VILNIUS UNIVERSITY KAUNAS FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

Loreta Ulvydienė

TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION

Vilnius, 2011

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VILNIAUS UNIVERSITETAS KAUNO HUMANITARINIS FAKULTETAS

Loreta Ulvydienė

VERTIMAS RAŠTU IR ŽODŽIU

Vilnius, 2011

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Loreta Ulvydiene. Vertimas raštu ir žodžiu. Mokomoji knyga. Vilnius, 2011 – 86 psl. (elektroninėje laikmenoje). Leidinys skirtas humanitarinių studijų krypties studentams. Jame aptariamos vertimo teorijos, metodai bei ypatumai. Studentai supažindinami su naujausiomis audiovizualinio vertimo teorijomis. Autorė aptaria naujausias vertimo teorijas, kurias išsamiai gvildena John Benjamins, Anthony Pym, Kirsten Malkmjaer, kt. Kalbėdama apie audiovizualinį vertimą autorė remiasi naujausiais staripsnių rinkiniais apie vertimą bei subtitravimą (sud. Jorge Diaz Cintas). Studentams itin naudinga turėtų būti atvejo analizė, kurią autor parengė remdamasi studentų darbais. Publikuoti rekomendavo Vilniaus Universiteto Kauno humanitarinio fakulteto taryba 2011 02 18 protokolo Nr. 5 Recenzentai: Doc. dr. Ivan Burlyka (Y. Kupala valstybinis Gardino universitetas) Doc. dr. Vytautė Pasvenskienė (VU KHF) ISBN 978-9955-634-09-6

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Acknowledgements

This book is for students of translation, languages, inter-cultural communication and audiovisual translation who would also like to enhance their understanding of the translator‘s competence, cultural transference in subtitling and dubbing.

The author of the text book is grateful to all the authors for permission to reproduce their works. In some cases she was not able to trace the owners of copyright material and she would appreciate any information that would enable her to do so.

ulvydiene@vukhf.lt Special thanks to my students who are also my teachers and helpers.

“By learning you will teach, by teaching you will learn”. Latin Proverb

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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION.....6 TRANSLATION MEANING.....9 FIVE COMPETENCES OF TRANSLATOR.....15 Language or linguistic competence Textual competence Subject competence Cultural competence Transfer Competence PACTE TRANSLATION COMPETENCE MODEL.....22 COMMON PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATION: PRAGMATIC NON-EQUIVALENCE…..24 Violation of Gricean Maxims Mistranslation of Intentionally Flouted Maxims Lack of Coherence SUBTITLING AS A TOOL WHEN LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES.....27 Equivalence between Source and Target Languages Timing and Brevity of Subtitles Quality of Subtitled Films CASE STUDY 1: PRAGMATIC FLAWS OF TRANSLATION…38 LITERAL TRANSLATION.....50 LITERAL SOFTENING.....53 CASE STUDY 2: TRANSLATION OF SLANG IN J.D. SALINGER’S THE CATCHER IN THE RYE.....55 SUGGESTED PROJECTS AND ACTIVITIES.....64 REFERENCES.....

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INTRODUCTION

This book is for students of translation, languages, inter-cultural communication and audiovisual translation who would also like to enhance their understanding of the translator‘s competence, cultural transference in subtitling and dubbing

Literary translation, undoubtedly, is one of the most widely discussed topics in Translation Studies. While some theorists state that application of linguistics to Translation Studies is of extreme importance, others claim it to be even harmful and state that translation should not be reduced to a linguistic exercise and that the most important are the textual, cultural and situational aspects.

Furthermore, as translation is an inseparable part of any foreign language learning process, the author of the book attempts to explore this field from various different angles, one of which is subtitling of films. Considering the fact that the original purpose of films (except educational material, e.g., documentaries) is to entertain the audience, the question of whether subtitles can be used as a means of foreign language learning arises. The author also looks through A. Baravykaitė’s essay “Kino filmų titrai kaip kalbų mokymosi priemonė” M. Baker‘s book In Other Words: a Coursebook on Translation and points out the main aspects and problems of film translation for language learning purposes. “A Proposed Set of Subtitling Standards in Europe” has been and influential work by Karamitroglou, F., where the main rules of subtitling are reviewed and a suggestion for a unified set of rules to the entire European market of film translation is made.

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Every scholar defines translation by stressing different approaches of this term, for example, Eugene Nida (1965) claims that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closets natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and then in terms of style”. Meanwhile Newmark (1982) concentrates on translation from the following positions: semantic translation which focuses on the reader and semantic and syntactic structures of the target language, on the contextual meaning of the original text, and also on the communicative translation. According to Nida (1984) translation may be also analyzed from the position of formal equivalence which is the closest possible adequacy of form and context of Source text and Target text and on dynamic equivalence which is principle of equivalence of effect on reader of the Target text.

Moreover, there are scholars who argue about what translation process is more – a theory or a practice. Some scholars state that there was a big boundary between theory and practice in translation theory for a long period of time but lately there were done a lot of valuable researches in different areas of translation that lead up to the process of reducing this boundary. It is said that translation is closely related with communication process and studies like pragmatics, semiotics, sociolinguistics, and discourse studies did great researches in these areas in order to find out more about translation (Hatim & Mason, 1997). Eugene Nida (1965) also maintains that translation practice can produce stochastic or random results if there is no adequate theory, meanwhile translation theory itself is useless or cannot give any results if there is no practice done. Therefore, “since all translators are always theorizing, it would be quite wrong to separate the theory fro the practice of which it is already a part. The best uses of theory are actually in active discussions about different ways of solving translation problems.. Unfortunately our educational institutions tend to

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separate theory from practice, often demanding a separate course in “translation theory”. As Anthony Pym suggests, “the real learning of theory, even for the self-learner, should be in dialogue and debate” (Pym, 2010, 5). So, let us start a discussion.

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TRANSLATION MEANING

As Prof. Kirsten Malmkjaer, who is also the editor of Target: International Journal of Translation Studies suggests, there is a common belief in Europe that “translation theory begins with the Romans, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 to 43 BC) and Horace (65 to 8 BC) in particular.” (Linguistics and the Language of Translation 1). Furthermore, Steiner (1992: 248) identifies Cicero‘s Libellus de optimo genere oratorum of 46 BC and Horace‘s Ars poetica of circa 20 BC as the starting points for theorising about translation, and most other European theorists follow suit (see e. g. Bassnett-McGuire 1991; Qvale 2003)” (cited in Malmkjaer 2005: 2). But it is important to be aware that translation is likely to have been taking place for as long as languages have been written down, and that traces of translational activities dating from long before Cicero was born have been found in several parts of the world outside Europe. Translation in the Roman period was mainly of philosophical and literary texts and almost always from Greek into Latin (see Kelly, 1998, 495-6).

A second tradition that has been extremely influential in shaping Western translation theory is Bible translation. The Bible translator, Eusebius Sophronius, known in English as St Jerome, is perhaps the most famous western translator of all times. The first complete translation of the Bible into English was the Wycliffite Bible, translated from Latin between 1380 and 1384 and named after John Wycliffe (c. 1320-84). (ibid., 4). Wycliffe strongly believed in the supremacy of the Scriptures as “the standard of truth and of all human perfection.” (Humanists and Reformers p. 58) He organized a committee of his students at Oxford to translate the Bible into the English vernacular, and the result was the first complete English Bible translation. Wycliffe’s followers were

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called “Lollards” or “Bible Men,” and they traveled throughout the country in humble garb, distributing their Bibles and asking for nothing.

Protestant theologians in other countries also believed that the Bible should be given to all in their own tongue. These included Erasmus, Luther and Lefevre.

Erasmus worked with several ancient Greek manuscripts and the Latin Vulgate, along with Valla’s Notes on the New Testament, for a decade, until he produced a Greek translation that did not contain the errors of the Latin Vulgate. This was the first Greek New Testament to be printed by the press. Erasmus did not expect every person to be able read this Greek Bible, but he knew it would provide an accurate text for many other translators to use. Erasmus said:

“I utterly dissent from those who are

unwilling that the sacred Scriptures should be read by the unlearned translated into their tongue, as though Christ’s teaching was so obscure that it could hardly be understood even by a handful of theologians, or as though the strength of the Christian religion consisted in men’s ignorance of it. The counsels of kings are much better kept hidden, but Christ wished His mysteries to be published as openly as possible.” — Erasmus, quoted in The Modern Age, p. 30

The first Bible in German was made by Martin

Luther (1483-1546), who published The New Testament in 1522 and the Bible in 1534. Historian D’Aubigne writes of Luther’s translation:

“Erelong this Word will be seen

descending from the Wartburg with him;

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circulating among the people of Germany, and putting them in possession of those spiritual treasures hitherto shut up within the hearts of a few pious men. ‘Would that this one book,’ exclaimed Luther, ‘Were in every language, in every hand, before the eyes, and in the ears and hearts of all men!’ Scripture without comment is the sun whence all teachers receive their light.” D’Aubigne’s History of the Reformation, p. 320

In France, a doctor named Lefevre was also

translating the Bible. He had been born to humble parents, did not receive a spectacular education, but by the sharpness of his mind and a pure desire to understand truth, he studied with fervor. Historians are vague on this point, but it seems almost no time before he because a respected scholar of scholars and doctor of divinity. In 1522 he published the first French translation of the four gospels, and less than a month later, published the entire New Testament. A few years later, and the Psalms were also published. D’Aubigne’s History of the Reformation relates the outcome:

“...numbers received the sacred

writings from the hands of Lefevre; they were read in their families and in private; conversations on the Bible became frequent; Christ appeared to those souls so long misled, as the centre and the sun of all revelation. No longer did they require demonstrations to prove that Scripture was from God; they know it, for by it they had been transported from darkness to light.” (History of the Reformation by D’Aubigne, p. 453)

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The improvement of communication of the Word of God to common man was the most important factor of the Reformation’s success. The printing press made it possible for every man to know “the power of God unto salvation” through the Gospel, and it unleashed the Sword of the Spirit against the lies of the Roman Catholic Church. The many vernacular Bible translations at this time made it possible for the common people in England, Germany, France, and Switzerland to read or have the Bible read to them in their own language.

According to Lye (1996) there are several ways in which it is possible to see the real meaning of source text and to keep this meaning during translation in target text. The scholar also states that every text has its meaning and the process of translation and the result of translation should also has its meaning, moreover the original meaning should be kept in translated text, too. Here there are three factors of translation:

a) the meaning that is intended by the author of the text;

b) the meaning that is created by and contained in the text itself;

c) the meaning that is created by the reader.

The Author

In order to understand the meaning of the text and to translate it properly (without angling the original meaning) it is important to know main information about the author of this text:

1. by reading other works of the author; 2. by finding information about time, genre and

traditions of the time the author was writing his text

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(book), and by searching of another interpretations of readers of that time when the text was written;

3. by comparing the original text with other texts by genre and style of that period of time (year, Century);

4. by knowing cultural values and symbols and their meanings of the time the text was written.

Hence, the author’s life experience, historical and social background of that time is very important for any translator to ensure interpretation of the author’s meaning or intention. It is also very important to focus on factors about the author to make sure that interpretation or translation of the text will be the closest to the original one.

The Text

The meaning of the text includes a lot of components and studies, for example, syntactics, which concentrates on the relation of sign-vehicles within sign system, semantics which concentrates on the relation of signs to objects they represent, and pragmatics which concentrates on the relation of signs to interpreters (readers or translators). Hence, it is possible to say that syntactics and semantics stress the structural features of the text and are concerned with their expression and content form; meanwhile pragmatics stresses the signifying process and concentrates on analyzing their generative process and interrelations with other texts.

The meaning of the text might be more likely to be in the conventions of meaning, traditions, and cultural codes which have been handed down, so that the reader and the author of the text could have the same understanding of the meaning of the text, and that the agreement would be created based on common traditions and conventions, practice and interpretation. It is also possible to state that a competence

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reader may arrive at different readings of texts, for example texts from different time periods, with different cultural perspectives like class, gender, world views, beliefs and even ethnicity, or with different purposes for reading.

The Reader

Different readers may have different interpretations and understandings of the text. Hence, meaning that was created by the author may not always be the same as the meaning the reader might see in the text. Thought every text has its own codes and practices, and the more the reader knows these codes, the more he can decode the text which means understand and interpret it properly and consequently.

Finally, translation may be seen in both ways – as a process and as a product because translation itself includes a lot of different studies and researches that are all concentrated on creation process and the result. Any translation and its correct understanding include three factors – the author, the text and the reader; all these factors must be considered as the best way to interpret and see the meaning of the text properly.

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FIVE COMPETENCES OF TRANSLATOR

Any translation must be perceived as not only the process of changing the original text from one language to another language (or languages) but also considered as translation which substitutes the text form without changing its meaning, without adding or distorting or destroying its meaning. The translator must be competent in order to have a name of qualified translator. Hence, translation process and translation itself is complex as it implies disciplines sense more and less the sense of language. For example, the translation of economics text from English language into Russian – there will be a big number of specific terms that should be translated in its discipline sense and to keep the original meaning of the text without adding or crossing out some parts or terms of the text. In order to become a good translator there are five main competences that must be followed during translation, these are: Language or linguistic competence, textual competence, subject competence, cultural competence and transfer competence.

