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Living on the Edge

An Appraisal of Livelihoods in Rural Jharkhand

Undertaken by

31 Civil Society Organizations in Jharkhand implementing the

Poorest Area Civil Society Programme

July – September 2005

With design, training and synthesis support from

Praxis – Institute for Participatory Practices

An Appraisal of Livelihoods in Rural Jharkahnd

Facilitated by Praxis- Institute for Participatory Practices for PACS Programme 2

Acknowledgements This is to place on record our sincere thanks to the following whose contribution went a long way in making the Appraisal of Livelihood across the 18 districts and 65 locations of Jharkhand a successful experience. We are grateful to PACS Programme for entrusting PRAXIS with the task of carrying out the appraisal of livelihoods in rural Jharkhand. We are particularly thankful to Mr Sharad Tiwari, State Manager, PACS Programme for his support in all stages of the study. Our sincere thanks are also due to Ms. Kiran Sharma, Programme Manager, PACS Programme and members of Jharkhand Progamme Support Team. We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the various government officials, and representatives from various civil society bodies, inter alia, for their invaluable inputs and time given to enrich the study. The Study would not have achieved its objectives without the active support received from various partner CSOs of the state and their staff members, who directly or indirectly were engaged in the assessment. We are also thankful to all the participants of the various workshops held in the course of the study for their enthusiastic responses to the assessment outcomes and for their commitment to take forward the process. Our sincere thanks are also due to the heads of CSOs participated in the planning meeting for their valuable suggestions in formalizing the design of the assessment. Any omission of names of people who contributed to make the study a memorable experience is inadvertent. We thank all the CSO functionaries, the support staff and field researchers for contributing to the highly eventful and enriching experience. Last, but not the least, we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to the poor people based in various locations in all the 82 locations, who gave us their invaluable time despite being subject to extremely difficult situations. Shailesh K Singh PRAXIS



List of Study Team Members Study Coordinator Shailesh Kumar Singh Core Consultants from PRAXIS Anindo Banerjee, Anurag Sinha, Amrendra Kumar Pandey, Jay Kumar Verma, Md. Kalam Khan, Sushil Kumar Singh, Ranjit Jha. Field Researchers from Partner CSOs Binod Thakur, Gopal Pd, Suleman, Neetu Singh, Shailee Karketa, Sangita Topo, Minee Kuru, Rakesh Kumar, Ratnesh Kr, Ranjay Ram, Shyam Biharee, Shankar Kr, Jayshankar Paswan, Rajendra Ram, Emanu bel Kujur, Mangal Uraon, Baldev Uraon, Jyotee Kujur, Manmasih, Meena, Rekha, Rashid, Amresh, Robert Sureen, Hardugan Topno, Mahendra Kr, Binod Kr, Pyaree Mundoo, Sangeeta Tapo, Rakesh, Harihar, Mundu, Manjula, Bhuwan, Sushil, Murlidhar, Nandkishore, Binod, Rajan Kr, Manoj Kr, Gautam Kr, Manoj Mandal, Neeraj Kr, Ramjeevan Kr, Amit Sahay, Kamlinee, Rekha, Saroj, KushYadav, Kali K.Ghose, Laljit Das, Saibal Paul, Smritee Ghose, Raj K.Singh, Umesh Kr, Sanga Bhuiya, LalanSingh, Mahendra Ravidas, Tileshwar Singh, Rajendra Yadav, Rajesh Jhandu, Bisheshwar Gope, Jago Mahtoo, Phulchand Gope, Kishore Kulu, Mukund Ram, Brajraj das, Vijay Kr, Chhatradharee Pd.Mehta, Dinesh Mahto, Mithun Dhara, Swaraswati Singh, Maitree Ghose, Prakash, Dilip Kr, Magal Mundu, Karam Mundu, Keoli Mundu, Mariyam Mundu, Shankar Ravi Das, Singhrai Gope, Shivcharan Banra, Manki Banra, Janardan Prasad, Rameshwar Marandi, Sumit Kr, Babu Ram Murmu, Urmeela, S.Bishwanathan



Executive Summary Chapter 1; Background of the Participatory Livelihood Assessment in Jharkhand A participatory assessment of livelihood alternatives of the poor in Jharkhand was undertaken by a collective of 31 civil society organizations (CSOs, henceforth) operating in Jharkhand under the aegis of the ‘Poorest Area Civil Society Programme’. The large scale exercise, undertaken across 18 of the 21 districts of Jharkhand was facilitated by Praxis – Institute for Participatory Practices, through provision of design, capacity building and synthesis support. Methodology for the assessment The methodology for the assessment was primarily geared upon a set of complementary participatory tools, each design to yield insights relating to different aspects of the livelihoods under study. Site selection The assessment was carried out across as many as 65 sites purposively selected out of 18 districts. Selection of sites was based on the objective of maximizing variance within the sample in terms of predominant characteristics of the locations covered under the assessment. In the process of selection of sites, attempts were made to pro-actively reach out to as many socials groups as possible, and locations with varying degrees of habitation of as many as 63 different social groups were included in the assessment Chapter 2; Jharkhand State: A Profile

Jharkhand, the 28th state of India, was carved out of the southern part of Bihar state on 15 November 2000. Jharkhand is known for its mineral wealth and forestry products together with excellent human resources. Jharhkand is bordered by the states of Bihar to the north, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh the west, Orissa to the south, and West Bengal to the east. The state was formed with 18 districts, which were formerly part of Bihar. Some of these districts were reorganized to form 4 new districts, namely, Latehar, Saraikela Kharsawan, Jamtara and Sahebgunj. Presently, the state has 22 districts.

