Criteria for Hydraulic Fluids 28311.4.4 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids–Standardization of Hydraulic

Fluids 28611.4.4.1 Classification of Hydraulic Fluids 28611.4.5 Mineral Oil-Based Hydraulic Fluids 28611.4.5.1 H Hydraulic Oils 28711.4.5.2 HL Hydraulic Oils 28811.4.5.3 HLP Hydraulic Oils 28811.4.5.4 HVLP Hydraulic Oils 28811.4.5.5 HLPD Hydraulic Oils 29411.4.6 Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids 29411.4.6.1 HFA Fluids 29511.4.6.2 HFB Fluids 29511.4.6.3 HFC Fluids 29511.4.6.4 HFD Fluids 29611.4.7 Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluids 29611.4.7.1 HETG: Triglyceride, Vegetable-Oil Types 29611.4.7.2 HEES: Synthetic Ester Types 29811.4.7.3 HEPG: Polyglycol Types 29911.4.7.4 HEPR: Polyalphaolefin and Related Hydrocarbon Products 29911.4.8 Food-Grade Hydraulic Fluids 29911.4.8.1 NSF H2 Lubricants 30011.4.8.2 NSF H1 Lubricants 30311.4.9 Automatic Transmission Fluids (ATF) 30311.4.10 Fluids in Tractors and Agricultural Machinery 30311.4.11 Hydraulic Fluids for Aircraft 30311.4.12 International Requirements on Hydraulic Oils 30411.4.13 Physical Properties of Hydraulic Oils and Their Effect on

Performance 30611.4.13.1 Viscosity, V–T Behavior 30711.4.13.2 Viscosity–Pressure Behavior 30711.4.13.3 Density 30811.4.13.4 Compressibility 310

XVIIContents

11.4.13.5 Gas Solubility, Cavitation 31211.4.13.6 Air Release 31411.4.13.7 Foaming 31411.4.13.8 Demulsification 31511.4.13.9 Pour-point 31511.4.13.10 Copper Corrosion Behavior (Copper-Strip Test) 31611.4.13.11 Water Content (Karl Fischer method) 31611.4.13.12 Aging Stability (Baader method) 31611.4.13.13 Aging Stability (TOST test) 31711.4.13.14 Neutralization Number 31711.4.13.15 Steel/Ferrous Corrosion Protection Properties 31711.4.13.16 Wear Protection (SHELL four-ball apparatus; VKA, DIN 51 350) 31711.4.13.17 Shear Stability of Polymer-containing Lubricants 31811.4.13.18 Mechanical Testing ofHydraulic Fluids inRotary Vane Pumps

(DIN51 389-2) 31811.4.13.19 Wear Protection (FZG Gear Rig Test; DIN 51 354-1 and -2) 31811.5 Hydraulic System Filters 31911.5.1 Contaminants in Hydraulic Fluids 31911.5.2 Oil Cleanliness Grades 32011.5.3 Filtration 32111.5.4 Requirements of Hydraulic Fluids 32211.6 Machine Tool Lubrication 32211.6.1 The Role of Machine Tools 32211.6.2 Machine Tool Lubrication 32211.6.3 Machine Tool Components–Lubricants 32311.6.3.1 Hydraulic Unit 32311.6.3.2 Slideways 32611.6.3.3 Spindles (Main and Working Spindles) 32711.6.3.4 Gearboxes and Bearings 32711.6.4 Machine Tool Lubrication Problems 32811.6.5 Hydraulic Fluids – New Trends, New Developments 32811.6.5.1 Applications 32811.6.5.2 Chemistry 32811.6.5.3 Extreme Pressure and Anti-wear Properties 33011.6.5.4 Detergent/Dispersant Properties 33011.6.5.5 Air Release 33111.6.5.6 Static Coefficient of Friction 33211.6.5.7 Oxidation Stability 33211.6.5.8 Shear Stability 33211.6.5.9 Filtration of Zn and Ash-free Hydraulic Fluids 33311.6.5.10 Electrostatic Charges 33311.6.5.11 Micro Scratching 33411.6.5.12 Updated Standards 33511.6.5.13 Conclusion 33511.7 Summary 336