Language or linguistic competence

Language competence is the main competence that translators must have. According to Jakobson (2001) the linguistic aspect of translation might be seen as an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. It is very important so the translator would have competence at least in both, Source language and Target language. Though it must be already clear that translator should have a good understanding of different aspects of source language and target language, it might not be this way. The translator is not only demanded to know target language in one particular

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sphere but in every spheres and aspects as language includes such ranks as lexical, phrasal, clausal, sentence and discourse.

Some scholars state that translation is about language both verbal and non-verbal language, and as any text is a unit of meaning, every translator must know language not from one aspect but the whole aspect. Every translator must also know how the target language receiver (a reader) says, speaks or writes something that is different from source language user. Newmark (1988) claims that all translations are based implicitly on a theory of language, and the scholar also gives three major functions of language: expressive, informative and vocative.

The aim of expressive function of the language is the mind of the speaker, i.e. which is what the writer (speaker) wants to say in his text, these may be his thoughts, feelings, emotions and etc. In this way the language used in the text will be expressive. It is very important to know that the core of the text here will be the writer (speaker). And according to Newmark (1988) it is essential so the translator would be able to recognize and distinguish the personal components of the text such as personal collocation of the author of the text, original metaphors, different words and phrases that cannot be translated into the other language, original and unconventional syntax, different neologisms and other words like archaisms, dialects or specific terms. Also every translator must not forget that there are always such words and phrases that exist in his native language sense but they may not exist in the target language such as minor clauses.

The aim of informative function of the language is to inform, give details and facts in the text. The format of informative texts is very formal and standard as mostly these are textbooks, articles in newspapers, scientific papers, technical books or reports. Though this type of function seems to be easy as its format is standard but there are also some

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difficulties about this approach. For instance, there is a medical text with a lot of medical terms in English language; and some terms may have several meanings which may be used in different context by using the same term (a word) and the meaning of the context may change. And if the translator does not have this competence, he might translate this kind of terms by using wrong words and bring wrong information to the target language receivers (readers).

The aim of the vocative function of the language is the reader (or receiver). This function suggests to consider the reader or the possible reader’s understanding of the message (text). It is very important to know that the reader here is the target language receiver; hence, if the translator brings the wrong translation to the reader, he will get the message with wrong information. This kind of mistakes may put translator and reader into very uncomfortable positions which sometimes may be even funny. For example, American deodorant company produced dry deodorants named “Mist Stick” which for English speaking countries sounds well, meanwhile when this product came to Germany there was a misunderstanding because the word “Mist” in German language means “manure”. Another example of misunderstanding was when American car company decided to sell their cars “Chevrolet Nova” in Latin America and did not have a big number of buyers because in Spanish language the word “No va” means “cannot move”.

Textual competence

Textual competence is knowledge of regularities and convention of texts, genres and text types. For example texts that are spoken and written, or commercial text and poem also differ in translation process as the structures of these texts are different. To have competence in distinguishing texts by their genres and types is very essential element for translators.

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Moreover, working with text translation is not only about distinguishing text types but also about knowing the convention of those texts, for instance, the same expression in different languages may be written in different ways and, that is why any translator must be competent to look deeply into how different is target language receiver’s written and oral language usage and how it differs from source language user’s.

Newmark (1988) also stresses that any text, as well as a word, has its own context which needs to be considered in translations process, that is why some texts should be translated faithfully, word for word, meanwhile other texts can be translated freely. Textual competence enables translators to see how certain text genre functions in a particular culture. Any translator might be also called a mediator between the writer (originator) of source text and the receiver (reader) of the target text in different cultures. In order to avoid the misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the text which is being translated the translator (interpreter) must be qualified of textual competence. Hence, the function of textual competence is to enable translator to keep the original genre of the text, to keep the function of the text, to avoid misunderstanding and misinterpreting from the receiver on the text, to avoid thy dysfunction of the text, and to create communicative process from both sides – the sender and the receiver interaction.

Subject competence

According to Venuti (2004) the various kind of text variety are partly not confident to one language or one culture but habits of textualization, the patterns of language and structure often differ from one another.

Subject specific or domain competence is knowledge or relevant subject, the area of expertise. Bassnett (2002) says that

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sometimes in translating some texts in certain discipline, the translator may deal with some untranslatable words that do not have substitute word in the target language. That is why in order to avoid difficulties during translation of such texts, the translator, besides having linguistic competence, should also know the subject of the text that he is translating.

Cultural competence

As language is one of the most important elements of any culture, it consists of social conventions in using and understanding words and cultural identities. According to Kastberg (2007) every translator must have cultural competence of both, source language and target language. By having cultural competence, the translator may not need to look the substitution but it would be enough for him to know the equivalence that is an expression in target language.

Sometimes it is possible for translators to focus on the text and sometimes they may focus on the reader of the target text. Cultural competence in text-based translation is important in terms of translating some expressions that the equivalence or substitution words do not exist in the translator’s native language. Moreover, it is important to know, that translation may be done from different source language (it cannot always be native language of the translator) into a target language (that may also not be a native translator’s language). There might be such pairs of possible translations:

Source Language Target language

Native for translator Foreign for translator

Foreign for translator Native for translator

Foreign for translator Foreign for translator

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There is also such a term in translation theory as a “shift” which means small linguistic changes that may occur during translation process from source text to target text. Shifts may also occur in language ranks like lexical, phrases, sentences and discourse, i.e. shift may be chosen as a possible translation operation by filling in some semantic gaps in particular situations during translation. One of the most frequent examples of the shift is borrowings. Shifts may occur not only in terms of linguistic feature in the text, but sometimes in some ideological contexts where there are unknown or inexperienced by other language user (target language receiver). For example, the word “perestroika” (“перестройка”, Russian language) means a political movement within the Communist Party of Soviet Union widely associated with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, but its literal meaning is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system. Though this word has its literal meaning, still a lot of American newspapers and even museums write this word as it is spelled in Russian language. This process may be also called “shift” as the meaning of the word “perestroika” is inexperienced by other language users.

Transfer Competence

Transfer competence is an ability of transferring message from a source text to a target text. According to Pym (1992) there are three relationships between transfer and translation:

a) transferring of process which does not exist as it is but is rather created by the translator based on the knowledge he have;

b) translating that is the process of message transformation from source to target language;

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c) translated text that is the text produced by the translation process.

The translator is supposed to have enough linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge; it must also be able to transfer not only words, or grammatical and semantic aspects of source language, but also mental images that might be implied in the source text, and to make the translated text (target language text) sense as well as it was hoped in the source text.

Transfer competence is more important during the translation process rather than before the and after the process of translation. Transfer competence is supported by all four previously mentioned competences – language competence, textual competence, subject competence and cultural competence.

This term sometimes has different name – transference, and according to Newmark (1988) transference in the process of transferring a source language word to a target language text as a translation procedure.

Hence, if a translator has all five competences and uses enough of his competences during translation, there would not be any dysfunctions, misinterpretations or other mistakes in the translated text. And if it is important to be competent for professional translator, beginners need at least to learn all competencies in order to make good translations.

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PACTE TRANSLATION COMPETENCE MODEL

The Translation Competence Model proposed by Spain scholars team PACTE (2003) is mostly focused on four translation competence distinguishing features, like: a) on expert knowledge and is made up by all bilinguals, b) on basically procedural knowledge, c) on made up of different interrelated sub-competences, and d) on strategic component which is very important, as it is in all procedural knowledge. This team made a number of empirical – experimental researches in order to define the concept of translation competence and the process of acquiring it in written translation. The following scheme represents the PACTE Translation Competence Model (2003): Figure 1: PACTE Translation Competence Model (2003)

PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL

COMPONENTS

KNOWLEDGE ABOUT

TRANSLATION

SUB-COMPETENCE

INSTRUMENTAL

SUB-COMPETENCE

STRATEGIC SUB-COMPETENCE

EXTRA-LINGUISTIC

SUB-COMPETENCE

BILINGUAL

SUB-COMPETENCE

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The bilingual sub-competence consists of skills in two languages – source language and target language, the underlying system of knowledge and skills that are needed for linguistic communication to take place in two languages. The bilingual sub-competence also includes such knowledge and skill as grammatical competence, textual competence which includes combination of linguistic forms to produce a written and oral text in different genres and text types, illocutionary competence that is related to the functions of language, and socio-linguistic competence which is concentrated on appropriate production and comprehension in a number of socio-linguistic contexts.

The extra-linguistic sub-competence consists of encyclopedic, thematic and bicultural knowledge.

The translation knowledge sub-competence includes the knowledge of translation processes, methods and procedures.

The instrumental sub-competence is the knowledge required to work as a professional translator, for example, the use of source of documents or technologies which include information according translation practice.

The strategic sub-competence includes the knowledge about the audience, reader or receiver of the final translation and, also includes the transfer process from the source language to the production of the target language.

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COMMON PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATION: PRAGMATIC NON-EQUIVALENCE

“[Pragmatics] is the study of meaning, not as generated

by the linguistic system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative situation” (Baker, 2001, 217). Contextual information in literary translation is of the utmost importance: overlooking even minor details may cause pragmatic non-equivalence and, as a result, make a particular piece of translation lose sense in a given context. In the case of literary translation the initial participants are the author (the one who creates the meaning) and the translator (the one who interprets and recreates the meaning for the target audience).

Speaking in terms of the field of pragmatics, a question of what meaning actually belongs to arises. It may be looked upon as a property of a communicative situation with its participants and setting, not a property of a text. Thus, a particular text which is coherent to one reader may not necessarily cohere for another reader. However, some scholars claim that this view is subjective, for instance, Blum-Kulka states that coherence is “a covert potential meaning relationship among parts of a text, made overt by the reader or listener through processes of interpretation” (Blum-Kulka, 1986, 17). This statement implies that meaning is already coded in a particular text and is accessible only through processes of interpretation.

To develop the point further, whether a property of a text or a communicative situation, meaning is accessible through interpretation; thus, common problems causing pragmatic non-equivalence in translation, i.e., violation of Gricean maxims, mistranslation of intentionally flouted maxims and lack of coherence, have to be discussed further.

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Violation of Gricean Maxims

As it has already been pointed out, there are four conversational maxims that form the basis for Grice’s Cooperative Principle. Violation of maxims is not intentional and can be treated as an error or flaw of translation, i.e., a translator does not observe and follow the author’s intentions and, thus, mistranslation occurs. In translation, the awareness of Gricean Cooperative Principle and the four conversational maxims can be a great advantage. If analysed on the basis of these maxims, a particular translation is most likely to contain violation of all four maxims. Moreover, usually violation of one maxim leads to violation of another, for instance, if irony is not conveyed in the target language, the maxim of quantity is violated, and this may lead to the obscurity of expression (maxim of manner) or irrelevant information (maxim of relation) in a particular context.

Furthermore, maxims can be violated if they clash. For example, A and B are driving to C’s house:

A: “Where does C live?” B: “Vilnius.” This example suggests that there is a clash between the

maxims of quantity and quality. Obviously, in this particular context the question implies that the address is wanted. However, if speaker B does not know exactly, s/he cannot contribute to the conversation as informatively as required (quantity). Thus, the speaker (B), by not saying what s/he believes to be false or lacks adequate evidence, preserves the maxim of quality.

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Mistranslation of Intentionally Flouted Maxims

The difference between violation and flouting is that the latter is intentional. Flouting allows the author to create and express certain pragmatic effects, such as irony and sarcasm. However, as it had already been pointed out, flouting is only possible when the author intends for the reader to understand the underlying meaning; otherwise a particular maxim is not flouted but rather violated. Technically speaking, the idiomatic expression “it is raining cats and dogs” indicates that the maxim of quality is flouted; however, the participants of the conversation know that the meaning is metaphorical (Littlejohn, 2002, 82).

Nevertheless, sometimes it may be difficult to distinguish between violation and flouting. For instance, consider the following example:

A: “How much did your car cost?” B: “Oh, quite a bit.” Normally an answer like that would indicate the

violation of the quantity maxim (not enough information is given); however, in this case it may imply that speaker B does not want or think it necessary to give that information.

Speaking about flouting, the translator is to identify a flouted maxim in the first place and convey the same message in the target language text; otherwise mistranslation is inevitable.

Lack of Coherence

As it was mentioned before, coherence is a network of conceptual relations expressed by meaning dependencies as

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perceived by readers/listeners. The way readers interpret the same text may vary; however, the translator’s task is to remain impartial and retain the original meaning, which is not always an easy task to carry out: attaching a certain connotation to a text may not always be a conscious process.

