Assignment on Existence of Local Government in Bengal before

British Period, a Historical Analysis Starting from

Vedic Age

Date of Submission: 04 October 2016

Submitted To

Lecturer

Arjuman Naziz

Dept. of Public administration

Jahangirnagar University

Submitted By

Md. Asiful Islam

Roll No: 760

Dept. of Public administration

Jahangirnagar University

Introduction: Local government is a form of public administration which, in a

majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within a given state.

The term is used to contrast with offices at state level, which are referred to as the

central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal

government and also to supranational government which deals with governing

institutions between states. Local governments generally act within powers

delegated to them by legislation or directives of the higher level of government. In

federal states, local government generally comprises the third (or sometimes

fourth) tier of government, whereas in unitary states, local government usually

occupies the second or third tier of government, often with greater powers than

higher-level administrative divisions. Here we will explore the local government

term in Bengal regime from Vedic period till the British colonial period both from

rural and urban perspective.

Types of Local Government in Bangladesh: Two types of local government exist

in Bangladesh. Like, (1) Rural Government & (2) Urban Government.

In ancient societies there were three types of local government. First one was the

only form of government where no central authority existed. The second one was

that where the central government was powerful, local government played a

secondary role and the last one was that where local government competed with

the centre for power and authority. It is assumed that local government was the

basic form of government in the subcontinent till the 6th century B.C. when large

kingdoms came into being and local government started playing second fiddle to

the central authority.

How Local Government Exists in Bengal before British Period, a Historical

Analysis Starting from Vedic Age-

Vedic period (1500 - 1000 B.C.): The original home of the Aryans is a debatable

question and there are several views. Different scholars have identified different

regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic region,

Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the

Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations. However, the

theory of southern Russia appears to be more probable and widely accepted by

historians. From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.

They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as Indo-Aryans.

They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.

In that period the basic unit of political organization was kula or family. Several

families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama.

The leader of grama was known as gramani. A group of villages constituted a

larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati. The highest political unit was

called jana or tribe. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic

period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was

called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the

succession was hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani

or commander of the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies

called the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of elders

and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people, (Ramachandran, 2010)

Again founded that “at the royal consecration, the king's entourage consisted of a

Grdmani, a Suta (charioteer), and a Bhagdugha (collector of taxes).” (Zamora,

1965, p. 263)

So we can summarize religions and moral philosophies arose over the centuries not

only as explanations for our earthly existence, but also as strategies for regulating

the distribution of political power, a strong correlation between religion and power.

Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.) The Aryans further moved towards east in

the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana means the expansion of Aryans

to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned

in the later Vedic literature. One important development during this period is the

growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the

beginning. Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom.

Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of

learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi

and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru.

Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by

scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal

kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India –

Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha

(southern India), (Ramachandran, 2010)

Here we can’t visualize the exact geographical area of Bengal regime but the term

Gangetic plains of east revoke us to think dialectically. A concept of

decentralization, however is foreseen in terms of development.

The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers

like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius and Lao Tse lived and

preached their ideas in this century. In India, the republican institutions were

strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the

orthodox religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most successful

were Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian society was remarkable.

Jainism: This ideology taught human race the three principles of Jainism, also

known as Triratnas (threegems), are: right faith, knowledge and conduct. Right

conduct resulted in not to injure life, lie, steal, acquire property, lead immoral life.

These terms are often settled and reserved by the local government of today’s

system of administration and law, (Directorates of School Education, 2015, p.

39)

Buddhism: The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great

kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi,

Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka,

Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. The Anga matches with the late Bengal territory,

(Directorates of School Education, 2015, p. 40)

Anga: The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan

peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga roughly

corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar and parts of

Bengal.

Anga’s capital Champa, formerly known as Malini, was located on the right bank

of river Ganga, near its junction with river Champa. It was a flourishing city,

referred to as one of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was a

great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant

Suvarnabhumi. Other important cities of Anga were said to

be Assapura and Bhadrika. Bimbisara (558 B.C.E. — 491 B.C.E.) the crown

prince of Magadha, had killed Brahmadatta, the last independent king of Anga, and

seized Champa. Bimbisara made it his headquarters and ruled over it as his father's

Viceroy. Anga then became an integral part of the expanding Magadha,

(Newworldencyclopedia, 2015)

Here, aforementioned area symbolizes the entity of the term Urban, different from

Rural, so cities were formed and shaped on the basis of economy, trade and

communication. Prince as a viceroy of king, independent as a ruler but accountable

to superior authority makes a blur cohesion of today’s local government with

central government.

Maurya Empire (320-180 BC): Village administration during this period, was

closely linked with agriculture. The village size ranged from 100 to 500 families.