XVIII Contents

12 Compressor Oils 338

12.1 Air Compressor Oils 338Wolfgang Bock and Georg Lingg

12.1.1 Displacement Compressors 34012.1.1.1 Reciprocating Piston Compressors 34012.1.1.2 Lubrication of Reciprocating Piston Compressors 34012.1.1.3 Rotary Piston Compressors (Single Shaft, Rotary Vane

Compressors) 34112.1.1.4 Lubrication of Rotary Piston Compressors 34112.1.1.5 Screw Compressors 34212.1.1.6 Lubrication of Screw Compressors 34212.1.1.7 Roots Compressors 34312.1.1.8 Lubrication of Roots Compressors 34312.1.2 Dynamic Compressors 34312.1.2.1 Turbo Compressors 34312.1.2.2 Lubrication of Turbo Compressors 34412.1.3 Preparation of Compressed Air 34412.1.4 Lubrication of Gas Compressors 34412.1.4.1 Oxygen Compressors 34412.1.4.2 Acid Gas Compressors 34412.1.4.3 Inert Gas Compressors 34412.1.4.4 Hydrocarbon Compressors 34512.1.4.5 Vacuum Pump Lubrication 34512.1.5 Characteristics of Compressor Oils 34512.1.6 Standards and Specifications of Compressor Oils 345

12.2 Refrigeration Oils 353Wolfgang Bock

12.2.1 Introduction 35312.2.2 Minimum Requirements of Refrigeration Oils 35412.2.2.1 DIN 51 503-1: Refrigeration oils, Minimum requirements (1997) 35412.2.3 Classifications of Refrigeration Oils 35512.2.3.1 Mineral Oils (MO)–Dewaxed Naphthenic Refrigeration Oils 35512.2.3.2 Mineral Oils (MO)–Paraffinic Refrigeration Oils 35512.2.3.3 Semi-Synthetic Refrigeration Oils–Mixtures of alkylbenzenes and

mineral oils (MO/AB) 35612.2.3.4 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils–Alkylbenzenes (AB) 35712.2.3.5 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils–Polyalphaolefins (PAO) 35712.2.3.6 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils–Polyol esters (POE) 35712.2.3.7 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils–Polyglycols (PAG) for R 134a 35912.2.3.8 Fully Synthetic Refrigeration Oils–Polyglycols for NH3 35912.2.3.9 Other Synthetic Fluids 36012.2.3.10 Refrigeration Oils for CO2 36012.2.3.11 Copper Plating 360

XIXContents

12.2.4 Types of Compressor 36212.2.5 Viscosity Selection 36212.2.5.1 General Overview 36212.2.5.2 Mixture Concentration in Relationship to Temperature and Pressure

(RENISO Triton SE 55–R 134a) 36512.2.5.3 Mixture Viscosity in Relationship to Temperature, Pressure and

RefrigerantConcentration (RENISO Triton SE 55–R 134a) 365

12.2.5.4 Mixture Density in Relationship to Temperature and RefrigerantConcentration (RENISO Triton SE 55–R 134a; Fig. 12.9) 365

12.2.5.5 Miscibility Gap, Solubility Threshold (RENISO Triton Series with R 134a,Fig. 12.10) 365

12.2.6 Summary 366

13 Turbine Oils 367Wolfgang Bock

13.1 Introduction 36713.2 Demands on Turbine Oils–Characteristics 36713.3 Formulation of Turbine Oils 36813.4 Turbine Lubricants–Specifications 36913.5 Turbine Oil Circuits 37413.6 Flushing Turbine Oil Circuits 37913.7 Monitoring and Maintenance of Turbine Oils 38013.8 Life of (Steam) Turbine Oils 38013.9 Gas Turbine Oils–Application and Requirements 38113.10 Fire-resistant, Water-free Fluids for Power Station Applications 38213.11 Lubricants for Water Turbines and Hydroelectric Plants 383