Furthermore, cohesion and coherence, according to Baker, are closely related: “Cohesion is the surface expression of coherence; <…> it is a device for making surface relations explicit” (Baker, 2001, 218). Generally speaking, the lack of coherence in a particular translation is usually related to what has been mistranslated on the textual level (grammatical, lexical flaws or errors etc.). However, mere presence of cohesive relations does not create coherence in a text; it has to reflect conceptual relations in a coherent text.

The lack of coherence is closely linked to Grice’s conversational maxims. Incoherence means that a certain maxim (or maxims) has been violated, or, in some cases, the author’s intentions expressed by flouting a maxim have not been observed by the translator.

To develop the point further, it is necessary to provide practical examples to illustrate the points discussed above.

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SUBTITLING AS A TOOL WHEN LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text

in one language (the "source text") and the production, in another language (the "target language"), of an equivalent text (the "target text", or "translation") that communicates the same message.1 As this definition suggests, translation is inseparable from foreign language learning, since it involves both, the native tongue and the foreign language one is learning. The involvement of the native tongue in the process of learning might be especially important to inexperienced learners of a particular foreign language because it provides the sense of security; otherwise one might perceive the process of learning as somewhat stressful or too intense. (Kavaliauskienė, Kaminskienė, 2007, 132).

Audiovisual Translation (AVT), as the title itself suggests, is the form of translation which incorporates both, auditory and visual component. This term is used to describe the method of translation between two languages used in media. Therefore, it is a field which can be used to promote foreign language learning not only as an educational method but as a form of entertainment as well. Combined with regular and fixed learning (lessons, lectures, courses etc.), it can serve as a great helping hand, especially since one of the most popular forms of audiovisual translation – subtitling – can be combined with one of the most popular forms of entertainment – films.

Subtitles in films are usually used to translate the verbal language (dialogue) into the native tongue of the audience. It is possibly the cheapest and quickest way of translating and it has spread among different means of film watching, i.e., DVDs, cinemas, TV etc. According to Lithuanian statistics2, in 2006

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2480000 of population visited cinema theatres. This number is two times bigger in comparison with the year 2005. Therefore, as these figures suggest, the popularity of films is growing every year. In addition to the numbers shown in the statistics, a great number of films are shown on television every day, part of which is subtitled as well. As films are in everyday life, they can be transformed, as already mentioned above, into a tool of learning foreign languages.

One of the advantages of the subtitled films over dubbed is that the original language remains unaltered and clear. Learners can deepen their listening and reading skills (depending on whether the source or target language is the native tongue) as well as broaden the lexicon and improve speaking skills (accent, dialect etc.). Films differ in contexts, lexicons, forms of dialogs. The potential learner of a foreign language can choose from a great variety of films according to his or her level of knowledge of a particular foreign language. However, the selection process might seem to be quite difficult without any professional guidance or recommendations. Thus, before drawing any definite conclusions, a number of main aspects must be considered.

Equivalence between Source and Target Languages

Subtitling is possibly the most suitable form of audiovisual translation for foreign language learning, since it allows a learner to listen to the original soundtrack without interference. In any translation, the source language has to be transformed due to the different structures of the two languages – the source language and the target language. When translating films, this transformation of the original language is influenced by the particularity of the methods of translating as well (Baravykaitė, 2007, 24). Thus, the equivalence between

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the original soundtrack and subtitles is usually influenced by such aspects as brevity, timing etc., because only the main point and the intentions of the speaker must be conveyed to fit into the standards of the length of the subtitles per frame, the timing of the frame and so on.

Basically, the kinds of equivalence between two languages in translation theory can be divided into equivalence at word level, equivalence above word level, grammatical equivalence, textual equivalence and pragmatic equivalence (Baker, 1992, 5). As translation is inevitably involved in any kind of foreign language learning, equivalence is extremely important. According to J. Culler, “if language were simply a nomenclature for a set of universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from one language to another. One would simply replace the French name of a concept with the English name. If language were like this the task of learning a new language would also be much easier than it is” (Culler, 1976, 12). Thus, subtitling is not an exception, since the greatest part of the quality of a learning process depends on equivalence. However, the equivalence between source language and subtitles does not usually represent word-for-word translation because the main goal of the translator is to convey the basic meaning and intentions fitting the subtitles into certain time intervals, and not produce the lexical equivalents of the original words. Therefore, the potential learner, who uses subtitles as the means of foreign language learning, should already have at least the basic knowledge of a particular foreign language.

The presence of equivalence does not always mean that the target language text is suitable for merely foreign language learning purposes (of course, the kinds of purposes matter as well: broadening of the lexicon, improving listening skills, comprehension etc.). In films, the whole sentence or even a few sentences are usually taken as a translation unit; thus, if the source and the target languages are equivalent, it does not

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mean that every word has its equivalent. In general, word-for-word translation is very limited because not all the words have their equivalents on the world level in the source language and most of the words in a context are translated on a phrasal level. In translation theory, word is the smallest unit of language that can be used by itself, but it is not the basic meaningful element. The meaning can be expressed by smaller units; however, in most cases it is expressed by more complex structures. There is no one-to-one relationship between word

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and meaning across languages (Baker, 1992, 10-11). Thus, while subtitles of films are not particularly suitable for learning lexical equivalents, they can be a great tool when improving one’s listening skills and coherent comprehension within a particular foreign language.

Since single words rarely occur on their own, they are always parts of more complex structures. However, words are not combined together randomly – every language has a set of rules, restrictions and limitations. Therefore, the object of a translator is to retain the content of the source text while changing the form following the rules of the target text language.

To develop the point further, the source language of a film is usually a colloquial and informal speech which may contain a great number of fixed expressions and idioms. An idiom is a multiword construction that can be considered as a self-contained lexical unit since it has a fixed meaning, and its parts, if taken separately, lose sense (Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 518). Idioms can be translated as a single word, as, for example, a colloquial idiom “to stick one’s neck out” means “to adopt an attitude that invites trouble or unfavourable comment” and can be translated to Lithuanian as “drįsti, (su)rizikuoti”. However, some idioms are translated as phrases (e.g. proverbs) having more or less the same meaning but completely different lexical form, which is usually influenced by the cultural background. An example of such idioms can be a well known idiom “a blessing in disguise” and its most common Lithuanian translation “nėra to blogo, kas neišeitų į gera”.

So, as these examples suggest, subtitles cannot teach one all the lexical meanings of a word but rather, as it has already been mentioned, help one gradually develop the skills of listening and, most importantly, ‘catching’ the meaning of the expressions of the foreign language one is learning.

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Timing and Brevity of Subtitles

Timing of subtitles is one of the most crucial aspects when using subtitles as a means of foreign language learning. A big part of the quality of the learning process depends on timing. Invoking the estimated average speed of reading, the time given for subtitles per frame is only enough to read the text. There is no time to analyse and compare the source and the target languages and, because of that, it may be quite difficult for a beginner to feel comfortable with this type of learning. Thus, certain standards of film translation in Europe have been proposed to make subtitling a unified object throughout the continent. In other words, the aim is to propose general regulations for the whole European audiovisual market so that the audience could be perceived as a unified object. However, this is quite a difficult task, keeping in mind that languages differ in a great number of aspects, and, although taking a few languages as a unified object might seem like a

convenient way of translating, those general regulations may cause a loss of quality both in translation as a process and in translation as a product.

Brevity goes side by side with timing in the aspect of importance. There are certain requirements for film translators of where and how subtitles should be placed on the screen in order to provide as convenient viewing of the subtitled film as possible without disturbing the visual image of the film. Thus, subtitles are usually positioned at the lower part of the screen, where the importance of the image action is lesser, and are divided into no more than two lines of text. In addition, having estimated the speed of reading, it is proved that an average person can read between 2 ½ - 3 words per second. This means

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that the full two lines of text containing 14-16 words should last for no more than 5 ½ seconds. However, and additional half a second must be added in order for the brain to be able to process the information received as a coherent text (Karamitroglou, 1998).

For learners, it is extremely important to concentrate on both the dialogue and written language. Subtitles must be as synchronized with the spoken language as possible, which is very difficult to achieve due to the different timing of frames. That is exactly why the subtitles in one frame last more than enough while the subtitles in another remain on the screen for the least amount of time possible. This is one of the main reasons why translators have to shorten the original language in the process of translating films. It is important to note that translating between an analytic language (any language where syntax and meaning are shaped more by use of particles and word order rather than by inflection3, e.g. English, French) and a synthetic language (a language in which grammatical relationships are indicated by altering the internal structure of words, often by changing their endings4, e.g. German, Lithuanian) shortens the target language because of the differences between analytic and synthetic languages. Also, style and meaning of the source language as well as the artistic reality of a film decrease because of the condensation and omission for the sake of brevity (Baravykaitė, 2007, 24-25).

To develop the point further, A. Baravykaitė classifies different methods of translating subtitles into 10 groups:

1) expansion (when a descriptive explanation of the source language realia is provided);

2) paraphrasation (when the point in source language is expressed using other lexical units in target language);

3) rendering (when all the meaningful elements of the source language are transferred into target language);

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4) repetition (imitation of certain source language constructions);

5) transcription;

6) transfer (modification of the semantic content of the source language in order to achieve adequacy);

7) condensation (when the semantic content of the source language is expressed by a lesser number of units in target language);

8) shortening (when some of the semantic content of the source language is lost due to various reasons);

9) elimination (removal of semantic contents of the source language for the sake of brevity);

10) omission (removal of certain elements of the source language which have no equivalents in the target language) (Baravykaitė, 2005, 9-10). Most of the translations contain all the methods

mentioned above. Moreover, having analysed a particular translation of a film using the contrastive analysis, it is possible to calculate the percentage of the source language text meaningfully conveyed.

Quality of Subtitled Films The quality of subtitles is a huge factor determining the

quality of subtitled film watching as a process of foreign language learning. While the mistakes can only be noticed by someone who knows the source language very well, it might be misleading and confusing for a learner. Therefore, translators play a crucial role because absent-mindedness, carelessness or even the lack of competence, which includes perfect skills of both source and target languages as well as good knowledge of

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the contexts of a particular film, position of the author etc., may not only be the cause of poor quality of the translation and representation of the cultural and linguistic environment of the film, but make the audience lose interest in the film itself.

Film dialogues are often evaluated in a wrong way: although they seem like a spontaneous everyday speech, in fact, the words are carefully written, developed, edited and shaped until the desired result is achieved. Besides that, film dialogues covey certain meanings, messages and ideas. Thus, it is essential to know the context of certain elements of the dialogues. According to B. Schwarz, “subtitles have to be read and understood in the few seconds they are visible on the screen. To interpret the text for the target language audience, the translator must ask about the content and purpose of the original work.” Therefore, in order to achieve cultural and linguistic adequacy, translators are advised to consult various additional sources such as encyclopaedias, dictionaries, manuals with technical terminology, glossaries, specialised thesauruses and the Internet (Schwarz, 2002).

The main task of the film translator is to adequately and clearly transform the verbal text into a written text. Although spoken and written texts have different functions, it is essential to provide the audience with naturally readable and coherent text, which is achieved by retaining the same style and mood (Schwarz, 2002) as in the primary text (“text” meaning the spoken source language as well as the visual channel). This requires not only rich vocabulary and good skills of perceiving how a particular language functions, but also understanding the characters and moods which are not always conveyed through the verbal channel.

To sum up, the translator’s role in the aspect of quality is of extreme importance. It is even more important speaking about watching subtitled films as a tool to improve the knowledge of a particular language because the aims of

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potential learners and those of a regular audience differ in a number of aspects.

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The following excerpt was used as a case study and research example was submitted by my first year student Gintarė A. CASE STUDY 1: LITHUANIAN TRANSLATION OF THE

DA VINCI CODE

The Da Vinci Code is a screening of the best-selling

novel under the same title written by Dan Brown. The film involves many historical and religious topics, facts, symbols, titles and detailed dialogues. Because the storyline is based on logic, the translation of this film requires extra attention to how and what is being said. It is also related to symbols and clues presented visually. Otherwise, distortion and logical misconception of the source language dialogues are inevitable.

The scenario of the film is widely known. Famous symbologist Robert Langdon is called to the Louvre museum one night where a curator has been murdered, leaving behind a mysterious trails of symbols and clues. With his own survival at stake, Langdon, accompanied by the police cryptologist Sophie Neveu, reveals a series of secrets hidden in the works of Leonardo Da Vinci, all leading to a secret society committed to guard and protect an ancient secret – Jesus’ bloodline - that has remained hidden for 2000 years.

The Lithuanian translation of The Da Vinci Code includes examples of the basic methods of film translating as well as some mistakes which can be roughly divided into contextual non-equivalence, logical and grammatical mistakes. In some places, the style of the target language is different from the source language, i.e., the colloquial speech is transformed into formal. Therefore, the artistic reality of certain parts of the film is disrupted and the subtitles lose the ease of reading. The mistakes made can confuse learners of the

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English language about, e.g., lexical equivalents or the use of certain grammatical constructions (tenses, clauses) etc.