Jharkhand has a population of 26.90 million, consisting of 13.86 million males and 13.04 million females. The sex ratio is 941 females to 1000 males. The population consists of 28% tribals, 12% Scheduled Castes and 60% others. There are 274 persons for each square kilometer of land. However, the population density varies considerably from as low as 148 per square kilometer in Gumla district to as high as 1167 per square kilometer in Dhanbad district.

Although blessed with rich natural resources, mainly minerals and forests, 80% of Jharkhand’s population, residing in 32,620 villages, survives on agriculture and allied activities. Around 23.22 lakh families in the rural areas live below the poverty line, of which 3.91 lakh belong to scheduled castes and 8.79 lakh to scheduled tribes.



Poverty in Jharkhand is influenced by poor physical infrastructure, particularly poor quality of roads and low concentration of health infrastructure, frequent droughts, and the adverse topography of the region, alarming trends of degradation of natural resources, poor markets for forest produces and a relatively underdeveloped agriculture affected by limited irrigation facilities. Chapter 3; Well being and Livelihoods It was well evident during the assessment that the pattern of dependence on alternative livelihood varied across different well being categories, and the combinations of livelihoods seemed wider and more diverse in the lower well-being categories. It came out very clearly from the study that the primary source of livelihood for people in the lower categories of well-being is wage labour, on account of high degrees of landlessness and limited ownership of alternative productive resources. People in these categories depend on a variety of choices, often complementing each other in terms of income flows and periods of dependence. The lowest category of well being, comprising primarily of people with limited mobility, including the elderly, people with disabilities and women with restricted mobility, depend more on options that can be availed of within the village or without being required to cross the household boundaries. Many of such households were commonly found to rear small ruminants (e.g. pigs) and birds. Chapter 4; Agriculture: the mainstay of livelihoods in Jharkhand Agriculture – the mainstay of livelihoods of the poor in Jharkhand, is characterized by high dependence on Monsoons, significant variations in cropping choices across various well being categories and innovative strategies of risk minimization employed by farmers from the poorest categories in particular (including sharecropping and crop-diversification). It is well evident that only the better off farmers in the state are able to take a second crop (usually wheat or vegetables) aided by their ability to invest in irrigation. Marginal and smaller farmers are compelled to diversify their cropping choices in order to preempt the ill effect of recurrent droughts (particularly in the western districts of the state). Many of the smaller farmers are found to grow pulses like Urad and Arhar under rainfed conditions, besides traditional varieties of cereals like Gondhali and Marua, which promise an assured return even in years of low rainfall and cost less in terms of requirements of labour and farm inputs. Some of the poor farmers are also seen to grow vegetables, though limited to only low-cost options like saag and pumpkin. A typical small farmer in the state with fragmented holdings would prefer to allocate different tracts for cultivating as many as eight different crops at the onset of Monsoons, some seen as risk minimization choices in the probable wake of a drought. Chapter 5; Livestock: an insurance against crisis Most of the families though rear livestock, it is seen mainly as a supplementary occupation to agriculture and also a fall back mechanism particularly for the poorest of the poor. The quantum of livestock however, varies according to the economic status of the families. The



number of families engaged in livestock rearing has increased over last decade but this increase is due to increase in the number of households in the villages. In fact, the number of livestock per family has decreased especially the cattle. There is no significant change in keeping practices of the livestock. Still people are keeping livestock either by providing place in their own house (mainly tribal families) or by constructing separate shed (other communities) within the homestead land. These practices are as same it was in the last decades. Even earlier selling of cattle was not very common because rearing cattle is like a custom and it is not seen as an occupation. But over the years the thinking has changed. Now-a-days livestock rearing is seen as an asset, which fetches money at the time of emergencies (particularly small ruminants and poultry birds) and in some places, also as additional income. It is mostly soled in the local market especially for livestock, to the cattle traders. Other cattle products like milk, eggs are usually soled to the nearby restraints. It was observed that small ruminant and birds are the most preferred among the various livestock. Even within small ruminants, goats are the most preferred followed by pig. Chicken is the third priority. The basic reason for selecting goats and pigs is that there is no need of stall feeding for them and also availability of land for grazing. Chapter 6; Forests: the lifeline of Poor in Jharkhand

Forests in Jharkhand extend over 23605 sq.km. representing 29.61 % of the total geographical area of the State of which 82 % are Protected Forest and 17.5 % are Reserve Forest with a small amount of unclassed forests (33.49 sq.km. ). Dependence on forest produces is an important source of livelihood for a large number of poor families in the state, and the pattern of dependence shown great variation across different regions of the state. This section of the report focuses on describing the crucial role of forests in the lives of the poorest, and seeks to underpin key policy implications towards optimizing the same.

There are many ways in which forests contribute to the economy of poor households in Jharkhand. Collection and sale of forest produces provide significant livelihood opportunities to the rural poor (for example, through collection and sale of tendu leaves, which are value-added and resold as bidis); require very little capital or any special skills like literacy; sales are possible in retail as well as in bulk; stored forest produces provide insurance against difficult periods to poor families; besides coming in handy for a number of other reasons, e.g. consumption as fruits, flowers, leaves, timber, oil for treatment, manure, fuel etc. In addition to declining availability of forest produces, various other difficulties were recounted by the poor with regard to accessibility of forest produces. The cessation of operations of forest department relating to procurement of MFPs drew flak from the poor across a large number of districts, which was believed to have resulted in heavy dependence on middlemen. This was stated to be responsible for suppression of prices, and delayed payments. Some of poor communities consulted in the eastern districts of Jharkhand lamented how they often have to settle for returns that fall short of the opportunity cost of the number of days spent in gathering forest produces. Prices of forest produces were recalled to be fluctuating drastically, often forcing the villagers to sell their produces at sub-optimal rates.