14 Metalworking Fluids 384Theo Mang, Carmen Freiler and Dietrich H�rner

14.1 Action Mechanism and Cutting Fluid Selection 38514.1.1 Lubrication 38614.1.2 Cooling 38714.1.3 Significance of Cutting Fluid with Various Cutting Materials 38914.1.3.1 High-speed Steels 38914.1.3.2 Cemented Carbide Metals 39014.1.3.3 Coated Carbide Metals 39014.1.3.4 Ceramic Materials 39014.1.3.5 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) 39014.1.3.6 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) 39114.1.3.7 Coatings 39114.1.4 Cutting Fluid Selection for Various Cutting Methods and Cutting

Conditions 391

XX Contents

14.2 Friction and Wear Assessment Method for the Use of CuttingFluids 393

14.2.1 Tool Life and Number of Parts Produced by the Tool asPractical Assessment Parameters 394

14.2.2 Measuring Cutting Forces in Screening Tests 39414.2.3 Feed Rates at Constant Feed Force 39514.2.4 Measuring Tool Life by Fast-screening Methods 39514.2.5 Cutting Geometry and Chip Flow 39614.2.6 Other Fast Testing Methods 39714.2.6.1 Temperature Measurement 39714.2.6.2 Radioactive Tools 39714.2.6.3 Surface Finish 39714.3 Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 39714.3.1 Nomenclature and Breakdown 39814.3.2 Composition 40014.3.2.1 Emulsifiers 40014.3.2.2 Viscosity of Emulsions 40614.3.2.3 Phase Reversal, Determination of the Type of Emulsion 40714.3.2.4 Degree of Dispersion 40814.3.2.5 Stability 40914.3.2.6 Corrosion Inhibitors and other Additives 41114.3.2.7 Cutting Fluids Containing Emulsifiers 41314.3.2.8 Coolants Containing Polyglycols 41514.3.2.9 Salt Solutions 41514.3.3 Corrosion Protection and Corrosion Test Methods 41614.3.4 Concentration of Water-mixed Cutting Fluids 41714.3.4.1 Determination of Concentration by DIN 51 368 (IP 137) 41714.3.4.2 Concentration Measurement Using Hand-held Refractometers 41814.3.4.3 Concentration Measurement Through Individual Components 41814.3.4.4 Determination of Concentration by Titration of Anionic

Components 41814.3.4.5 Determination of Concentration Through Alkali Reserve 41914.3.4.6 Concentration after Centrifuging 41914.3.5 Stability of Coolants 41914.3.5.1 Determination of Physical Emulsion Stability 41914.3.5.2 Electrolyte Stability 42014.3.5.3 Thermal Stability 42114.3.5.4 Stability to Metal Chips 42214.3.6 Foaming Properties 42214.3.6.1 Definition and Origin of Foam 42314.3.6.2 Foam Prevention 42414.3.6.3 Methods of Determining Foam Behavior 42414.3.7 Metalworking Fluid Microbiology 42514.3.7.1 Hygienic and Toxicological Aspects of Microorganisms 42714.3.7.2 Methods of Determining Microbial Count 427

XXIContents

14.3.7.3 Determination of the Resistance of Water-miscible Coolants TowardsMicroorganisms 428

14.3.7.4 Reducing or Avoiding Microbial Growth in Coolants 42814.3.8 Preservation of Coolants with Biocides 43014.3.8.1 Aldehydes 43414.3.8.2 Formaldehyde Release Compounds 43414.3.8.3 Phenol Derivatives 43414.3.8.4 Compounds Derived from Carbon Disulfide 43514.3.8.5 Isothiazoles 43514.3.8.6 Fungicides 43514.3.8.7 Hypochlorites 43514.3.8.8 Hydrogen Peroxide, H2O2 43514.3.8.9 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds 43614.4 Neat Cutting Fluids 43614.4.1 Classification of Neat Metalworking Oils According to