Another point to make is that the names once translated using the transcriptive translation are later eliminated if they stand in the sentence alone. Most of the titles, e.g. Madonna of the Rocks (a painting) and Opus Dei (a religious society) are translated without inverted commas. Madonna of the Rocks is translated as “Madona uolose” even though the generally received Lithuanian title for this painting is “Madona grotoje”.

Thus, it is clear that methods of subtitling used in The Da Vinci Code need to be further discussed in order to draw some conclusions.

Methods of Subtitling Used in The Da Vinci Code

Some of the dialogues in the film are translated using the most common methods of subtitling described in the previous chapter. On the other hand, in most cases, part of the artistic reality of the film is lost due to elimination or condensation to achieve brevity and keep up with the timing of the frames. Some of the methods taken separately seem to make no influence to the representation of the meaning and style of the film itself; however, when repeated, it negatively influences the artistic perception of the film on the part of the viewer. For example, when symbologist Langdon is giving a lecture on ancient symbology and referring to pictures (slash mark indicates the beginning of a new line of a subtitle):

SL: As the saying goes, a picture says a thousand words but which words?

TL: Paveikslai/ pasako tūkstantį žodžių, bet kokius žodžius? The elimination of the underlined phrase, which can be

translated as “Kaip sakoma”, does not cause any particular

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harm but can be avoided because a line of a subtitle can contain 35-40 characters. However, the entire sentence lacks the ease of reading due to the mismatch of cases. It would be better to translate the second part of the sentence as “bet kokių žodžių?”. Another example of elimination:

SL: Actually, in those days, the word “companion” literally meant “spouse”.

TL: Tais laikais žodis/ “kompanjonė” reiškė “sutuoktinę”.

The word “literally” is also omitted. Another point to make is that the lexical units (“companion” and “spouse”) are translated using feminine gender. In this particular case the characters are speaking about a woman (Mary Magdalene); however, the reference is made about words as lexical units in a general sense.

An example of condensation: SL: The Grand Gallery. This is where you found the

body. TL: Kūną radote/ Didžiojoje galerijoje. If translated without condensation, it would sound like

“Didžioji galerija. Čia radote kūną.” It is important to note that the dialogue takes place while the characters are actually walking across the Grand Gallery.

After professor Langdon has been shown a phrase on the floor, he makes a comment:

SL: It’s a phrase. Doesn’t mean anything, not to me. TL: Ši frazė man nieko nereiškia. This is another example of condensation – two

sentences are contracted into one. However, condensation is not necessary as longer translation (e.g.: “Tai frazė. Nieko nereiškia, bent jau man.”) would not cause any particular harm to the brevity or timing of the subtitle, and the artistic reality of it would be retained.

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Paraphrasation is not very frequent in the film. An example referring to Mona Lisa:

SL: Her smile is in the lower spatial frequencies. TL: Jos šypsena švelni. Here the scientific style (the term “spatial frequency” is

mostly used in visual arts, e.g., painting, photography etc.) is transformed into a neutral sentence but the meaning is retained.

In some places elimination makes the dialogues sound quite unnatural.

SL: - My mom used to do it when I was scared, I think. - You think? TL: - Mano mama man štaip/ darydavo, kai būdavau

išsigandusi. - Manote? The function of the question in the source language

(considering the tone of the voice) is to express wonder to what has been said: the character has not seen her mother since she was 4 years old; therefore, all the memories are quite vague. This function changes completely in the translated text.

Expansion is usually used to give explanation to titles, names and realia which have no equivalents in the target language, e.g.:

SL: Earl Grey? TL: Earl Grey arbata? As these examples suggest, every translation of a film

has, if not all, then at least some of the methods employed. When a translator is not fully aware of these methods, it is easy to overstep the line between when the alteration of the source language is based on the methods of subtitling and when it is considered as a mistake and causes non-equivalence.

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Non-equivalence in The Da Vinci Code

There are cases in the film where single lexical units, tenses, other grammatical units or the whole semantic content of a sentence are non-equivalent. For this reason, learners of English language may be confused about certain lexical meanings of words or usage of particular constructions. For example, the title of the book – The Interpretation of Symbols – is translated as “Simbolių vertimas”. Usually, the word “interpretation” is used in the meaning of “translation” when speaking about oral interpretation. In this case, and to make it sound more logical, it would be better to translate it as “Simbolių aiškinimas/ interpretavimas”.

Basically, non-equivalence between source and target language texts in The Da Vinci Code can be divided into grammatical non-equivalence and non-equivalence in meaning. Some of the examples fit into both criteria.

Grammatical Non-equivalence

In some cases the non-equivalence of tenses makes the subtitles somewhat “dry”. For example, when professor Langdon is shown a photo of the dead curator, he feels bewildered:

SL: Why would someone do this to him? TL: Kodėl jam taip padarė? If translated in past tense, “would” usually expresses a

repetitive action. In this case it should be translated in the subjunctive mood, for instance, “Kodėl kam nors šautų į galvą/ kas nors norėtų taip su juo pasielgti?”

The non-equivalence of number in the target language text in the following example does not match the visual image as well as the number in the source language text:

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SL: Will you take a look at this photo, please? TL: Gal galite pažiūrėti šiais nuotraukas?

The police officer has only one photo; therefore, this subtitle sounds odd, especially when, considering the source language text, there is no reason to use plural.

The following example of non-equivalent tenses can be considered as logical misinterpretation as well:

SL: How well did you know the curator? TL: Ar gerai pažįstate kuratorių? The curator that the professor is being asked about is

dead; for this reason, it would be better to retain the past tense. Other examples of non-equivalence of tenses:

SL: Fache was never gonna let me just stroll out of here, was he?

TL: Fašas man neleis iš čia išeiti? The more appropriate translation would be: “Fašas nė

neketino man leisti tiesiog iš čia išeiti, ar ne?”. SL: Perhaps a less defensive tack, Your Eminence. The

press continue to be harsh with us. TL: Jūsų eminencija, tikriausiai būtų/ geresnė mažiau

ginamoji taktika. Žiniasklaida vis tiek aršiai puls mus. The original variant sounds like a conclusion of the first

sentence (if paraphrased – a less defensive tack is needed; however, the press will still be harsh) and it should be the cause (a less defensive tack is needed because the press continue to be harsh). Therefore, it would be better to translate the sentence as: “Žiniasklaida ir toliau mus aršiai puola.”

SL: For a moment, this was getting complicated. TL: Dabar tai šiek tiek sudėtinga. The more appropriate translation – “Minutę/Akimirką

tai darėsi painu/sudėtinga.” SL: How humble. Our saviour – bishop Aringarosa. TL: Kaip kuklu!

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Mūsų išsigelbėjimas,/ vyskupe Aringarosa. This dialogue takes place after the mentioned bishop

asks for money to be able to allegedly change the Church. This example illustrates one of the differences between analytical and synthetic languages because by choosing the address instead of the noun in the nominative case, the translator fails to convey irony. Also, the wrong lexical equivalent is chosen: “saviour” – “išgelbėtojas”, “išganytojas”.

Nearly at the end of the quest, when the characters have figured everything out, one of the protagonists asks a rhetorical question:

SL: What did he want from us? To find her sarcophagus? How was I ever supposed to figure all this out?

TL: Ko jis iš mūsų norėjo?/ Kad rastume jos sarkofagą? Kaip aš tai galėsiu sužinoti?

The non-equivalence of tenses in the underlined sentence causes alteration in meaning because the reference is made to all the mystery that has been solved (considering the fact that past tense is used) and not the previous sentences. Thus, the more appropriate translation would be: “Kaip aš turėjau visa tai išsiaiškinti?” in meaning “alone, without any help”.

Non-equivalence in Meaning

When non-equivalence in meaning occurs in subtitles, it does not necessarily sound illogical, for instance:

SL: - “So dark the con of man”. - No, it doesn’t say that.

TL: - „Kokia tamsi žmogaus apgavystė”. - Ne, ji ne tokia.

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This is an anagram that is referred to but the reference is made about the anagram in general, not its meaning. Thus, the translation should reflect that, e.g.: “Ne, ne tai norima pasakyti.” Another example:

SL: I’ll even show it to you, Leigh. Will you just tell us what the hell it’s for?

TL: Aš tau jį net parodysiu, Lijau./ Ar pasakysi, dėl ko visa tai?

In the source language text “it” refers to the cryptex, the keystone, that the characters found but do not know its purpose, so the question refers to the actual keystone – “Ar pasakysi, kam, po velnių, jis skirtas?”. Also, the colloquial expression is eliminated to make the subtitle shorter.

Some parts of the translation are unreasonably semantically non-equivalent at all, for instance:

SL: No balloon animals. I can make a great duck. TL: Pripučiamų gyvūnų nėra./ Galiu mėginti. This statement is made when the character is asked to

show the ancient symbols for male and female. What is meant to say is: “Galiu/Moku padaryti puikią antį.”

If the film was translated without a transcript, mistakes such as the following can be explained, especially when, like in this case, both variants are logically possible.

SL: Well, actually, I have a plane. TL: Tiesą sakant/ turiu planą. After the estate the characters stay in is surrounded by

the police, one of them says they need to find a way out; eventually they leave the country by a private jet. Another such example:

SL: They hid you with the Grand Master himself who raised you as his own.

TL: Jie paslėpė/ jus su Didžiuoju meistru, ir jis vienas jus užaugino.

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A more appropriate translation would be: “kuris užaugino jus kaip savo.”

Non-equivalence of single lexical units occurs in the translation as well:

SL: - In Latin – “sub rosa”. Literal translation… - “Beneath the rose”

TL: - Lotyniškai “sub rosa”. Literatūrinis vertimas… - “Po rože”.

“Literal” means “paraidinis”, “pažodinis”, “tiesioginis”, and “literatūrinis” has an English equivalent “literary”.

There are cases where non-equivalence between source and target language sentences does not have any logical connection with the sentences coming before or after them, e.g.:

SL: I persuaded them, the Council of Shadows, that I was an ally. I even asked them for money so they would never suspect me. TL: Aš persekiojau juos, Šešėlių tarybą,/ kurios

sąjungininkas buvau. Aš netgi paprašiau jų pinigų,/ kad jie manęs

niekada neįtartų. It is better to translate the sentence as “Aš įtikinau juos,

Šešėlių tarybą, kad esu jos sąjungininkas.” The cause of this kind of non-equivalence can be translating without a transcript and misheard words.

Logical Mistakes in the Translation of The Da Vinci

Code

In The Da Vinci Code the plot is based on logical development of the events which eventually leads to the convergence of the main plot and subplots. Thus, the translation process of such film is more difficult, especially when the storyline includes historical and cultural contexts dating back thousands of years.

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The use of additional sources of information is essential. However, mistakes are made due to various reasons. They can include translating without a transcript, lack of attention, not understanding the text fully etc. For example:

SL: But they would disagree with you in Spain. There, they are robes worn by priests.

TL: Bet Ispanijoje su jumis nesutiktų./ Ten mantijas nešioja kunigai.

This dialogue takes place during a lecture on symbology after a few audiences’ attempts to interpret a symbol (enlarged part of the robe; the whole picture is eventually revealed). Thus, the reference is made to the symbol and not the fact that priests wear robes in Spain. It would be better to translate this sentence as “Štai, tai mantijos, dėvimos kunigų.” Another such example:

SL: Does doctrine necessarily include vows of chastity, tithing and atonement for sins through self-flagellation and the cilice?

TL: Ar doktrinoje būtinai turi būti/ skaistybės įžadai, dekalogas ir nuodėmių išpirkimas/ plakantis ašutiniu diržu?

The cilice in the film is a metal chain that one of the characters wears around his thigh to suffer pain. Even though self-flagellation is part of the visual presentation in The Da Vinci Code as well, a completely different lash is used for that purpose.

There are cases when the meaning of source language is completely changed with no reason, e.g., when the reference is made to Mona Lisa:

SL: The horizon is significantly lower on the left than it is on the right.

TL: Kairys lūpų kamputis/ gerokai žemiau nei dešinys. It is known that the actual skyline on one side of Mona

Lisa differs from the skyline on the other to create an optical

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illusion, and this does not have any connection with the smile or lips of Mona Lisa.

SL: So the Vatican issued secret orders to be opened simultaneously all across Europe.

TL: Vatikanas išleido slaptą įsakymą vienu/ metu visoje Europoje įsiveržti pas juos.

This subtitle does not have logical equivalence because what follows after is: “The Pope <…> said God had charged him with cleansing the earth from [Knights Templar].”, which refers to the “secret orders”. The more accurate translation would be: “Vatikanas vienu metu visoje Europoje išleido/įgalino slaptus įsakymus.” In addition, there is nothing mentioned about the invasion in the source language. However, invasion to a secret society, a group of people, “simultaneously all across Europe” is not a logical translation. Another such example – the words found in one of the clues:

SL: “In London lies a knight a Pope interred.” TL: “Londone palaidotas riteris Popas.”