Chapter 7: Dependence on wage labour Jharkhand being a Monsoon-dependent state for agriculture, most villages of the state take only a single crop, and the whole of the early part of the year extending up to the onset of rains constitutes a lean period for a large number of agricultural labourers. The migrants are subjected to survive on extremely basic conditions under threats of violence, starvation and health hazards. The phenomenon of migration in the state of Jharkhand broadly follows four different patterns, i.e.

• Rural to urban migration of skilled as well as unskilled labourers from villages in districts like Palamau, Lohardagga and Latehar to towns in Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, primarily to work in brick-kilns and construction sites under supervision of contractors.

• Rural to urban migration to urban centres within Jharkhand; found common in villages

of West Singhbhum, Ranchi, Saraikela Kharsawa and Jashpur.

• Migration to towns in north India, mainly to livelihood sites and towns in the northeastern states, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.

• No migration at all, or migration confined to nearby places only, e.g. in villages in

Godda and Pakud districts. The duration of outstation stay also varies from place to place. The commonest length of outstation stay ranges between the months of Aghan (starts mid-November) and Jeth (starts mid-May) corresponding to the lean months of agriculture in places where only a single, kharif crop is cultivated in a year. Another kind of migration spans the whole of the year except the months of plowing and harvesting (i.e. Ashad and Kartik). Another kind of migration is an occasional act undertaken in response to sudden crises and periods of prolonged food scarcity. In addition, there are permanent migrants who visit their native villages only during festivals like Navratri and Diwali. Chapter 8: Adherence to Artisanship With the advent of modern technologies producing the consumer goods in bulk, the preference for this sector is gradually diminishing although the number of families engaged in this sector has increased. This increase is mainly due the extension of the families and not because of new families entering into the profession. The other interesting fact revealed during the study was that none of the families engaged in these livelihood are totally dependant on it. It is supplemented by agriculture, agriculture labour, wage labour etc. during the lean season depending on their skill and assets owned (Fig..). It is also due to the fact that all such livelihood options do have lean season, when they



have to suspend their work either because of non availability of raw materials or due to lack of facilities like work-place, storage and market linkages. Abiding by the tradition has come out as a major reason to stick to the artisanship. As it becomes a household industry the children by default learn the art at a very young age and pursue it further as their profession. Lack of any other option of livelihood and their own inability to undertake any other option forces them to continue the same. In some of the locations particularly in Lohardaga, where NGOs have been instrumental in the extension of government schemes have benefited the handloom operators. The support is being provided to them in terms of training, modern designs, working capital and marketing linkages. Chapter 9; Suggested Ways Forward During the course of the study several suggestions were voiced by the people involved in different means of livelihood. Some common suggestions from all the study zones are as under; Agriculture & Horticulture

• Improved irrigation facilities- Lift irrigation, Improving perennial water sources,

Deepening of old ponds and Improved outlet system of ponds

• Capacity building for improved agriculture practices

• Accessibility to loan facilities

• Cold storage facilities

• Promotion of organic farming, Vermicompost, FYM

• Treatment of traditional seed

• Formation of Kisan Samiti and Cooperatives

• Provisioning of regular supply of electricity

• Promotion of multiple cropping

• Promotion of cash crop

• Technology for rain fed agriculture

• Safety measures for crop protection

• Information on area specific crop production

• Crop insurance – during diseases infection /drought

• Formation of block level MahaSangh Forest Related

• Encouraging traditional system of protection

• Mahua tree should be free from contractors

• Promotion of Cooperatives for better marketing

• Training on process and packaging for different types of produces

• Building storage facilities



• Control of villagers on forest produces

• Promotion of forest based cottage industries

• Capital support for wholesale marketing

• Promotion of Van Suraksha Samities with support from Gram Sabha

• Establish coordination between Van Suraksha Samiti , Gram Sabha and Forest Dept

• Plantation programmes

• Ensure fair prices for NTFP by opening separate purchasing centres

Animal Husbandry

• Promotion of piggery and proper training

• Capital support

• Marketing support

• Fodder availability

• Promotion for commercialization

• Introduction of technologies for improved animal husbandry practices

• Improved veterinary services

• Breed improvement

• Training for taking care of livestock

• Provision of cattle shed

• Promotion Artificial Insemination

Non farm Activities

• Modernization of traditional business

• Training

• Capital support

• Promotion of bamboo cultivation on large scale

• Marketing strategy to be developed

• Managing balance between cost of production and sale price Wage Labour

• More employment opportunities in the village

• Fixation and effective implementation of minimum wage for different types of wage

• Organizing/Associating unorganized sector and its registration

• Encouragement to professional education

• Fixation of working hours

• Safety and security at the working site



• Transportation facilities The communities expect greater commitment on the part of the government to:

• Address the problem of recurrent drought, depleting forest cover and generating employment opportunities in the state

• Improve Agriculture extension services and ensure availability of Institutional credit

• Ensure rights over non timber forest produces

• Design government schemes as per the local context.