Specifications 43614.4.2 Composition of Neat Metalworking Fluids 43714.4.2.1 Base Oils and Additives 43714.4.2.2 Significance of Viscosity on the Selection of Neat Products 43814.4.3 Oil Mist and Oil Evaporation Behavior 43914.4.3.1 Evaporation Behavior 43914.4.3.2 Low-Misting Oils 44014.4.3.3 The Creation of Oil Mist 44014.4.3.4 Sedimentation and Separation of Oil Mists 44114.4.3.5 Toxicity of Oil Mist 44114.4.3.6 Oil Mist Measurement 44314.4.3.7 Oil Mist Index 44414.4.3.8 Oil Mist Concentration in Practice 44414.5 Machining with Geometrically Defined Cutting Edges 44714.5.1 Turning 44714.5.2 Drilling 44714.5.3 Milling 44814.5.4 Gear Cutting 44914.5.5 Deep Hole Drilling 45014.5.5.1 Deep Hole Drilling Methods 45014.5.5.2 Tasks to be Fulfilled by the Cutting Fluid 45114.5.6 Threading and Tapping 45214.5.7 Broaching 45314.6 Machining with Geometric Non-defined Cutting Edges 45414.6.1 Grinding 45414.6.1.1 High-speed Grinding 45514.6.1.2 Grinding Wheel Abrasive Materials and Bondings 45614.6.1.3 Requirements for Grinding Fluids 45614.6.1.4 Special Workpiece Material Considerations 45714.6.1.5 CBN High-speed Grinding 457

XXII Contents

14.6.1.6 Honing 45814.6.1.7 Honing Oils 46014.6.1.8 Lapping 46114.6.1.9 Lapping Powder and Carrier Media 46114.7 Specific Material Requirements for Machining Operations 46214.7.1 Ferrous Metals 46214.7.1.1 Steel 46214.7.1.2 Tool Steels 46214.7.1.3 High-speed Steels (HSS) 46314.7.1.4 Stainless Steels 46314.7.1.5 Cast Iron 46314.7.2 Aluminum 46414.7.2.1 Influence of the Type of Aluminum Alloy 46414.7.2.2 The Behavior of Aluminum During Machining 46514.7.2.3 Tool Materials 46714.7.3 Magnesium and its Alloys 46814.7.4 Cobalt 46914.7.4.1 The Health and Safety Aspects of Carbides 46914.7.4.2 Use of Cutting Oils in Carbide Machining Processes 47014.7.5 Titanium 47014.7.6 Nickel and nickel alloys 47114.8 Metalworking Fluid Circulation System 47214.8.1 Metalworking Fluid Supply 47214.8.1.1 Grinding 47414.8.2 Individually-filled Machines and Central Systems 47514.8.3 Tramp Oil in Coolants 47614.8.4 Separation of Solid Particles 47714.8.4.1 Swarf Concentration and Filter Fineness 47714.8.4.2 Full, Partial or Main Flow Solids Separation 47814.8.4.3 Filtration Processes 47914.8.4.4 Solids Separation Equipment 48214.8.5 Plastics and Sealing Materials in Machine Tools–Compatibility with

Cutting Fluids 48714.8.6 Monitoring and Maintenance of Neat and Water-miscible Cutting

Fluids 48814.8.6.1 Storage of Cutting Fluids 48814.8.6.2 Mixing Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 48914.8.6.3 Monitoring Cutting Fluids 48914.8.6.4 Cutting Fluid Maintenance 49114.8.6.5 Corrective Maintenance for Neat and Water-miscible Cutting Fluids 49314.8.7 Splitting and Disposal 49514.8.7.1 Disposal of Cutting Fluids 49514.8.7.2 Evaluation Criteria for Cutting Fluid Water Phases 49614.8.7.3 Electrolyte Separation 49714.8.7.4 Emulsion Separation by Flotation 499

XXIIIContents

14.8.7.5 Splitting of Emulsions with Adsorbents 49914.8.7.6 Separating Water-miscible Cutting Fluids by Thermal Methods 50014.8.7.7 Ultrafiltration 50014.8.7.8 Evaluation of Disposal Methods 50214.9 Coolant Costs 50314.9.1 Coolant Application Costs 50314.9.1.1 Investment Costs (Depreciation, Financing Costs, Maintenance