The knight who the clue refers to is Sir Isaac Newton

and not the Pope. This is later clearly explained in the text: “A knight whose funeral was presided over by the Pope.” This mistake is repeated several times throughout the film. What is meant to say is: “Londone guli riteris, palaidotas popiežiaus.”

SL: Your precious treasure was almost lost, and with it, my fortune.

TL: Jūsų brangus lobis buvo beveik/ prarastas, o su šitais man pasiseks.

After these words, the character gets money for what he has done; therefore, the translation should reflect that, e.g.: “Jūsų brangus lobis buvo beveik prarastas, o su juo – mano turtas.”

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The distortion from the meaning of the dialogue of the source language is quite frequent in the subtitles of The Da Vinci Code. Some of the subtitles are inexplicably non-equivalent with no logical connection. For instance, when professor Langdon and Sophie Neveu are talking about the joke Sauniere (the murdered curator) made of Langdon, he answers:

SL: He called me a flatfoot. A beat cop of history. TL: Jis mane pavadino policininku. Buvau istorijos policininkas. The meaning of the second sentence is not only

completely different, but the style (colloquial speech) is not retained. The word “beat” (adjective) in informal language means “nusivaręs”, “išvargęs”. However, it is eliminated from the target language text. To convey the style and irony properly, it should be translated using Lithuanian colloquial lexical units as well, for example, “Išvargusiu istorijos faru.”

What follows this dialogue is: SL: You know, his father was one. A policeman.

Sauniere said he was the most honourable man he had ever known. We are who we protect, I think. What we stand up for.

TL: Jo tėvas irgi toks buvo./ Policininkas. Sonjeras sakė, kad jis buvo pats/ garbingiausias

jam žinomas žmogus. Manau, jį ir saugome. Tai ir palaikome.

The meaning of the underlined text is not retained. A more appropriate translation would sound like: “Ką saugome, tokie ir esame, manau. Ką palaikome.”

To conclude, Lithuanian translation of The Da Vinci Code can confuse learners of English about the equivalence of certain lexical units, use of constructions and even meanings of certain expressions.

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LITERAL TRANSLATION

Literal translation or so called word-for-word translation is other possible translation strategy used for transferring slang or taboo words. As J.P Vinay and B. Hatim suggest literal translation seeks to remain faithful to the content and form of the original by direct transferring of SL text into grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text (J.P. Vinay 1995, 33-35; B. Hatim 2001, 229-231). Thou literal translation is rather an easily comprehensible strategy in order to reveal its effect it is important to outline its peculiarities and appropriateness.

The ideal literal translation is not always literally possible e.g. an inflected word in SL can almost never be replaced with a single word in an isolative TL, and even literally possible the result is unreadable (M. Baker 2001, 125-127). Hence M. Baker states that most of the literal translations are in fact compromises with the ideal. In literal translation looser translations replace individual SL words with individual TL words clinging closely to the SL word order in the TL. Though literal translation is viewed as compromise with the ideal it has still raised a lot of discussions.

Literal translation is one of the oldest translation strategies therefore its features and drawback have been discussed by various scholars. G. Aichele states that if the goal of translator is to reconstruct the authentic message of the source text and re-embody the same message in the target text then the literal translation is a perfect means for achieving this goal (G. Aichele1996, 130-33). According to G. Aichele the aim of the literal translation is to establish a tension between the source and target texts:

“Target text reflects back upon and illuminates the source

text as a fragment of pure language in a way that the source

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text is unable to reveal by itself. In translation the original text is brought back to life, and the pure language imprisoned within the text is ‘liberated’ “(Ibid).

Literal translation “saves” the text, it emphasises the

uniqueness of the material text through the other texts with which it is confronted.

Whereas B. Hatim and J. Munday not only states the qualities of literal translation but as well questions its appropriateness in various translation situations. According to them literal translation is more closely tied to the original a case which is called ‘interpretive resemblance’ when translator is guided by the notion of faithfulness creates a translation in such a way that it resembles closely enough the original in relevant aspects (B. Hatim; J. Munday 2004, 62-66). The audience is given access to the authentic meaning of the original, not modified by the translator’s interpretation. Then the question arises whether it is realistic that a set of often alien assumptions intended by the author of the original text to the audience can always be transferred optimally to the different audience in a different country? The possible solution for this problem is proposed by E.A. Gutt : style and content of the source text can be translated by using different degrees of approximation (E.A. Gutt 2004, 93-100). With its commitment to total interpretive resemblance direct translation should work well in this respect and matters of style will be carried out prominently (Ibid). Another argument proposed by B. Hatim and J. Munday in favour of literal translation in the transfer of style is the ‘communicative clues’ model (B. Hatim; J. Munday 2004, 62-66). According to this model stylistic devices are seen not in terms in their intrinsic value, but rather as a kind of clues that translated by the different degrees of approximation guide the audience to the intended interpretation (Ibid).

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However in the process of translation there may appear situations where literal translation is unacceptable. J.P. Vinay states that translation becomes unacceptable when the message of the translation gives another meaning; has no meaning; is structurally impossible; does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic experience of the TL or has a corresponding expression within the same register (J.P. Vinay 1995, 33-35). In these situations translators have to turn to the other methods of oblique translation to achieve accurateness.

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LITERAL SOFTENING

Softening is one of translation strategies proposed to use for the translation of slang and taboo words by various scholars L. Drozde, G; Vogule, E. Mattielo and Zauberga (L. Drozde, G. Vogule 2008, 9-10; E. Mattielo in http://host.uniroma3.it/docenti/boylan/text/mattiell.doc; Zauberga 1994, 142). Softening may be defined as to reduction of force or the unpleasant effects of the word (http://www.oup.com/oald-bin/web_getald7index1a.pl ). And thou the usage of softening has been still preserved it is used far less than in the past.

J. Milton, P. Bandia states that in the past periods of history softening of translation was implied namely for political and moral purposes (J. Milton, P. Bandia 2009; 92-97). In the eighteen century classical works were rewritten to conforn to Victorian discursive norms. While during the nineteen century translators and writers that wished to be published had to reproduce those norms. The best example of such would be the adaptation of Zola‘s Nana translation where modifications and eliminations of of specific references to sexual or female bodily functions took place. In accordance to the political reasons for softening this strategy was nemely used due to the goverment‘s imposed regime, where any dissagreements to the existing political structure were omited or softened. (http://www.psupress.org/books/titles/0-271-01600-0.html) The best example of such would the Soviet Authorities that banned any translation objecting to the imposed political ideology.

Nevertheless at the moment the situation has changed as most of the societies have become less conservative and most of the regimes have already been cancelled. Therefore softening is most often used to adapt the translation to the

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limits of the society and make it acceptable and not offending. This translation strategy namely concerns slang and taboo that fall from the norms of the society and are usually replaced by the euphemism. (V.Fromkin, R. Rodman 2007, 442-453). Euphemisms are words or phrases that replace the expressions that are not acceptable in the society. However the usage of euphemisms instead of swear words or slang is determined by the context and style of the text i.e. scientific, public text is likely to contain more euphemisms than colloquial text.

Ultimately, as the translation of the J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye contains numerous examples of softening, the effect of the latter will be revealed in the following case study and research example submitted by my third year student Brigita A.

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CASE STUDY 2: TRANSLATION OF SLANG IN J.D. SALINGER’S THE CATCHER IN THE

RYE (excerpt)

Translation of slang is never an easy task for a translator. First of all translator has to take into account all the intra linguistic and extra linguistic factors and have a wide knowledge of both source and target languages to understand and translate slang words and phrases properly. Secondly translator has decide whatever slang performs a certain function in the text, or it occurs once or twice and does not contribute to the context of the literary text. However in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye there are numerous examples of slang words and phrases that can not be neglected. Slang serves as a means of characterising the main character and as well revealing peculiarities of his environment.

The appearance of J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye caused a stir in the society and it even was on the banned book lists of many libraries and school districts (http://www.bookrags.com/notes/citr/BIO.html). The reaction was caused by the main rebelous character Holden Caulfield who is undergoing treatment in a mental hospital or sanatorium and narrating the events that happened a few days before when he was expelled from the scHool. He is a sixteen-year adolescent who rebels against the society, feels allianated and revaels his attitude with a language full of slang words and expressions. His language is a part of his identity thus slang can not be neglected.

The translator of J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye Povilas Gasiulis employs compensation, literal translation and softening strategies to convey the slang words and expressions. However all of the mentioned

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strategies intermingle and cause different effects that shall be discussed in the following chapters.

4.1 The Effect of Stylistic Compensation

Compensation is the most frequently used strategy in

translation of J.D. Salinger’s The Cacher in the Rye. It is an optional solution as there are many slang terms and expressions that do not have direct equivalents in the target language. Therefore in order to avoid stylistic loss and retain proper style the translator chooses stylistic compensation.

She was a pretty nice girl, though.... She had a big nose and her nails were all bitten down and bleedy-looking and she had on those damn falsies that point all over the place, but you felt sort of sorry for her.2

Nors apskritai ji šauni mergiščia. Ji man patiko, nors jos nosis ilga, o nagai nugraužti iki kraujo ir liemenukas kažko prikimštas, kad stirksotų į visus šonus – net gaila žiūrėti. 7-8

The first thing I did when I got off at Penn Station, I went into this phone booth. I felt like giving somebody a buzz.32

Išlipau Pensilvanijos stotį ir pirmiausia nudrožiau į telefono būdelę. Norėjau kam nors paskambinti. 78

I have a kid sister that's only in the goddam fourth grade. You're about as good as she is, and she can dance better than anybody living or dead. 39

Aš dabar turiu seserį, ji dabar ketvirtokė. Jūs ne blogesnė šokėja už ją. O jinai rupūžiukė, kaip šoka - numirėliams linksma! Dievaži! 94

Jane said he was supposed Džeinė sakė, kad jis

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to be a playwright or some goddam thing, but all I ever saw him do was booze all the time and listen to every single goddam mystery program on the radio. 18

dramaturgas ar kas toks, bet, kiek aš mačiau, jis, velnias, tik lakdavo kaip šuva ir klausydavosi kiekvieno pašvinkusio detektyvo per radiją. 45

Then I started shooting the old crap around a little bit.30

O paskui pradėjau po truputį skiesti. 73

The examples show that there are certain slang words and phrases denoting concepts that do not have slang equivalents in the TL. Therefore compensation is employed to retain the proper style of the text. The slang word ‘falsies’ denoting “pieces of material used inside a bra to make a woman's breasts seem larger”(http://www.oxfordadvancedlearnersdictionary.com/dictionary/falsies) is translated into ‘liemenukas kažko prikimštas‘ and compensated in the previous sentence with a word ‘mergiščia‘. The slang expression ‘give somebody a buzz’ meaning “‘to make a call” is translated into ‘paskambinti’ and compensated in the previous sentence with a colloquial synonym of go “nudrožiau”. The slang word ‘kid’ that refers to “child, young person“is translated into ‘seserį’ and compensated in the following sentence by the word ‘rupūžiukė’. Here are the examples of compensation in place as the slang words are compensated in following or previous sentences. The following examples represent the compensation in kind and splitting as the words are replaced with a longer slang phrases in the TL implying different stylistic devise. SL word ‘booze’ meaning “to drink alcohol” is translated into a comparison ‘lakdavo kaip šuva’. Whereas the last example illustrates compensation by merging as the ST features are

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condensed in the TL. The expression ‘shooting the all crap around’ meaning “talking nonsense” is translated into one word ‘skiesti’. There are used various kinds of compensations in order to maintain the style of the SL text, however compensation is used for other purposes.

Compensation helps to escape from the frequent repetition of the same slang word used numerously in the source text i.e. the word ‘guy’ referring to ‘a fellow’.

"Skinny guy with hairy legs.18

...toks džiūsna, apžėlusiom kojom. 45

He was the most boring guy I ever listened to.46

Kaip gyvas nebuvau matęs nuobodesnio kadro. 111

He was exactly the kind of a guy that wouldn't get out of your light when you asked him to.11

Šuniško būdo: tyčia nesitrauks, jeigu prašai. 30

It was a lousy book, but this Blanchard guy was pretty good.50

Knygiūkštė šlykšti, tačiau pats Blanšaras - vyras kaip reikiant. 120

He was a much better guy than the other driver I'd had.44

Jis vadinosi Horvicas, kur kas šaunesnis vyrukas už aną šoferį, kuris atvežė mane į vestibiulį. 106

The word ‘guy’ is refered to as ‘džiūsna’; ‘kadras’; replaced with the phrases ‘šuniško būdo’ and ‘vyras – kaip reikiant’. Or translated as a ‘vyrukas’ and compensated by the slang of TL ‘šoferis’. Each of these examples illustrate that compensation allow replacing the same word with various referents and expressions that retain the proper style of the text and help to colour translation.

In most cases compensation is employed when no equivalents are found in the TL. Nevertheless there are certain

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concepts that have numerous equivalents in both SL and TL vocabularies. The SL text contain numerous words and phrases referring to money and actions connected with them. In such cases translator employs compensation due to the differences in cultures. Distinct cultures have different associations concerning the same concept, therefore expressions connected with money of SL differ from the expressions used in the TL.