• Ensure hassle free and easier access to basic services and social security schemes.



Table of Contents Acknowledgements

List of Study Team Members

Executive Summary

Table of Contents

List of Box Items and Diagrams

Annexure

Chapters Themes Page No.

1. Background of the Study 13

2. Jharkhand State: A Profile 18

3. Well being and Livelihoods 22

4. Agriculture: the mainstay of livelihoods in Jharkhand 25

5. Livestock: an insurance against crisis 31

6. Forests: the lifeline of Poor in Jharkhand 38

7. Dependence on wage labour 43

8. Rural Artisan in Jharkhand: On the verge of extinction 47

9. Suggested Ways Forward 50



List of Box items, Diagrams and Tables Box items Page no.1.1 CSOs participating in the assessment 13 1.2 Scope of the livelihood study 14 1.3 Districts included in the livelihood assessment 16 1.4 Distribution of districts in zones 17 3.1 Livelihood combinations across well-being categories 22 3.2 Seasonal variations in Livelihood 23 3.3 Analysis of correspondence between well-being and livelihoods 23 3.4 An indicative list of well-being indicators 24 4.1 Summary of cropping choices across different well-being categories 25 4.2 Seasonal price variations 25 4.3 Share cropping: a ready reckoner 26 4.4 Food availability for the family 30 5.1 Responsibility of rearing 32 5.2 Preference among livestock 33 5.3 Castewise livestock rearing 34 5.4 Castewise purpose of rearing of livestock 35 5.5 Price variation of livestock 36 5.6 Encouraging and discouraging factors of livestock rearing 37 6.1 Trend change in availability of the forest produces 38 6.2 Workload of members of family in collecting forest produces 39 6.3 Castewise work division among male and female 40 6.4 Availability of forest produces 41 6.5 Income from forest produces 42 7.1 Typology of livelihood choices of migrant labourers 44 8.1 Seasonality of artisan work 47 8.2 Enabling & Restricting factors for artisans 48 9.1 Suggested ways forward- agriculture 50 9.2 Suggested ways forward- horticulture 51 9.3 Opportunities in forestry 52 9.4 Suggested ways forward- livestock rearing 53 9.5 Promotion of livestock- suggestions from community 53 9.6 Suggested ways forward- non farm activities 54



Chapter 1

Background of the study

A participatory assessment of livelihood alternatives of the poor in Jharkhand was undertaken by a collective of 31 civil society organizations (CSOs, henceforth) operating in Jharkhand under the aegis of the ‘Poorest Area Civil Society Programme’. The large scale exercise, undertaken across 18 of the 21 districts of Jharkhand was facilitated by Praxis – Institute for Participatory Practices, through provision of design, capacity building and synthesis support.

The stimulus for undertaking an assessment of the aforesaid nature came from a group of prominent civil society organizations in Jharkhand (ref. Table-1.1), who wished to complement their ongoing development initiatives with livelihood-focused interventions in order to improve the bargaining power of the poorest, promote self-sufficiency amongst them and to enhance the impact of the PACS programme in the poor state. The assessment was conceptualized during a meeting of CSOs in Jharkhand who wished to create a database of diverse livelihood practices in the state, as well as challenges and prospects pertaining to the same. It was also felt that the study would bring about a learning opportunity for CSO staff, relating to cautionary concerns relating to livelihood support interventions. Table 1.1: Civil Society Organizations participating in the assessment

1. Adarsh Sewa Sansthan 2. Adivasi Sikshan Sansthan 3. Badlao Foundation 4. Chetna Vikas 5. CCDS 6. Gramoday Chetna Kendra 7. IDF 8. IDAS 9. Jan Lok Kalyan Parishad 10. Jan Sewa Parishad 11. Judav 12. Jago Foundation 13. JUS 14. KSRA 15. KBET

16. Lok Jagriti Kendra 17. Prayas 18. LGSS 19. Lok Prerna 20. Manvi 21. Nav Bharat Jagriti Kendra 22. Prerna Niketan 23. Pragati Luiyadih 24. RAISE 25. Sampurna Gram Vikas Kendra 26. Shramjivi Mahila Samiti 27. SLADS 28. SRKSM 29. SSS 30. SPAR 31. VSSS

Praxis – Institute for Participatory Practices, a Resource Organisation associated with the PACS programme in Jharkhand, was entrusted with the responsibility of coordinating the assessment.

The key objective underlying the assessment was to understand key drivers underlying livelihood choices of the poor, and to profile various common livelihoods in terms of their



relative suitability for the poor living in diverse settings. The following variables relating to livelihoods in Jharkhand were examined in the course of the assessment:

• Feasibility for various well-being categories • Seasonality of availability and returns • Changes in livelihood choices over time • Complementarity of livelihoods • Competition • Risks, instances of exploitation and occupational hazards • Investment requirements and other entry barriers • Socio-cultural implications and gender issues • Policy issues

Table 1.2 details out the scope of the livelihood study, in terms of key design parameters explored across selected sites. Table 1.2 Scope of the livelihood study Parameters Scope

Background Information about location of assessment

Name of the village / locality Panchayat / ward/ Block District, Rationale for selection of location, Distances, Demographic composition, Livelihood profile, Key physical infrastructure present in the location

Geophysical features Availability, types, expanse, distance from centre of location, adequacy, control & management, significance in people’s lives, specific problems pertaining to: Forests, Water-bodies, Mines & quarries, Agricultural land, Grazing land, Groundwater and any other significant natural resources