Boundaries were demarcated by river, hill, forest, ditches, tanks, bunds, and trees

situated at one or two krosha (1 krosha equals 2 miles) presumably for mutual

protection with neighboring villages." The following officials composed the village

administrative staff: (1) the headman (Adhyaksha), (2) the accountant

(Samkhayaka), (3) village officials of different grades (Sthanikas), (4) the village

couriers (Jamgha karika), and (5) the veterinary doctor t Anikastha), In addition,

the Chikitsaka (in charge of sanitation) and the Ashwa-damak (horse trainer) were

also village officials. All these functionaries were given land free of rent and taxes

but they were 110t allowed to sell or mortgage the land." Vidyalankar cites the

degree of governmental control over the village. He writes that despite

Chandragupta's vast empire and centralized regime, he never interfered much with

the village administration. The village, therefore, remained a self-governed unit

under the Mauryas. A sketch of village life during this period is illuminating.

Every village had its own Sabha (assembly) which debated all matters relating to

the village; rules helpful to the entire community were framed, and the offenders

were punished through regular trials and judgments. The Sabha was the centre of

the multifarious activities of the village. It discussed religious and social matters. It

arranged numerous types of entertainments. The Sabha met under a shady tree ...

Representatives of village families, the elders, and other experienced folk gathered

there. The Indian people lived independently in these self-governing village

republics. Even during the post-Mauryan period known as the II dark period"-200

B.C. to 00 A.D.-the village continued to be the 'smallest unit of administration in

which the headman, assisted by the council of elders, still played a prominent

role," (Zamora, 1965, p. 265)

Provincial and Local Administration

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila,

Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincial governors were mostly appointed

from the members of royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law

and order and collection of taxes for the empire. The district administration was

under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are similar to modern

collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials. Village

administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called

Gopa who was in charge of ten or fifteen villages. Both Kautilya and Megasthanes

provided the system of Municipal administration. Arthasastra contains a full

chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to

maintain law and order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members

each to look after the administration of Pataliputra. These committees looked after:

1. Industries 2. Foreigners 3. Registration of birth and deaths 4. Trade 5.

Manufacture and sale of goods 6. Collection of sales tax, (Directorates of School

Education, 2015, p. 68)

Municipal Administration: Megasthenes in his book gives a detailed account of

the excellent municipal arrangements which prevailed at the imperial capital,

Patalipurta. The affairs of the imperial city were carried by a committee of 30

members. The committee did all that a municipal committee does today. It looks

after the road medical relief, sanitation, water supply, public building and gardens.

Those who violated the municipal rules were severely punished. The committee

was divided by six standing committees or boards of five members each. 1. The

first board is board of labor. It fixed wages, enforced laws for sound materials and

looked after the artisans. It supervised handicrafts also. 2. The second board

protected the interest of foreigners, it looked after their comfort providing their

accommodations. 3. The third board maintained a register of vital statistics. 4. The

forth board supervised trade and commerce. 5. The fifth board of industries

supervised manufactures and sale of commodities. 6. The final board collected

Tithes (a tax of one tenth on all goods sold in the city) (Barber, 1984, p. 123)

It suppose that the municipal administration of the large cities in that time followed

the lines of Pataliputra. There was an officer named Nagaraka equal to a modern

executive officer. From this way we may conclude that urban life in fourth century,

B.C. was very well organized. Thus rural local government was present there

slightly.

Gupta Administration (320 C.E.-550 C.E.)

According inscriptions, the Gupta kings assumed titles like Paramabhattaraka,

Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin. The king was assisted

in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister, a Senapati or

commandeering- chief of the army and other important officials. A high official

called Sandivigraha was mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions, most probably

minister for foreign affairs. The king maintained a close contact with the provincial

administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.

Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as

Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from among the princes. Bhuktis were

subdivided into Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara

Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration. The villages in the

district were under the control of Gramikas. Fahien’s account on the Gupta

administration provides useful information. He characterizes the Gupta

administration as mild and benevolent. There were no restrictions on people’s

movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There was no

state interference in the individual’s life. Punishments were not severe. Imposing a

fine was a common punishment. There was no spy system. The administration was

so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and there was no fear of

thieves. He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were

negligible. Fahien had also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration

as he was able to travel without any fear throughout the Gangetic valley. On the

whole the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas, (Directorates

of School Education, 2015, p. 103)

Bangle regime was in regime was under Chandragupta I and Samundragupta rule

in Magadha and Kalinga according to map.