Anyway, he gave Pencey a pile of dough, and they named our wing alter him.9

Žodžiu, tasai tipas išmetė Pensio labui apvalią sumelę, ir tada jo vardu pavadino vieną bendrabučio korpusą.25

They didn't have too much dough.3

Pinigais jie nebuvo aptekę.11

He made a pot of dough in the undertaking business after he got out of Pencey.9

Baigęs mokyklą jis ėmėsi laidojimo biurų biznio ir prisišlavė gražaus pinigėlio. 24

He's got a lot of dough, now.1

Pinigo jis turi kaip šieno. 6

"If I had his dough, I would, too."14

Jeigu aš turėčiau tiek šlamančių kiek jis, aš irgi švaistyčiausi kaklaraiščiais...35

I have plenty of dough.53 Pinigų turiu iki kaklo. 125 If you had his dough, you'd be one of the biggest--"14

Jeigu tu turėtum tiek pinigo kiek jis, būtum toks nagas, kad...36

The examples show that the word ‘dough’ referring to ‘money’ is compensated by the word ‘šlamantys’ and expressions: ‘pinigais jie buvo aptekę’; ’Pinigo jis turi kaip šieno’; ’Pinigų turiu iki kaklo’. In the last example the word ‘dough’ is translated as ‘pinigai’ and further compensated by the word ’nagas’ referring to’ a person who is very unwilling to

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spend money’. The expression ’pile of dough’ meaning ’a big amout of money’ is transferred into ’išmetė apvalią sumelę’; prisišlavė gražaus pinigėlio’. The examples show that thou there might be numerous examples concerning the same concept the compensation occurs inevitably due to the difference in cultures and their distinct associations with the same concept.

Other cases when compensation is inevitable concerns short slang exclamatory phrases that have to be adapted in order to convey proper meaning and peculiarities of style.

That story just about killed me. 10

Liuks apsakymas!27

That killed me.9 Ko nepastipau.25 That killed me.26 Rupūs miltai! 64 That killed me.42 Iš proto gali išeiti. 101 Very big deal.2 Svarbi persona ! 8 Very big deal.9 Trenkte pritrenkė. 25 Big deal.45 Klasiškai sugalvota. 109 Big deal. 58 Baisus daikats! 136 Strictly for the birds.1 Papasakokit bobutei! 6

In the examples above some expressions are identical, however they are translated in different ways by means of compensation. The phrase ‘kill somebody’ means ‘to cause suffering’ and is translated as following: ‘Liuks apsakymas!’; ‘Ko nepastipau’; ‘Rupūs miltai!’; ‘Iš proto gali išeiti’. The expression ‘big deal’ is ‘an interjection of dismissal‘transfered into ‘Svarbi persona!’; ‘Trenkte pritrenkė’; ’Klasiškas sugalvota’; ’Baisus daiktas!’. The expression ’for the birds’ meaning ’no good, shoddy’ is translated into ’Papasakokit bobutei!’. Each of these phrases are adapted to the target audience at the same moment retaining stylistic effect of the source language through the means of compensation. Thou

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some of the expressions do not have even similar meaning as the words and expressions of the SL, they are adapted to the described situation and create the same effect as in the SL. Further more there are certain slang expressions for which compensation is the only means of transferring literary style. Slang does not only have a peculiar vocabulary; but it as well conveys expressions and words of the Standard English vocabulary that differ only in structure. Such slang words and expressions usually have omitted letters or a few words blended in one. Then to find corresponding equivalents becomes almost impossible and compensation may be employed as one of the means. "How 'bout turning off the goddam light? I gotta get up for Mass in the morning."27

- Rupūže, ar užgesinsi kada šviesą? Man rytoj anksti keltis į bažnyčią! 65

"How 'bout writing a composition for me, for English?“15

- Gal sukombinuotum rašinį iš anglų?38

If you just had a goddam operation on your goddam wuddayacallit. Huh?" 53

Jeigu dar neatsigavai po tos nelaimingos operacijos... Kurių velnių, ką? 125

"How'sa boy, Ackley?"14 - Kaip Eklis kruta?37 "Where'dja get that hat?" Stradlater said.16

- Kur išknisai tą kepurę?41

Why the hell don'tcha shut up when I tellya to?" he said. He sounded pretty nervous. He probably was scared he'd fractured my skull or something when I hit the floor.25

- Kodėl neužsičiaupei, jei liepiau? – sako jis. Iš balso supratau, kad išsigandęs. Matyt, pabūgo, ar neprasiskėliau kiaušo, kai trenkiausi ant grindų. 60 - 61

"What the hellya doing, anyway?" I said.25

- Tai kokį velnią lipdai, kad nemiegi? – klausiu. 62

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The examples show that structurally deformed expressions that belong to slang vocabulary translated employing compensation strategy. The omission of initial letter ‘a’ in the word ‘about’ is compensated by the following words ‘rupūže’ and ‘sukombinuotum’. The blended expression ‘wuddayacallit’ from the ‘would you call it’ is transferred into expression ‘Kurių velnių ką?‘. Other structurally deformed phrases are as well compensated: ‚’hoiw‘sa‘ into ‘kruta’; ‘Where'dja’ into ‘išknisai‘; ‘don'tcha‘ and ‘tellya’ into ‘kiaušo’ and ‘hellya’ into expression ‘kokį velnią lipdai’. As there are no appropriate equivalents in the TL concerning struturally deformed words compensation helps to keep closely to the style of the original text. The previous examples revealed where the compensation was employed in order to retain proper style and translate slang where it had no equialents in the TL however compensation may be used in order to make the slang expressions and taboo words less ofendable for the readers. He's a conceited sonuvabitch.13

Pučiasi kaip povas.35

He's drunk as a bastard.16 Nepasikelia, nusilakęs kaip šuva!41

She was pretty young, but she had this terrific figure, and I wouldn't've put it past that Cudahy bastard. 43

Ji buvo visai jaunutė, tačiau turėjo liuks figūrą, ir abejoju, ar tokiam subjektui kaip Kadehis žadindavo skaisčias mintis.103

The words used in the SL belong to the categories of Vulgar slang or Taboo words. The direct translation of such words might offend the readers and seem innapropriate therefore compensation helps to avoid negative effect. The word

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‘sonuvabitch‘ is refered to ‘pučiasi kaip povas’. While the word ‘bastard’ is translated into expression ‘nusilakęs kaip šuva‘. In the last example it is translated as ‘subjektas’ and compensated through the translation of ‘liuks’. It is obvious that word ‘liuks’, and expressions ‘pučiasi kaip povas’ or ‘nusilakęs kaip šuva‘ contain a more possitive associations than corresponding words of the SL. To sum up compensation is the most frequently employed translation strategy in the translation of J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye. Different kinds of compensation i.e. compensation in kind, place, by merging and splitting intermingle to convey the main effect: to maintain proper style of the SL. In most cases compensation occurs when there are no equivalent concepts in the TL. Compensation not only helps to preserve the style but as well allows avoiding repetition of the same slang phrases, adapt slang exclamatory expressions to the situation that it would sound naturally for the reader, transfer slang words that have a deformed spelling and have no equivalents in the TL and lessen the negative effect of the taboo words. Furthermore if a certain concept is familiar to both source and target cultures it is likely to have different associations and distinct slang expressions then compensation occurs inevitably.

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SUGGESTED PROJECTS AND ACTIVITIES

Workshop No. 1:

1.1 Consider the road signs in your language. Which of them result from natural equivalence?

1.2 Select a problematic term and sevearal possible translations of it. Now attempt a componential analysis of the term‘s function in its original context. How many components are found in the translations? How many have been lost? What gains have been made?

1.3 Locate the automatic translation programs Babelfish and Google translate. Use both to do back translations several times (e. g. moving from English to Lithuanian to English to Lithuanian, for the one text) What happens to equivalence? What translation procedures are involved? What procedures are needed to improve the translation?

Workshop No 2.

Translation is typically used to transfer written or

spoken source language texts to equivalent written or spoken target language texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts – including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts – in another language and therefore making them available to wider readers.

It would be easy to translate from a source language to a target language, if language was just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts; besides the process of learning a second language would be much easier than it actually is. However, the concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another language, since each language organizes or categorises the world differently, thus one of the

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troublesome problems of translation is the disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the source language and the target language, the more difficult the transfer of message from the former to the latter will be. And the difference between a source language and a target language and the distinction in their cultures make the process of translating a real challenge for the translator. Some of the most problematic factors involved in translation are form, meaning, style, proverbs, idioms, etc. (http://www.translationdirectory.com/)

Nida (1964) describe following translating procedures: 1.Technical procedures: a) analysis of the source and target languages; b) a through study of the source language text before

making attempts translate it; c) making judgments of the semantic and syntactic

approximations. (pp. 241-45) 2. Organizational procedures:

constant reevaluation of the attempt made; contrasting it with the existing available translations of the same text done by other translators, and checking the text's communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness and studying their reactions (pp. 246-47).

The key issues for the Russian structuralist Roman Jakobson are Linguistic meaning and equivalence. He states that there are 3 types of translation (www.translationdirectory.com):

1) intralingual – rewording or paraphrasing, summarizing, expanding or commenting within a language;

2) interlingual – the traditional concept of translation from source text to target text or the “shifting of meaning from one language to another” (Stockinger, p.4)

3) intersemiotic – the changing of a written text into a different form, such as art or dance.

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The following are the translation procedures that Newmark (1988) proposes:

Transference: it is the process of transferring a source language word to a target language text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey named "transcription."

Naturalization: it adapts the source language word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the target language.

Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the source language with a target language one. however, "they are not accurate"

Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word.

Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words.

Componential analysis: it means "comparing a source language word with a target language word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components."

Synonymy: it is a "near target language equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy.

Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation.

Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from source language to target language, for instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific source language structure does not exist in the target language, (iii) change of an source language verb to a target language word, change of a source language noun group to a target language noun and so forth.

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Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the target language text in conformity with the current norms of the target language, since the source language and the target language may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective.

Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term."

Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part.

Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained. Here the explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent.

Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

Notes: notes are additional information in a translation.

Translation is difficult. Failing to carry details from one language to another is very easy. A term in one language may have no equivalent in another, or the associations might differ wildly. Puns, figurative speech, connotations and cultural references: all of them create problems. When translators faced with this problem, they have come up with various tactics.

1. There are some strategies that have to be followed, if the translator wants his translation to be good and accurate (http://www.translationdirectory.com/).

1) Accommodate to target linguistic conventions a) Not a word for a word b) Lexicalization with necessary annotation c) Accommodate to target sentential structure d) Accommodate to target textual tradition 2) Accommodate to target cultural acceptability a) Accommodate to target cultural

conventions. Cultures that are relatively identical tend to see

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their own way of doing things as ‘naturally’, the only way, which just as naturally becomes the ‘best’ way when confronted with other ways. However, what is significant in one culture might lose all its significance in another.

b) Cultural substitution. This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with a target-language item which does not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader.

Look through the following examples of wrong

translation of different signs and notices. What can be done to avoid misunderstanding?

Japanese hotel room - You are invited to take

advantage of the chambermaid Tokyo hotel - It is forbidden to steal hotel

towels please. If you are not a person to do such a thing is please not read this notice

Belgrade elevator - To move the cabin, push button for wishing floor. If the cabin should enter more persons, each one should press a number of wishing floor. Driving then going alphabetically in national order.

Moscow hotel - You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous Russian and Soviet composers, artists and writers are buried daily except Thursday

Swiss menu - Our wines leave you nothing to hope for

Rhodes tailor shop - Order your summer suit. Because is big rush we will execute customers in strict rotation

Hong Kong advert - Teeth extracted by the latest methodists

Copenhagen airline - We take your bags and send them in all directions

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Moscow hotel - If this is your first visit to the USSR, you are welcome to it

Norwegian lounge - Ladies are requested not to have children in the bar

Outside a Hong Kong tailor shop - Ladies may have a fit upstairs

In a Paris hotel elevator - Please leave your values at the front desk

Sign in Tokyo - The ancient building is renovating. Excuse me for bringing trouble to you.

Sign in a Tel Aviv Hotel - If you wish breakfast, lift the telephone and our waitress will arrive. This will be enough to bring up your food.

In the office of a Roman doctor - Specialist in women and other diseases

In the window of a Swedish furrier - Fur coats made for the ladies from their own skin

From the Soviet Weekly - There will be a Moscow Exhibition of Arts by 15,000 Soviet Republic painters and sculptors. These were executed over the past two years.

At a Budapest zoo - Please do not feed the animals. If you have any suitable food, give it to the guard on duty.