Livelihoods & production systems

Analysis of livelihoods to understand, Seasonality, entry barriers, hazards, adequacy of returns etc. Production systems: Terms of leasing-in land, and related issues, Terms of payment in lieu of agricultural labour, and related issues

Well-being Local perception of well-being, Trends in change in well-being over the last generation Local factors that were responsible for pushing more people into poverty (or drawing them out of poverty), during the last few decades, Assets and liabilities of the poor, Coping mechanisms against starvation, penury, Availability of institutional services

Access to institutional services

Key issues and available options relating to poor people’s access to the following basic/institutional services:Credit, Security and justice, Employment on public works, Availing of various schemes of the government, Availing of specific departmental / institutional services

Key changes over time Details of change over the last few decades and key factors for change in Cropping pattern, Livelihood pattern, Forest density & vegetation, Education, Health care (including reproductive health care); Coping mechanisms against starvation, penury, Availability of institutional services

Problems, issues and priorities

Details of Key problems, Specific details of manifestations, Specific communities facing the problem, solution according to people, The problems relating to livelihoods.

Methodology for the assessment The methodology for the assessment was primarily geared upon a set of complementary participatory tools, each design to yield insights relating to different aspects of the livelihoods under study. The key methods forming part of the assessment design are the following: Location Mapping, to identify the incidence and prevalence of different poverty-indicating phenomena in different localities of the poor



Resource mapping, to identify the availability of resources, both man-made and natural, to the various sections of the population across, caste, class and gender. Mobility Map, to determine access to different livelihood resources by different sections of the community, in terms of distance, convenience, frequency etc. Historical Transect, primarily to determine the growth and evolution of various livelihood practices. Seasonality Diagrams, to determine changes in livelihood conditions, problems and entitlements of the poor across different periods in a year Daily Activity Schedules, to understand and analyze the drudgery and hardships faced by different kinds of poor in their livelihood earning. Matrix Ranking, Scoring and Analysis, to assess various objects of relevance, e.g. livelihood options, occupational choices, institutions etc. in relative as well as absolute terms, for ascertaining their role in people’s lives Force Field Analysis, to determine the relative merits of opposite perspectives, behaviour or decision-options that impinge upon the quality of life of the poor, e.g. analysis of perceived advantages of participating in a self help group with respect to the perceived gains of opting out. Venn Diagram and Mapping, to compare various objects of relevance (e.g. institutions, occupations etc.) with respect to each other in a step-by-step manner, using multiple criteria Evaluation Wheels / Cobweb Diagrams, to evaluate the status / performance of an object on different yardsticks, e.g. evaluation of an institution on multiple criteria like perceived importance, transparency, accessibility, integrity etc. In addition, the methodology for the assessment was inclusive of review of relevant secondary information including census reports, government reports and other relevant documents prepared by government agencies and NGOs. The methodology also included conventional methods like semi-structured consultations, one-to-one interviews, case studies and FGDs. Site selection The assessment was carried out across as many as 82 sites purposively selected out of 18 districts (ref. Diagram 1). Selection of sites was based on the objective of maximizing variance within the sample in terms of predominant characteristics of the locations covered under the assessment.



Diagram 1.3: Districts included in the livelihood assessment

Key criteria that were employed to select locations for the assessment included the following:

• Demographic composition of the location (in terms of relative proportion of social groups of interests, e.g. scheduled and primitive tribes, schedules castes, key occupation groups)

• Distance from district headquarters

• Concentration of natural resources (forests, mines etc.)

• Representation of different geo-physical and agro-climatic regions

• Purposively identified locations to study specific livelihoods, e.g. locations inhabited by

artisans

• Availability of CSOs in vicinity of the locations to follow-up the outcomes of the assessment at the local level

For the convenience of the study the selected districts were divided into five zones. Table 1.4 shows the distribution of districts in zones

Districts in Jharkhand where the assessment was undertaken



Table 1.4 Distribution of Districts in Zones

Zones Districts

Z1 West Singhbhum and Saraikela – Kharsawan

Z2 Ranchi, Lohardaga, Simdega and Gumla

Z3 Hazaribagh and Giridih

Z4 Latehar, Chatra, Palamau and Garhwa

Z5 Godda, Dumka, Pakur, Jamtara, Deoghar and Sahebganj

In the process of selection of sites, attempts were made to pro-actively reach out to as many socials groups as possible, and locations with varying degrees of habitation of as many as 63 different social groups were included in the assessment. Key social groups covered under the assessment included: Amongst Scheduled Tribes (STs) Bhumij, Birhore, Chick-Badaik, Ho, Kanwar, Kol, Kherwar, Kharia, Lohra, Mahali,Munda, Mal Paharia, Nagesia, Oraon, Pradhan, Santhal. Amongst Scheduled Castes (SCs) Bhuinya, Dom, Dhobi, Ganjhu, Ghasi, Kalandi, Kewat, Mirdha, Paswan, Pasi, Ravidas, Turi. Amongst Other Backward Castes (OBCs) Ansari, Agardiha, Bania, Badhi, Ghatwal, Halwai, Kadar,Kahar, Kasera,Khetauri Koiri,Kumhar, Kunjra, Kurmi, , Lohar, Mahkur, Mahuri, Nai, Rawatia, Rawat, Sukhiyar, Sonar, Surdhi, Teli, Tati, Tamboli, Yadav. Amongst General Castes Brahmin, Bhumihar, Biyar, Kayastha, Pathan, Rajput, Saiyad, Sheikh. ***



Chapter -2 Jharkhand State: A Profile

Jharkhand, the 28th state of India, was carved out of the southern part of Bihar state on 15 November 2000.