The village government under the Guptas was, in many respects, .similar to that of

the Maurya period." The village, both in northern and southern India, had the

traditional leaders. The headman and the accountant were still active and, ill

addition, the watchman also helped in the administration. Altekar describes that:

The village administration was in charge of a headman designated as a Grameyaka

or as a Gramadhyaksha. He had a clerk to work under him to keep the records. The

headman was assisted in his work by a non-official council. The village councils

were known as Janapadas in the Gupta administration. The main responsibilities of

the village Council were defense, settlement of communal disputes, collection of

revenues, organization of public works, and acting as a trustee for minors," The

councils in South India especially performed a major role in social affairs, revenue

collection, assessment, public works, wasteland management and settlement of

disputes. On the judicial function, II justice was administered by royal officials

with the help of the, village councilor assembly. In certain cases the assembly

alone sat in judgment and passed sentence." (Zamora, 1965, p. 266)

In summary, the village headman and the accountant, both prominent officials in

the Vedic and Mauryan periods, continued an important part in village

administration during the Gupta period, Although, the village council took various

forms but it retained most of its earlier functions. Therefore we can claim that there

were a strong rural local government rather than urban local government.

Harsha’s Administration (590 C.E. - 647 C.E.)

The administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines as the Guptas did.

Hiuen Tsang gives a detailed picture about this. The king was just in his

administration and punctual in discharging his duties. He made frequent visits of

inspection throughout his dominion. The day was too short for him. Taxation was

also light and forced labor was also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as

land tax. Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period continued in the times of

Harsha. Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials as barbarous and superstitious. Harsha’s

army consisted of the traditional four divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant.

The number of cavalry was more than one lakh and the elephants more than sixty

thousands. This was much more than that of the Mauryan army. The maintenance

of public records was the salient feature of Harsha’s administration. The archive of

the Harsha period was known as Nilopitu and it was under the control of special

officers. Both good and bad events happened during his time had been recorded.

(Directorates of School Education, 2015, p. 103)

Provinces were under viceroys elected from the royal family. Provinces were

consisted of number of divisions and divisions were consisted of number of

districts. The local level government were accountable to the supreme Harsha.

(Barber, 1984, p. 146)

Bengal regime was under Karna Suvarna area in that time. In that time public

record is introduced with privacy by executives. We have the same type of facility

as a citizen today for sure. Local government bodies provide us birth certificate in

modern time, an evolved form of pre-medieval period. Election was present but not

in a fully-fledged criterion of democracy, as viceroys got nomination only from

royal family. The term local government in urban as well as rural were in a

superficial portrait.

Sultanate of Bengal (1205 C.E. - 1576 C.E.): The Bengal Sultanate governed its

territories through a network of administrative centers known as Mint Towns.

These towns hosted a mint which produced the taka. They were district

headquarters and contributed to urbanization. They received migrants from other

parts of the Muslim world, including North India, Central Asia and the Middle

East.

Figure: administrative centers (Wikipedia, 2016)

Local government system in Sultanate in Bengal:

Founded in stone writings, coins and deeds the divisions of administration-

Iklim- Muazzamabad, Mokababad

Arshaha- Shajlamankhabad, Srihot

Town- Laubela, Shimlabad

Thana- Laur, Laubela

Mohol- Hadigar, Jormohor

Khitta- Laukhanti

Kosba- Laukhanti

Administrative units: Hierarchy-

Iklim/Arshaha

Shik

Mohol/Thana/Kosba/Khitta

Village

(Karim, 2007, p. 38)

There was a well-defined administrative structure including both rural and urban

level institution though in modern period these are categorized differently. We can

see that there was a top-down administration approach in that period. Today

military department has nothing to do with civil administration unlike Sultanate

regime.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320C.E.-1414C.E.)

The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his administration. He strictly

followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration. He pleased the

nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus the Iqta system

was not only revived but also it was made hereditary. As per the Islamic law he

levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on non-Muslims. He was the first

Sultan to impose irrigation tax. But at the same time he dug irrigation canals and

wells. The longest canal was about 200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Another

canal was between Yamuna and Hissar. There were about 1200 fruit gardens in

and around Delhi yielding more revenue. The special tax on 28 items was

abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law. He also developed royal

factories called Karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed. About

300 new towns were built during his reign. The famous among them was

Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla. Old monuments

like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired. A new department called

Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and widows. Free hospitals

and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established. Firoz patronized

scholars like Barani and Afif. As he was guided by the ulemas, he was intolerant

towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and

imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was the precursor of Sikandar Lodi and

Aurangazeb. Also he increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated

soldiers and young persons. In his regime the number of slaves had increased to

one lakh eighty thousand. When Firoz died in 1388 the struggle for power between

the Sultan and the nobles started once again. His successors had to face the

rebellion of the slaves created by Firoz, (Directorates of School Education, 2015,

p. 184)

IQTA means a town or a tract comprising some villages. Heterogeneous provinces

were controlled by IQTA, WALI and MUKTI. Wali means bureaucratic governor

as Islam term, (Agha, 1976, p. 537)

IQTA was administered by Mukta, is a military post having civil power too.

Provinces were controlled by central government, (Karim, 2007, p. 20)

We can conclude that in that period towns were existed, a sketch of Urban local

government, accountable to the central government. Grading of citizen were

present in that time on the basis of religion, indeed a negative example of

administration.