Costs) 50314.9.1.2 Energy Costs 50414.9.1.3 Coolant and Coolant Additives 50414.9.1.4 Coolant Monitoring 50414.9.1.5 Other Auxiliaries 50414.9.1.6 Coolant Separation and Disposal 50414.9.2 Coolant Application Costs with Constant System 50414.9.2.1 Specific Coolant Costs 50414.9.2.2 Optimization of Coolant use by Computer 50814.10 New Trends in Coolant Technology 51014.10.1 Oil Instead of Emulsion 51014.10.1.1 Fluid Families and Multifunctional Fluids for Machine Tools 51114.10.1.2 Washing Lines 51214.10.1.3 De-oiling of Chips and Machined Components 51214.10.1.4 Future Perspectives – Unifluid 51314.10.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication 51314.10.2.1 Considerations When Dispensing with Coolants 51414.10.2.2 Minimum Quantity Lubrication Systems 51514.10.2.3 Coolants for Minimum Quantity Lubrication 51614.10.2.4 Oil Mist Tests with Minimum Quantity Lubrication 51814.10.2.5 Product Optimization of a Minimum Quantity Coolant Medium for

Drilling 520

15 Forming Lubricants

15.1 Sheet Metal Working Lubricants 522Theo Mang, Franz Kubicki, Achim Losch and Wolfgang Buss

15.1.1 Processes 52315.1.2 Basic Terms in Forming Processes 52315.1.2.1 Lattice Structure of Metals 52315.1.2.2 Yield Strength 52415.1.2.3 Strain 52415.1.2.4 Flow Curve 52415.1.2.5 Efficiency of Deformation, Resistance to Forming, Surface Pressure 52615.1.2.6 Strain Rate 52615.1.2.7 Anisotropy, Texture, R value 52615.1.3 Deep drawing 527

XXIV Contents

15.1.3.1 Friction and Lubrication in the Different Areas of a Deep DrawingOperation 527

15.1.3.2 Significance of Lubrication Dependent upon Sheet Metal Thickness,Drawn-part Size and the Efficiency of Deformation 531

15.1.3.3 Assessment of the Suitability of Lubricants for Deep Drawing 53315.1.4 Stretch Drawing and a Combination of Stretch and Deep Drawing 53415.1.5 Shear Cutting 53515.1.5.1 Stamping 53615.1.5.2 Fineblanking 53915.1.6 Material and Surface Microstructure 54115.1.6.1 Material 54115.1.6.2 Surface Microstructure 54215.1.7 Tools Used in Sheet Metal Forming Operations 54315.1.8 Lubricants for Sheet Metal Forming 54515.1.8.1 Before Forming 54515.1.8.2 Lubricant Behavior During Forming 54815.1.8.3 After Forming 54815.1.8.4 Trends in Sheet Metal Forming Lubricants 54915.1.9 Corrosion Protection 55015.1.9.1 Corrosion Mechanisms 55015.1.9.2 Temporary Corrosion Protection 55115.1.9.3 Corrosion Tests 55315.1.10 Removal of Forming Lubricants– Industrial Cleaners 55315.1.10.1 Intermediate Cleaning in Mechanical Manufacture 55415.1.10.2 Cleaning Before Heat Treatment and Surface Coating 55415.1.10.3 Cleaning During Maintenance 55515.1.10.4 Cleaning Methods and Agents 55515.1.10.5 Systematization of Cleaners 55615.1.11 Testing Tribological Characteristics 56315.1.12 Sheet Metal Forming in Automobile Manufacturing 56515.1.12.1 Prelubes 56515.1.12.2 Skin Passing 56715.1.12.3 Coil Oiling 56715.1.12.4 Transport and Storage of Sheet Metal 56715.1.12.5 Washing of Steel Strips and Blanks 56715.1.12.6 Additional Lubrication 56815.1.12.7 Pressing 56815.1.12.8 Transport and Storage of Pressed Parts 57015.1.12.9 Welding and Bonding 57015.1.12.10 Cleaning and Phosphating 57015.1.12.11 Cataphoretic Painting 57115.1.12.12 Savings Potential using Prelubes 57115.1.12.13 Dry-film Lubricants 571