Jharhkand is bordered by the states of Bihar to the north, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh the west, Orissa to the south, and West Bengal to the east. The industrial city of Ranchi is its capital. The other major cities, all highly industrialised cities of eastern India, are Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Giridih, and Dhanbad.

Jharkhand is known for its mineral wealth and forestry products together with excellent human resources.

Administrative districts

The state was formed with 18 districts, which were formerly part of Bihar. Some of these districts were reorganized to form 4 new districts, namely, Latehar, Saraikela Kharsawan, Jamtara and Sahebgunj. Presently, the state has 22 districts.

Districts of Jharkhand:

Ranchi Lohardaga Gumla district Simdega Palamu Latehar Garhwa West Singhbhum Seraikela Kharsawan East Singhbhum Dumka Jamtara Sahebganj Pakur Godda Hazaribagh Chatra Koderma Giridih Dhanbad Bokaro Deoghar

Geography and climate

Most of the state lies on the Chota Nagpur Plateau, which is the source of the Koel River, Damodar River, Brahmani River, Kharkai River, and Subarnarekha River rivers, whose upper watersheds lie within Jharkhand. Much of the state is still covered by forest. Forest preserves support populations of tigers and Indian elephants.

Soil classification content of Jharkhand state mainly consist of soil formed from disintegration of rocks and stones, and soil composition is further divided into: Red soil, found mostly in the Damodar valley, and Rajmahal area; Micacious soil (containing particles of mica) found in Koderma, Jhumeritilaiya, Barkagaon, and areas around the Mandar hill; Sandy soil, generally

Population 21843911 ST 28% of total 12% of total Per capita Income Rs. 4161 Density of Population 274 pers/ Sq. KM No. of Districts 18 + 4 No. of Sub divisions 33 No. of Blocks 211 No. of Villages 32620 No. of Villages Electrified 14667 45 % of total No. of Villages connected by roads 8484 Total Geographical Area 79.70 Lakh Hect Cultivable Land 38.00 Lakh Hect Net Sown Area 18.04 Lakh Hect 25% of total area Net Irrigated Area 01.57 Lakh Hect 8% of net sown area Forest 29% of total area



found in Hazaribagh and Dhanbad; Black soil, found in Rajmahal area; Laterite soil, found in western part of Ranchi, Palamu, and parts of Santhal Parganas and Singhbhum

Demographics

Jharkhand has a population of 26.90 million, consisting of 13.86 million males and 13.04 million females. The sex ratio is 941 females to 1000 males. The population consists of 28% tribals, 12% Scheduled Castes and 60% others. There are 274 persons for each square kilometer of land. However, the population density varies considerably from as low as 148 per square kilometer in Gumla district to as high as 1167 per square kilometer in Dhanbad district.

More than one-fifth of the state population (22.3 percent) lives in urban areas, indicating that Jharkhand has a higher degree of urbanization than Bihar (10.5 percent) but a lower level of urbanization than the all-India average of 27.8 percent. As per the provisional population totals of the 2001 Census, the state has five cities with a population of 100,000 and above (Director of Census Operations, Jharkhand, 2001b).

Jharkhand has remained a home to a number of tribal communities since time immemorial. Some of the districts have a predominant tribal population. Jharkhand has 32 primitive tribal groups.These are Asur, Baiga, Banjara, Bathudi, Bedia, Binjhia, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Chick-Baraik, Gond, Gorait, Ho, Karmali, Kharwar, Khond, Kisan, Kora, Korwa, Lohra, Mahli, Mal-Paharia, Munda, Oraon, Parhaiya, Santal, Sauria-Paharia, Savar, Bhumij, Kol and Kanwar.

The geographical area now comprising Jharkhand was previously part of Bihar. The area has witnessed migration of people from the adjoining areas of Bihar and West Bengal for last several decades. Industrial and mining centres like Jamshedpur, Dhanbad and Ranchi have attracted people from all parts of India.

Hinduism, Islam and Christianity are the three religions that came in through the colonisers. The Tribal communities of Jharkhand have their own spiritual beliefs commonly called Sarna. During the process colonisation the tribal religious beliefs were considered pagan and this was a tool for further subordination. Today the tribal people are realizing this and now Sarna is a growing phenomena.

Economy

Jharkhand is a rich state of poor people. It has concentration of some of country’s highly industrialized cities like Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Dhanbad, and has several firsts in India, including first Iron & steel factory at Jamshedpur, largest fertilizer factory of its time in India (since shut down) at Sindri, biggest explosives factory at Gomia and first methane gas well. On the other hand, it has several towns and innumerable villages with sub-standard civic amenities. Urbanization ratio is only 22.25% and the per capita annual income is US$ 90 only.

Although blessed with rich natural resources, mainly minerals and forests, 80% of Jharkhand’s population, residing in 32,620 villages, survives on agriculture and allied activities. Around



23.22 lakh families in the rural areas live below the poverty line, of which 3.91 lakh belong to scheduled castes and 8.79 lakh to scheduled tribes.

Jharkhand also has immense mineral resources: minerals ranging from (ranking in the country within bracket) from iron ore (1st), coal (3rd), copper ore (1st), mica (1st), bauxite (3rd), Manganese, lime stone, china clay, fire clay, graphite (8th), kainite (1st), chromite (2nd), asbestos (1st), thorium (3rd), yemenite (2nd), sillimanite, uranium (Jaduguda mines, Narwa Pahar) (1st) and even gold (Rakha mines) (6th) and silver and several other minerals. Large deposits of coal and iron ore support concentration of industry, in centers like Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Ranchi.