Japanese road sign – Don’t drive tiredy

Workshop No. 3: Look carefully through the following excerpts from Dan Brown‘s text and then compare it with the

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Lithuanian variant. Check the subtitles on DVD, too. Identify flaws of translation. Dan Brown The Da Vinci Code

Chapter 1

Robert Langdon awoke slowly. A telephone was ringing in the darkness--a tinny, unfamiliar ring. He fumbled for the bedside lamp and turned it on. Squinting at his surroundings he saw a plush Renaissance bedroom with Louis XVI furniture, hand-frescoed walls, and a colossal mahogany four-poster bed. Where the hell am I? The jacquard bathrobe hanging on his bedpost bore the monogram: HOTEL RITZ PARIS. Slowly, the fog began to lift. Langdon picked up the receiver. "Hello?" "Monsieur Langdon?" a man's voice said. "I hope I have not awoken you?" Dazed, Langdon looked at the bedside clock. It was 12:32 A.M. He had been asleep only an hour, but he felt like the dead. "This is the concierge, monsieur. I apologize for this intrusion, but you have a visitor. He insists it is urgent." Langdon still felt fuzzy. A visitor? His eyes focused now on a crumpled flyer on his bedside table.

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THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF PARIS proudly presents An evening with Robert Langdon Professor of Religious Symbology, Harvard University Langdon groaned. Tonight's lecture--a slide show about pagan symbolism hidden in the stones of Chartres Cathedral--had probably ruffled some conservative feathers in the audience. Most likely, some religious scholar had trailed him home to pick a fight. "I'm sorry," Langdon said, "but I'm very tired and--" "Mais monsieur," the concierge pressed, lowering his voice to an urgent whisper. "Your guest is an important man." Langdon had little doubt. His books on religious paintings and cult symbology had made him a reluctant celebrity in the art world, and last year Langdon's visibility had increased a hundred-fold after his involvement in a widely publicized incident at the Vatican. Since then, the stream of self-important historians and art buffs arriving at his door had seemed never-ending. "If you would be so kind," Langdon said, doing his best to remain polite, "could you take the man's name and number, and tell him I'll try to call him before I leave Paris on Tuesday? Thank you." He hung up before the concierge could protest. Sitting up now, Langdon frowned at his bedside Guest Relations Handbook, whose cover boasted: SLEEP LIKE A BABY IN THE CITY OF LIGHTS. SLUMBER AT THE PARIS RITZ. He turned and gazed tiredly into the full-length mirror across the room. The man staring back at him was a stranger--tousled and weary. You need a vacation, Robert. The past year had taken a heavy toll on him, but he didn't appreciate seeing proof in the mirror. His usually sharp blue

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eyes looked hazy and drawn tonight. A dark stubble was shrouding his strong jaw and dimpled chin. Around his temples, the gray highlights were advancing, making their way deeper into his thicket of coarse black hair. Although his female colleagues insisted the gray only accentuated his bookish appeal, Langdon knew better. If Boston Magazine could see me now. Last month, much to Langdon's embarrassment, Boston Magazine had listed him as one of that city's top ten most intriguing people--a dubious honor that made him the brunt of endless ribbing by his Harvard colleagues. Tonight, three thousand miles from home, the accolade had resurfaced to haunt him at the lecture he had given. "Ladies and gentlemen . . ." the hostess had announced to a full-house at The American University of Paris's Pavillon Dauphine, "Our guest tonight needs no introduction. He is the author of numerous books: The Symbology of Secret Sects, The Art of the Illuminati, The Lost Language of Ideograms, and when I say he wrote the book on Religious Iconology, I mean that quite literally. Many of you use his textbooks in class." The students in the crowd nodded enthusiastically. "I had planned to introduce him tonight by sharing his impressive curriculum vitae, however . . ." She glanced playfully at Langdon, who was seated onstage. "An audience member has just handed me a far more, shall we say . . . intriguing introduction." She held up a copy of Boston Magazine. Langdon cringed. Where the hell did she get that? The hostess began reading choice excerpts from the inane article, and Langdon felt himself sinking lower and lower in his chair. Thirty seconds later, the crowd was grinning, and the woman showed no signs of letting up. "And Mr. Langdon's refusal to speak publicly about his unusual role in last year's Vatican conclave certainly wins him points on our intrigue-o-

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meter." The hostess goaded the crowd. "Would you like to hear more?" The crowd applauded. Somebody stop her, Langdon pleaded as she dove into the article again. "Although Professor Langdon might not be considered hunk-handsome like some of our younger awardees, this forty-something academic has more than his share of scholarly allure. His captivating presence is punctuated by an unusually low, baritone speaking voice, which his female students describe as 'chocolate for the ears.'' The hall erupted in laughter. Langdon forced an awkward smile. He knew what came next--some ridiculous line about "Harrison Ford in Harris tweed"--and because this evening he had figured it was finally safe again to wear his Harris tweed and Burberry turtleneck, he decided to take action. "Thank you, Monique," Langdon said, standing prematurely and edging her away from the podium. "Boston Magazine clearly has a gift for fiction." He turned to the audience with an embarrassed sigh. "And if I find which one of you provided that article, I'll have the consulate deport you." The crowd laughed. "Well, folks, as you all know, I'm here tonight to talk about the power of symbols . . ." The ringing of Langdon's hotel phone once again broke the silence. Groaning in disbelief, he picked up. "Yes?" As expected, it was the concierge. "Mr. Langdon, again my apologies. I am calling to inform you that your guest is now en route to your room. I thought I should alert you." Langdon was wide awake now. "You sent someone to my room?" "I apologize, monsieur, but a man like this . . . I cannot

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presume the authority to stop him." "Who exactly is he?" But the concierge was gone. Almost immediately, a heavy fist pounded on Langdon's door. Uncertain, Langdon slid off the bed, feeling his toes sink deep into the savonniere carpet. He donned the hotel bathrobe and moved toward the door. "Who is it?" "Mr. Langdon? I need to speak with you." The man's English was accented--a sharp, authoritative bark. "My name is Lieutenant Jerome Collet. Direction Centrale Police Judiciaire." Langdon paused. The Judicial Police? The DCPJ were the rough equivalent of the U.S. FBI. Leaving the security chain in place, Langdon opened the door a few inches. The face staring back at him was thin and washed out. The man was exceptionally lean, dressed in an official-looking blue uniform. "May I come in?" the agent asked. Langdon hesitated, feeling uncertain as the stranger's sallow eyes studied him. "What is this is all about?" "My capitaine requires your expertise in a private matter." "Now?" Langdon managed. "It's after midnight." "Am I correct that you were scheduled to meet with the curator of the Louvre this evening? " Langdon felt a sudden surge of uneasiness. He and the revered curator Jacques Saunière had been slated to meet for drinks after Langdon's lecture tonight, but Saunière had never shown up. "Yes. "We found your name in his daily planner." "I trust nothing is wrong?" The agent gave a dire sigh and slid a Polaroid snapshot through the narrow opening in the door. When Langdon saw the photo, his entire body went rigid. "This photo was taken less than an hour ago. Inside the Louvre."

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As Langdon stared at the bizarre image, his initial revulsion and shock gave way to a sudden upwelling of anger. "Who would do this!" "We had hoped that you might help us answer that very question. Considering your knowledge in symbology and your plans to meet with him." Langdon stared at the picture, his horror now laced with fear. The image was gruesome and profoundly strange, bringing with it an unsettling sense of deja vu. A little over a year ago, Langdon had received a photograph of a corpse and a similar request for help. Twenty-four hours later, he had almost lost his life inside Vatican City. This photo was entirely different, and yet something about the scenario felt disquietingly familiar. The agent checked his watch. "My captain is waiting, sir." Langdon barely heard him. His eyes were still riveted on the picture. "This symbol here, and the way his body is so oddly...“ "Positioned?" the agent offered. Langdon nodded, feeling a chill as he looked up. "I can't imagine who would do this to someone." The agent looked grim. "You don't understand, Mr. Langdon. What you see in this photograph . . ." He paused. "Monsieur Saunière did that to himself." How did you know that?" Dan Brown „Da Vinčio Kodas“ Iš anglų kalbos vertė Indrė Žakevičienė ROBERTAS LENGDONAS budo iš miego. Tamsoje skambėjo telefonas — kažkoks šaižus, nepažįstamas skambutis. Vyriškis vargais negalais sučiupo šalia lovos stovinčią lemputę ir uždegė ją.

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Pašnairavęs į supančius daiktus pamatė ištaigingą Renesanso laikų miegamąjį, išpuoštą freskomis ir apstatytą Liudviko XVI baldais, tarp jų milžinišką raudonmedžio lovą su keturiais stulpeliais. Kur, po velnių, aš esu? Ant vieno lovos stulpelio kabojo chalatas su išsiuvinėta monograma: HOTEL RITZ PARIS. Po truputį rūkas ėmė sklaidytis. Lengdonas pakėlė ragelį. — Klausau? — Mesjė Lengdonas? — paklausė vyriškas balsas. — Tikiuosi, jūsų neprikėliau? Vis dar apsnūdęs Lengdonas dirstelėjo į šalia lovos esantį laikrodį. Buvo trisdešimt dvi minutės po vidurnakčio. Jis tepamiegojo valandą, bet jautėsi kaip negyvas. — Kalba viešbučio tarnautojas, mesjė. Atleiskite, kad trukdau, bet pas jus atėjo svečias. Jis sako, jog turi svarbų reikalą. Lengdonas vis dar nepajėgė sklandžiai mąstyti. Svečias? }o žvilgsnis užkliudė ant stalelio numestą suglamžytą lankstinuką. AMERIKOS UNIVERSITETAS PARYŽIUJE didžiuodamasis skelbia apie rengiamą ROBERTO LENGDONO, HARVARDO UNIVERSITETO RELIGINĖS SIMBOLOGIJOS PROFESORIAUS, VAKARĄ Lengdonas atsiduso. Šio vakaro paskaita — demonstruotos skaidrės su pagoniškais simboliais, rastais Šartro katedros akmenyse — tikriausiai pašiaušė konservatyvių auditorijos narių plunksneles. Labiausiai tikėtina, jog koks nors religingas mokslininkas atsekė jį iki namų, kad iškviestų į kovą. — Atsiprašau,— pratarė Lengdonas,— bet esu labai pavargęs ir...

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— Mais, mesjė, — neatlyžo tarnautojas. Jis nuleido balsą ir ėmė kalbėti beveik pašnibždomis. — Jūsų svečias — svarbus žmogus. Lengdonas tuo šiek tiek abejojo. Savo knygomis apie religinius paveikslus ir kulto simbolių tyrinėjimus meno pasaulyje jis pagarsėjo kaip prieštaringai vertinama įžymybė, o nuo praėjusių metų, kai įsipainiojo į plačiai nuskambėjusį incidentą Vatikane, buvo šimtąkart geriau matomas. Nuo tada prie jo durų ėmė driektis nesibaigiančios savimi patenkintų istorikų ir meno banginių eilės. — Ar galėtumėte būti toks malonus, — vėl prašneko Lengdonas, iš paskutiniųjų stengdamasis likti mandagus, — ir užsirašyti to žmogaus vardą bei telefono numerį, o paskui pasakyti, jog pamėginsiu jam paskambinti iki antradienio, dar prieš išvykdamas iš Paryžiaus. Dėkoju. Profesorius padėjo ragelį, viešbučio tarnautojui nespėjus paprieštarauti. Atsisėdo lovoje ir suraukęs kaktą Lengdonas dirstelėjo į greta padėtą Svečių, knygą, ant kurios viršelio buvo užrašyta: ŽIBURIŲ MIESTE MIEGOKITE KAIP KŪDIKIS. ILSĖKITĖS PARIS RITZ. Pasisukęs nuvargusiu žvilgsniu permetė didžiulį veidrodį, pakabintą kitame kambario gale ir atspindintį žmogų visu ūgiu. Iš veidrodžio į jį žvelgė nepažįstamas žmogus — susitaršiusiais plaukais ir pavargęs. Tau reikia atostogų,, Robertai. Tiesa, praėję metai pareikalavo daug jėgų, bet vis tiek nemalonu žiūrėti į visa tai patvirtinantį veidrodžio atspindį. Paprastai gyvos ir aštrios mėlynos

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akys buvo apsiblaususios ir išsekusios. Tvirtus žandikaulius ir smakrą su duobute dengė tamsūs šeriai. Ties smilkiniais šarmos ženklai jau kėsinosi į šiurkščių juodų plaukų tankmę. Nors kolegės moterys nepaliovė tvirtinusios, jog žili plaukai tik dar labiau pabrėžia mokslingumą ir apsiskaitymą, Lengdonui atrodė kitaip. Jeigu tik „Boston Magazine" dabar mane užfiksuotų... Didžiai Lengdono nuostabai, praėjusį mėnesį „Boston Magazine" jį pripažino vienu iš dešimties labiausiai intriguojančių miesto žmonių; tokia abejotina šlovė tapo pretekstu begaliniams Harvardo kolegų juokeliams. Šįvakar to pripažinimo atgarsiai atsivijo jį tris tūkstančius mylių nuo namų ir užklupo skaitomos paskaitos metu. — Ponios ir ponai... — pranešė renginio šeimininkė pilnutėlaitei Paryžiuje įsikūrusio Amerikos universiteto salei Pavillon Dauphine. — Šio mūsų vakaro svečio pristatyti nereikia. Jis yra daugelio knygų autorius, tarp kurių „Slaptųjų sektų simbologija", „Rankraščių puošybos menas", „Pamirštoji ideogramų kalba", o sakydama, jog jis parašė knygą apie religinę ikonologiją, kaip tik tai tiesiogine prasme ir turiu galvoje. Daugelis iš jūsų jo knygomis naudojasi auditorijose. Gausiai susirinkę studentai entuziastingai palingavo galvomis. — Šįvakar ketinau pristatyti mūsų svečią pradėdama nuo įspūdingo gyvenimo aprašymo. Tačiau... — ji žaismingai pažvelgė į Lengdoną, sėdintį ant pakylos, — vienas žmogus iš auditorijos ką tik man įteikė, sakyčiau... renginio įžanga galėtų būti gerokai labiau intriguojanti.