XXVContents

15.2 Lubricants for Wire, Tube, and Profile Drawing 573Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss

15.2.1 Friction and Lubrication, Tools, and Machines 57315.2.1.1 Forming Classification 57315.2.1.2 Friction and Lubrication, Machines and Tools when Wire Drawing 57415.2.1.3 Drawing Force and Tension 57515.2.1.4 Drawing Tool and Wear 57715.2.1.5 Wire Cracks 57915.2.1.6 Hydrodynamic Drawing 57915.2.1.7 Wire Friction on Cone 57915.2.1.8 Lubricant Feed in Wet Drawing 58215.2.1.9 Dry Drawing 58215.2.1.10 Applying Lubricant as Pastes or High-viscosity Products 58315.2.2 Drawing Copper Wire 58315.2.2.1 Lubricants 58415.2.2.2 Lubricant Concentration 58515.2.2.3 Solubility of Copper Reaction Products 58615.2.2.4 Water Quality and Electrolyte Stability 58615.2.2.5 Laboratory Testing Methods 58715.2.2.6 Lubricant Temperature 58815.2.2.7 Influence of the Lubricant on Wire Enameling 58815.2.2.8 Circulation Systems, Cleaning and Disposal of Drawing Emulsions 58815.2.3 Drawing of Steel Wire 58915.2.3.1 Requirements 58915.2.3.2 Lubricant Carrier Layers 59015.2.3.3 Lime as a Lubricant Carrier 59015.2.3.4 Borax as Lubricant Carrier 59015.2.3.5 Phosphate as Lubricant Carrier 59015.2.3.6 Oxalate Coatings and Silicates 59115.2.3.7 Lubricants for Steel Wire Drawing 59115.2.4 Drawing Aluminum Wire 59315.2.4.1 Drawing Machines and Lubrication 59315.2.4.2 Lubricants for Aluminum Wire Drawing 59315.2.5 Wire from Other Materials 59415.2.5.1 Stainless Steel 59415.2.5.2 Nickel 59415.2.5.3 Tungsten 59515.2.6 Profile Drawing 59515.2.6.1 Lubricating Tasks in Profile Drawing 59615.2.6.2 Pretreatment and the Use of Lubricant when Profile Drawing Steel 59615.2.7 Tube Drawing 59615.2.7.1 Tube-drawing Methods 59715.2.7.2 Tools and Tool Coatings 59715.2.7.3 Lubricants and Surface Pretreatment for Tube Drawing 59915.2.8 Hydroforming 601

XXVI Contents

15.2.8.1 Process Principle 60215.2.8.2 Process Configuration 60315.2.8.3 Tribological Aspects of Hydroforming 60315.2.8.4 Lubricants for Hydroforming 605

15.3 Lubricants for Rolling 606Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss

15.3.1 General 60615.3.1.1 Rolling Speed 60715.3.1.2 Rationalization 60715.3.1.3 Surface and Material Quality 60715.3.1.4 Hygienic Commercial Requirements 60715.3.2 Friction and Lubrication when Rolling 60815.3.3 Rolling Steel Sheet 61115.3.3.1 Hot Rolling 61115.3.3.2 Sheet Cold Rolling 61315.3.3.3 Finest Sheet Cold Rolling 61715.3.3.4 Cold Rolling of High Alloy Steel Sheet 61815.3.4 Rolling Aluminum Sheet 62015.3.5 Aluminum Hot Rolling 62015.3.6 Aluminum Cold Rolling 62115.3.7 Rolling Other Materials 622

15.4 Solid Metal Forming Lubricants (Solid Forming, Forging andExtrusion) 623Theo Mang and Wolfgang Buss

15.4.1 Processes 62315.4.1.1 Upsetting 62315.4.1.2 Extrusion 62415.4.1.3 Impression Die Forging 62415.4.1.4 Open Die Forging 62415.4.2 Forming Temperatures 62415.4.2.1 Cold 62415.4.2.2 Warm 62515.4.2.3 Hot 62515.4.3 Friction and Lubrication with Cold Extrusion and Cold Forging 62515.4.3.1 Friction and Lubricant Testing Methods 62615.4.3.2 Selection Criteria for Lubricants and Lubrication Technology 62815.4.3.3 Lubricating Oils for Cold Extrusion of Steel (Extrusion Oils) 62915.4.3.4 Phosphate Coatings and Soap Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of