Health According to the NFHS-2 survey, 80 percent of the population of Jharkhand lives in rural areas. The age distribution is typical of high fertility populations that have recently experienced some fertility decline, with a slightly lower proportion of the population in the 0–4 age group than in the 5–9 age group and declining proportions thereafter. Forty percent of the population is below age 15, and only 3 percent is age 65 and above. The sex ratio is 947 females for every 1,000 males in rural areas but only 904 females for every 1,000 males in urban areas, suggesting that more men than women have migrated to urban areas. The sex ratio for the total population (938) is close to the sex ratio of the state population as per the 2001 Census (934). The survey provides a variety of demographic and socioeconomic background information. In the state as a whole, 83 percent of household heads are Hindu, 11 percent are Muslim, and 4 percent are Christian. Muslims are more concentrated in urban areas, where they comprise 21 percent of household heads. Fifteen percent of household heads belong to scheduled castes, 32 percent belong to scheduled tribes, and 39 percent belong to other backward classes (OBCs). Fifteen percent of household heads do not belong to any of these groups.

On account of salubrious climate, Jharkhand, particularly its capital Ranchi, has been like a health resort. As far back as 1918, facilities were set up for treatment of mentally challenged – Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi.

In certain areas of Jharkhand, poverty and consequently under nutrition, has given rise to diseases like tuberculosis (TB). In fact, TB has assumed epidemic proportions in certain areas of the state. For management and treatment of such diseases, organizations like Ramakrishna Mission through Ramakrishna Mission Tuberculosis Sanatorium (set up in 1948), Ranchi, has been doing exemplary work, and supplementing the efforts of the Government and other agencies. Likewise, in the field of treatment of cancer, Tata Memorial Hospital, Jamshedpur is rendering pioneering work.

Although several public and private health facilities are available in the state, overall infrastructure for dispensing health related services require improvements.

Education The literacy rate in Jharkhand is only 54.13% (2001) and female literacy rate is still lower at 39.38%. Nearly two-thirds (66 %) of males but only two-fifths (39 %) of females age six and above are literate, estimates which are very close to the 2001 census literacy rates mentioned



above. Sixty-four percent of children age 6–14 are attending school (71 % of boys and 56 % of girls). The disparity in school attendance by sex grows with increasing age of children. At age 15–17, 64 percent of boys attend school, compared with 42 % of girls.

Jharkhand has a network of government and privately run schools, although standard of teaching considerably vary, from place to place, as also from school to school.

Living Conditions Housing conditions and the standard of living of household members are generally poor in Jharkhand. Twenty-four percent of households in Jharkhand have electricity (compared with 60 percent in India as a whole and 16 percent in Bihar). Only one-third of households are within 15 minutes from a safe water supply that they use for drinking water, compared with 62 percent in India as a whole and 77 percent in Bihar. Only 14 percent have piped drinking water. Eighty five percent of households in Jharkhand do not have any toilet facility.

Language, literature & culture

Jharkhand is home to a number of languages belonging to three major language families. Indo-Aryan languages include Angika,Nagpuri (Sadri)Hindi, Urdu and Bengali. Jharkand is also home to the Munda languages, Kurmali, Korku, Santhali, Mundari, Bhumij, kharia and Ho, and the Dravidian languages Korwa, Oraon and Paharia.

***



Chapter 3 Well-being and Livelihoods

One of the key objectives of the assessment was to understand the livelihood choices of the poor in relation to their well-being levels, in order that specific drivers of livelihood choice for the poorest categories could be understood from a policy perspective. It was well evident during the assessment that the pattern of dependence on alternative livelihood varied across different well being categories, and the combinations of livelihoods seemed wider and more diverse in the lower well-being categories. Diagram 2.1 brings together a pattern that seems to describe the dependence of different well being categories on various livelihoods.

It can be seen very clearly from the aforesaid pattern that the primary source of livelihood for people in the lower categories of well-being is wage labour, on account of high degrees of landlessness and limited ownership of alternative productive resources. People in these categories depend on a variety of choices, often complementing each other in terms of income flows and periods of dependence. The lowest category of well being, comprising primarily of people with limited mobility, including the elderly, people with disabilities and women with restricted mobility, depend more on options that can be availed of within the village or without being required to cross the household boundaries. Many of such households were commonly found to rear small ruminants (e.g. pigs) and birds.

WELL OFF SECTION

POOREST SECTION

LIVELIHOOD COMBINATION

Agriculture + Livestock + Service ( All Equal)

Agriculture + Forest Produce + Livestock + Wage (All are equal)

Wage + Livestock + Migration + Forest Produces

Wage + Small Ruminant (Pig) + Birds (Hen/Birds

Agriculture + supportive (Livestock/Lac Cultivation/Daily Wage)

Agriculture

Agriculture + Wage (Equally)

Wage + Agriculture (supportive)

Livelihood combinations across well-being categories Diagram 3.1



Fig- 3.2 Seasonal variations in Livelihood

Months

Types Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Agriculture

Vegetable cultivation

Livestock

Forest Produces

Migration

Daily Wage

Handicraft

Months

Types Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Agriculture

Vegetable cultivation

Livestock

Forest Produces

Migration

Daily Wage

Handicraft

Table 3.3

The locally defined characteristics for different categories of wellbeing underscore the significance of livelihood security in determining one’s well-being status, e.g. indicated by possession of productive resources, or conversely, the compulsion to depend upon wage labour. An indicative list of common indicators of well being or poverty have been provided in Box 2.4.