Mughal Dynasty (1576 C.E. – 1757 C.E.): When the Mughals came to India in

1526, the country was divided against itself. However, despite the lack of unified

authority, the Mughals found the village administrative set-up in the' country still

vigorous and healthy. The traditional officers, headman, accountant, and

watchman, were active and the village, continued to be the basic unit of

administration and it was little altered by the vicissitudes of Mughal, Mahratta ...

rule. Each village had a number of hereditary native officials. The most important

was the headman, usually referred to as the Patel, who collected the revenue and in

Madras was a petty magistrate and civil judge; the Patwin, or accountant) in charge

of the village accounts) registers of holdings) and records connected with the land

revenues; and the Chowkidar, or watchman, the rural policeman. This feeling is

shared by Majumdan and his associates", Samant's view on the judicial aspect of

the Panchayats is that the village council Muslim rule had the support of the state

because "when Muhammadan interests were involved, the decision of a Panchayat

was enforced by the ruling monarch which is a sufficient proof to show that the

power of the State was always behind the village councils." (Zamora, 1965, p.

267)

It can thus be inferred that the administrative structure as well as the spirit of the

Panchayats remained basically intact from Vedic period through Mauryan and

Gupta periods up to the end of Mughal rule in India. The headman, the accountant,

and the watchman, still carried on their traditional duties. This age long state of

stable village government and time tested village Panchayat was rudely shaken

with the advent of the British dominance of India, a period now to be explored.

Historians reckon the beginning of medieval period with the establishment of

Turko-Afghan rule in Bengal from the early 13th century. It is believed by many,

but disputed by others, that administration of villages in medieval times was left to

the Panchayets. Each village had its own council or Panchayet. It appointed or

elected its own headman who served as a link between the village and the

government. The headman collected revenue from the cultivators and forwarded

the same to the treasury. He was answerable for delays in revenue collection. A

Patwari or village accountant working under the supervision of the headman used

to keep records of crops and revenue. The Panchayets were generally entrusted

with the task of looking after education, irrigation, religious practices and moral

conduct of the villagers. Holding fairs and festivals, maintenance of law and order

were also their functions. It seems that revenue collection became more organized

during the Mughal period and local administration was more geared up to that end.

Thus, during the Mughal rule, Sarkar/Chakla and Pargana emerged as the focal

point of revenue and general administration. Secondly, during the medieval period,

there is no evidence of local consultation through the council system; it was quite

simply a top-down administration consisting of the extension of central authority

into the local areas. These two characteristics are likely to have undermined the

authority of whatever self-government was prevailing at the village level. During

the medieval period, particularly under the Mughals, the town gained importance

in Bengal. The Mughals were essentially an urban people, and their most

remarkable contribution in respect of local government was in the urban areas. The

office of Kotwal was developed as the cornerstone of the municipal organization

during this period. Appointed under a Sanad of the Emperor, the Kotwal was a

person of high status; law and order was his first responsibility, and he used to

maintain a body of horses, city guards and a group of spies. Almost every sphere of

city life was under his responsibility.

Conclusion: Man who lives in a world of peril is compelled to seek for safety. The

way most familiar to us is the control of nature. We build houses, weave garments,

make flame and electricity, our friends instead of our enemies and develop the

complicated art of social living. This is the method of changing the world through

action. Yet there is another method, the method of changing the self in emotion

and idea because it is too difficult to change the world. These words are from

several scholars what they delivered theoretically as explanation. There is a

discrepancy between theory and practice. Therefore, it is not certain what we have

got from aforementioned discussion.

References:

[1]. Directorates of School Education (2015) HISTORY Higher Secondary - First

Year. 9th Ed, College Road, Chennai-600 006, Tamilnadu Textbook and

Educational Services Corporation

[2]. Barber, E. (1984) The Instant Encyclopedia of the History of India, New Delhi,

Deep and Deep Publications.

[3]. Agha, M.H. (1976) Tughlaq Dynasty, New Delhi, S. Chand & Co. (pvt) Ltd.

[4]. Karim, M.A. (2007) Banglar Proshashon Bebosthar Itihash, Dhaka,

Shuchipatra Publications

[5]. Zamora, M.D. (1965) A HISTORICAL SUMMARY OF INDIAN

VILLAGE AUTONOMY. Asian Studies [Online] Available from:

asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-02-1965/Zamora.pdf.

[Accessed: 28th September 2016].

[6]. Ramachandran (2010) INDIAN ADMINISTRATION IN VEDIC PERIOD.

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ADMINISTRATION-IN-VEDIC-PERIOD.

[Accessed: 28th September 2016].

[7]. Wikipedia, [Online] Available from:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bengal

[Accessed: 28th September 2016].

[8]. Newworldencuclopedia, [Online] Available from:

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