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Ji iškėlė „Boston Magazine" egzempliorių. Lengdonas susigūžė. Iš kur, po velnių, ji šitai ištraukė? Vakaro šeimininkė ėmė skaityti iš kvailojo straipsnio pasirinktas ištraukas, o Lengdonas juto, kaip vis labiau smunka į kėdę. Jau po trisdešimties sekundžių susirinkusi minia šypsojosi, o moteris nė nemanė baigti. — „Be to, pono Lengdono atsisakymas viešai kalbėti apie neįprastą savo vaidmenį per praėjusių metų Vatikano konklavą, savaime suprantama, tik prideda jam taškų, turint galvoje intriguojančių poelgių skalę." Šeimininkė vis labiau kurstė publiką. — Ar norėtumėte išgirsti daugiau? Auditorija ėmė ploti. Sustabdykite ją kas nors, meldė Lengdonas, kai ši vėl įniko į straipsnį. — „Nors profesorius Lengdonas nėra toks gražus kaip kai kurie jaunesni mūsų laureatai, keturiasdešimt perkopęs mokslininkas vilioja nepaprastomis mokslo pagundomis. Jo žavesys pasireiškia išsiskiriančiu neįprastai žemu baritonu, kurį jo studentės apibūdina kaip „šokoladą ausims". Visa salė prapliupo juoktis. Sutrikęs Lengdonas prisivertė šyptelėti. Jis žinojo, kas rašoma toliau — absurdiška frazė: „Harisonas Fordas, dėvįs Harris tvido kostiumą". O kadangi šį vakarą saugumo sumetimais jis kaip tik dėvėjo Harris firmos švarką ir Burberry golfą, nutarė kuo skubiau veikti. — Dėkoju, Monika, — pratarė Lengdonas stodamasis, kad priverstų ją nueiti nuo tribūnos. — „Boston Magazine" neabejotinai yra apdovanotas lakia vaizduote, — išleidęs sutrikusio žmogaus atodūsį, jis atsigręžė į auditoriją. — Beje, jeigu

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išsiaiškinsiu, kuris iš jūsų atnešė šį straipsnį, priversiu konsulatą jį deportuoti. Minia nusijuokė. — Na, mielieji žmonės, kaip jau žinote, šįvakar esu čia tam, kad papasakočiau apie simbolių galią... Tylą nutraukė dar kartą suskambėjęs Lengdono numerio telefonas. Sudejavo apstulbęs profesorius, bet ragelį pakėlė. — Klausau? Kaip ir buvo galima tikėtis, skambino viešbučio tarnautojas. — Dar kartą labai atsiprašau, pone Lengdonai. Skambinu, kad informuočiau, jūsų svečias jau pakeliui į jūsų numerį. Pamaniau, jog turėčiau jus įspėti. Lengdonas jau pasijuto žvalus. — Jūs kažką pasiuntėte į mano numerį? — Atleiskite, mesjė, bet tokio žmogaus kaip jis... Daugiau nežinau nė vieno lokį didžiulį autoritetą turinčio žmogaus, tad negalėjau jo sulaikyti. — Kas jis iš tikrųjų yra? Tačiau viešbučio tarnautojas jau buvo padėjęs ragelį. Beveik tą pačią akimirką į Lengdono duris kažkas tvirtai pasibeldė. Lengdonas dvejodamas išlipo iš lovos ir pajuto, kaip kojų pirštai giliai paniro j savojietišką kilimą. Jis apsisiautė viešbučio chalatu ir nuėjo prie durų. — Kas čia? — Pone Lengdonai? Man reikia su jumis pasikalbėti. — Vyriškio anglų kalba buvo su akcentu; jis kalbėjo griežtai, įsakmiai. — Aš esu leitenantas Žeromas Kolė. Direction Centrale Police Judiciaire. Lengdonas nuščiuvo. Nepriklausoma policija?'DCPJ — tai beveik tas pats, kaip Federalinis tyrimų biuras Jungtinėse Valstijose. Palikęs nenukabintą durų grandinę Lengdonas šiek tiek pravėrė duris. Į jį

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žvelgė liesas neaiškių bruožų veidas. Vyriškis, neįtikėtinai plonas, vilkėjo labai oficialiai atrodančią mėlyną uniformą. — Ar galiu užeiti? — paklausė agentas. Lengdonas, varstomas gelsvų vyriškio akių, pasijuto nejaukiai. Jis dvejojo. — Kas čia dedasi? — Mano kapitonui asmeniškai reikia jūsų kvalifikuotos pagalbos. — Dabar? — įstengė paklausti Lengdonas. — Juk jau po vidurnakčio. — Juk jei neklystu, šį vakarą buvote susitaręs susitikti su Luvro muziejaus kuratoriumi? Staiga Lengdonas pajuto, kaip užplūsta nerimas. Jiedu su gerbiamu kuratoriumi Žaku Sonjeru vakare, po paskaitos, buvo susitarę susitikti išgerti, bet Sonjeras taip ir nepasirodė. — Taip, o iš kur jūs šitai žinote? — Jo užrašų knygelėje radome jūsų pavardę. — Tikiuosi, nieko bloga nenutiko? Agentas skaudžiai atsiduso ir per siaurutį durų plyšį įkišo Lengdonui nuotrauką. Nuo pamatyto vaizdo pašiurpo visas kūnas. — Ši nuotrauka padaryta mažiau nei prieš valandą pačiame Luvre. Lengdonas žiūrėjo įsmeigęs akis į keistą nuotrauką, o pirmiau jį užvaldęs nerimas ir šokas staiga virto pykčio pliūpsniu. — Kas galėjo tai padaryti? — Mes tikėjomės, kad jūs mums galėsite padėti atsakyti j šį klausimą, nes išmanote simbolių mokslą ir ketinote su juo susitikti. Lengdonas žiūrėjo į nuotrauką; jį apėmęs siaubas sumišo su baime. Nuotrauka buvo klaiki ir neįtikėtinai keista, nenumaldomai provokuojanti deja vu nuojautas. Prieš metus su trupučiu Lengdonas buvo gavęs lavono nuotrauką

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kartu su tokiu pačiu prašymu padėti. Po dvidešimt keturių valandų viešnagės Vatikane jis vos liko gyvas. Ši nuotrauka — visai kitokia, tačiau kažkas, kas siejasi su pačiu scenarijumi, atrodė bauginamai pažįstama. Agentas pažvelgė į laikrodį. — Mano kapitonas laukia, sere. Lengdonas leitenanto beveik negirdėjo. Jo akys tebebuvo įsmeigtos į nuotrauką — Tasai simbolis štai čia, o ir jo kūnas, taip keistai... — Pasidriekęs? — pamėgino padėti agentas. Lengdonas, pakėlęs akis, linktelėjo. Jis pajuto nugara bėgantį šiurpą. — Negaliu įsivaizduoti, kas galėtų kam nors taip padaryti. Agentas atrodė paniuręs. — Jūs nesupratote, pone Lengdonai. Tai, ką jūs matote nuotraukoje... —jis nutilo. — Mesjė Sonjeras pasidarė pats.

Workshop No. 4: 4.1. Translate the following into Lithuanian: Notoriety, glorious, patent-leather, practice-based learning, case-study, paternal, pathfinder, roadshow, recession, Bologna process, academic exchange, lifelong learning, framework, sustainable development, employability, education, research and innovation, multidimensional transparency tools, student-centered learning, social dimension: equitable action and completion. Do the same into English: Poreikis, prieinamumas, požiūris, studijų kokybė, atidumas, profesionalumas, tikslumas, (politinė) santvarka, saugumas, emigracijos mastai, sociologiniai duomenys, atsakomoji

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reakcija, kaip perkūnas iš giedro dangaus; poreikis, lūkesčiai ir viltys; tarptautinė atestavimo grupė, suirutė, UAB, PVM, uždegimas, socialinė apsauga, Ūkio minsiterija. Check the time, please. Do the same once again during your next lecture. How much time did you need the first time and the second one? 4.2 Find an interview with John Irwing. Practice oral translation interpreting his thoughts and reminiscences. Workshop No. 5: 5.1 Find an article about an earthquake in Japan (12 03 2011), victims, explosion at Fukushima nuclear plant and radiation. Practice sight translation. 5.2 Do the same using the market-leading translation memory software TRADOS

Workshop No. 6:

Translate E. Hemingway‘s “Canary for One”.

Discuss your translation with your colleagues. Discuss the problems you‘ve encountered while translating the title of the short story and the first paragraph.

Workshop No. 7:

7.1 Find fairy tales in English. Translate one of them into Lithuanian. Then check the translation of the same fairy tale from Polish into Lithuanian. Compare the translations and discuss the result. 7.2 Describe the happiest/worst even of your life in English. Then pass it to your colleage asking to translate the text into Lithuanian. Furtheron, the translation being performed, pass

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the Lithuanian text to the third person. Check the texts and discuss the result. Do theories of equivalence have any relation to your feelings about the happiest/worst moment of your life?

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words: A Coursebook on

Translation. London: Routledge. Bassnett, S. (2002). Translation Studies. Routledge Taylor &

Francis Group. Baravykaitė, A. (2007). “Kino filmų tirai kaip kalbų mokymosi

priemonė” in: Kalbotyra. Vilnius. Vilnius University. Baravykaitė, A. (2005). “Filmų vertimo problematika” in:

Kalbotyra. Vilnius.Vilnius University. Brown, K. (2005). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics –

2nd Edition. Cambridge University. Cintas, J. D. (2010). Audiovisual Tranbslation. Palgrave

Macmillan. Cintas, J. D. (2009) New Trends in Audiovisual Translation.

Cromwell Press Group. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In: Syntax and

Semantics. Eds. Cole, L., Morgan, J. L. New York. Hatim, B., Mason, I. (1997). The Translator as Communicator.

London and New York. Routledge. Karamitroglou, F. (1998). A Proposed Set of Subtitling

Standards in Europe. In: Translation Journal: http://accurapid.com/journal/.

Kastberg, P. (2007). Cultural Issues Facing the Technical Translator. The Journal of Specialized Translation. Issue 8.

Kavaliauskienė, G., Kaminskienė, L. (2007) “Translation as a Learning Tool in English for Specific Purposes” in: Kalbotyra. Vilnius. Vilnius University.

Leonardi, V. (2000). Equivalence in Translation: Between Myth and Reality. In: http://www.accurapid.com/journal/14equiv.htm

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Lye, J. (1996). The Problem of Meaning in Literature: A brief introduction for my Year 1 students. Copyright by John Lye (at http://www.brocku.ca/english/jlye/meaning.php) 2010 11 13

Malkmjaer, K. (2005) Linguistics and the Language of Translation. Edinburgh University Press.Munday, J. (2001). Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Newmark, P. (1982). Approaches to Translation. Pearson Education Limited. London.

Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall. Nida, E. (1984). On Translation. Translation Publishing Corp.

Beijing, China. O’Hagan, M.(2002). Translation-mediated Communication in

a Didital World. Clevedon. Pym, A. (1992). Translation and Text Transfer: an essay on

principles of intercultural communication. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

Pym, A. (2010) Exploring Translation Theories. Routledge. Schwarz, B. (2002). “Translation in a Confined Space”. in:

Translation Journal: http://accurapid.com/journal/. http://hubpages.com/hub/The-Role-of-Bible-Translations-in-

the-Reformation “The translators’ intellingence” [50] in Robinson, D.

BECOMING A TRANSLATOR An Introduction to he Theory and Practice of Translation, 2007, Routledge.

Venuty, L. (2004). The Translation Studies Reader. Second Edition. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

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DATA SOURCES

Brown, D. (2003). The da Vinci Code. New York: Doubleday Brown, D. (2004). Da Vinčio kodas. Kaunas: Jotema Irving, J. (1999). The World According to Garp. Berkshire:

Black Swan Irving, J. (2007). Pasaulis pagal Garpą. Vilnius: Alma Littera AUDIOVISUAL MATERIAL: The Da Vinci Code. 2006.

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