Steel 63115.4.3.5 Solid Lubricants for Cold Extrusion of Steel 63415.4.4 Warm Extrusion and Forging 63615.4.4.1 Temperature Range up to 350 �C 63815.4.4.2 Temperature Range 350 to 500 �C 638

XXVIIContents

15.4.4.3 Temperature Range 500 to 600 �C 63815.4.4.4 Temperature Range > 600 �C 63815.4.5 Lubrication when Hot Forging 63915.4.5.1 Demands on Hot Forging Lubricants 64015.4.5.2 Lubricant Testing Methods 64115.4.6 Hot Forging of Steel 64115.4.6.1 Lubricants 64115.4.7 Aluminum Forging 64315.4.8 Isothermal and Hot Die Forging 64415.4.9 Application and Selection of Lubricant 645

16 Lubricating Greases 648Wilfried Dresel and Rolf-Peter Heckler

16.1 Introduction 64816.1.1 Definition 64816.1.2 History 64816.1.3 Advantages over Lubricating Oils 64916.1.4 Disadvantages 64916.1.5 Classification 65016.2 Thickeners 65116.2.1 Simple Soaps 65116.2.1.1 Soap Anions 65116.2.1.2 Soap Cations 65116.2.1.3 Lithium Soaps 65216.2.1.4 Calcium Soaps 65316.2.1.5 Sodium Soaps 65416.2.1.6 Other Soaps 65516.2.1.7 Cation Mixed Soaps M1X/M2X 65516.2.1.8 Anion Mixed Soaps MX1/MX2 65616.2.2 Complex Soaps 65616.2.2.1 Lithium Complex Soaps 65616.2.2.2 Calcium Complex Soaps 65816.2.2.3 Calcium Sulfonate Complex Soaps 65916.2.2.4 Aluminum Complex Soaps 65916.2.2.5 Other Complex Soaps 66016.2.3 Other Ionic Organic Thickeners 66016.2.4 Non-ionic Organic Thickeners 66016.2.4.1 Diureas and Tetraureas 66116.2.4.2 Other Non-ionic Organic Thickeners 66216.2.5 Inorganic Thickeners 66216.2.5.1 Clays 66216.2.5.2 Highly Dispersed Silicic Acid 66216.2.6 Miscellaneous Thickeners 66316.2.7 Temporarily Thickened Fluids 663

XXVIII Contents

16.3 Base Oils 66416.3.1 Mineral Oils 66516.3.2 Synthetic Base Oils 66516.3.2.1 Synthetic Hydrocarbons 66516.3.2.2 Other Synthetic Base Oils 66616.3.2.3 Immiscible Base Oil Mixtures 66616.4 Grease Structure 66616.5 Additives 66716.5.1 Structure Modifiers 66816.5.2 Antirust Additives (Corrosion Inhibitors) 66816.5.3 Extreme Pressure and Anti-Wear Additives 66816.5.4 Solid Lubricants 66916.5.5 Friction Modifiers 66916.5.6 Nanomaterials 67016.6 Manufacture of Greases 67016.6.1 Metal Soap-Based Greases 67016.6.1.1 Batch Production with Preformed Metal Soaps 67016.6.1.2 Batch Production with Metal Soaps Prepared In-situ 67116.6.1.3 Continuous Production 67216.6.2 Oligourea Greases 67316.6.3 Gel Greases 67316.7 Grease Rheology 67416.8 Grease Performance 67416.8.1 Test Methods 67716.8.2 Analytical Methods 67816.9 Applications of Greases 67916.9.1 Rolling Bearings 67916.9.1.1 Re-lubrication Intervals 68016.9.2 Cars, Trucks, Construction Vehicles 68316.9.3 Steel Mills 68516.9.4 Mining 68616.9.5 Railroad, Railway 68716.9.6 Gears 68716.9.7 Food-Grade Applications 68816.9.8 Textile Machines 68816.9.9 Application Techniques 68816.9.10 Special and Lifetime Applications 68916.9.11 Applications with Polymeric Materials 68916.10 Grease Market 69016.11 Ecology and the Environment 69116.12 Grease Tribology 693