Analysis of correspondence between Well-being and livelihoods Katwa, W.Singhbhum August 2005

High well-being Medium well-being Low well-being Source of livelihood Dependency Key months Dependency Key months Dependency Key months Agriculture with livestock

50% June, July, Aug. Nov, Dec



Lac cultivation 35% Sowing: March –May; Harvesting: Oct – Dec

30% Sowing: March –May; Harvesting: Oct – Dec

20% Sowing: March –May; Harvesting: Oct – Dec

Livestock 8% Throughout year

5% Throughout year

5% Throughout year

Forest produces

7% Feb – May 10% Feb – May 5% Feb – May

Wage labour 10% Agri and lac season

20% Throughout year

Migration 5% Seasonal 15% Seasonal and non seasonal

Others (sale of wine, rearing small ruminants)

10% Throughout year but maximum in summer

15% Throughout year but maximum in summer



Box 3.4: An indicative list of well being indicators Indicators of well being

• Families with capital • Families with permanent Service • Families acquiring land on mortgage • Income from other sources • Educated families • Food available for round the year from own land • Consumption of rice and cowpea • Female wear Sari and male full pant • The ability to secure loans from Mahajan without mortgaging assets • Having livestock and capital • Possessing Irrigation facility • Having ten acres of land • Having regular employment • Owning pucca building • Children getting education in private schools

Indicators of poverty

• Landless or having less than 1/2 Acre of land • Those do Kurba cultivation • Consume Bajara • Gets loan only by mortgaging assets • Not capable enough for keeping livestock • Suffering from disease • Migrates outside their village • Depends on Wage labour • Children’s education in Government schools • Families mortgaging land • Caught up in social stigma • Uneducated



Chapter 4 Agriculture – the mainstay of livelihoods in Jharkhand

Agriculture – the mainstay of livelihoods of the poor in Jharkhand, is characterized by high dependence on Monsoons, significant variations in cropping choices across various well being categories and innovative strategies of risk minimization employed by farmers from the poorest categories in particular (including sharecropping and crop-diversification). Table 4.1 presents a summary of differences in cropping choices of farmers belonging to various well-being categories in rural Jharkhand. It is well evident that only the better off farmers in the state are able to take a second crop (usually wheat or vegetables) aided by their ability to invest in irrigation. Marginal and smaller farmers are compelled to diversify their cropping choices in order to preempt the ill effect of recurrent droughts (particularly in the western districts of the state). Many of the smaller farmers are found to grow pulses like Urad and Arhar under rainfed conditions, besides traditional varieties of cereals like Gondhali and Marua, which promise an assured return even in years of low rainfall and cost less in terms of requirements of labour and farm inputs. Some of the poor farmers are also seen to grow vegetables, though limited to only low-cost options like saag and pumpkin. A typical small farmer in the state with fragmented holdings would prefer to allocate different tracts for cultivating as many as eight different crops at the onset of Monsoons, some seen as risk minimization choices in the probable wake of a drought. Table 4.1: A summary of cropping choices across different well being categories

Well off Medium wellbeing Poor Poos W,A,

O,V AV AV

Magh W,V V Fagun WV V Chait W Baisak Jeth D D Aasad PMA

OUV PM DGV

PMAO UDGV

Sawan PMA OUV

PMA OU

PMVA OUV

Bhado PM OUV

PM DGV

PMDO UGV

Aswin PKV PKV PUV Kartik PA

KV PK AV

PA KV

Agahan PWK OV

PK AV

PK AV

[N.B: P - Paddy, W - Wheat, M - Maize, G - Gondhali, D – Marua, K- Kurthi, A-Arhar, O-Moong, U-Urad, V-Vegetable]



Seasonal price variation

Table 4.2 Paddy Wheat Maize Vegetables Pulses Poos Low High Magh Low High Fagun Low Low Chait Low Low Low Baisak Low Low Jeth High Low Aasad High High High High Sawan High High High High Bhado High High High Aswin High Low High Kartik Low Agahan High

Sharecropping/ land leasing – a common coping strategy for the poor Several kinds of share-cropping/ land-leasing agreements were identified in the course of the study, mostly prevalent in Region 2 and 5. The arrangements come in handy for the landless poor to either make a living out of agriculture practiced on borrowed tracts, or to borrow credit by leasing out their limited holdings. In most cases, e.g. under the commonly prevalent arrangement called ‘Adhbatai’, the costs of agriculture inputs are equally shared between the leaser and the lessee, and so are the yields. Under various variants of the arrangements, the share of the lessee ranges between 33% to 50% depending upon his bargaining capacity. A ready reckoner of key terms of agreement underlying popular sharecropping/ land sharing arrangements are provided below:

Box 4.3

Zone-1 Bandhak /Girvi – Under this arrangement the land is leased to the person who pays the amount and it is in its possession till the time the loan amount is paid back. During this period the land use right is with the lessee. This is valid for both the types of land and the trees of lac production as well. Sanjha/ Ardhbatai- In this system land is leased for a fix term. The lessee invests total inputs and the production is shared between land owner and taker equally. Batai- The lessee takes a fix amount as advance for a fixed period as rent of the land and the terms and conditions for sharing of input and output is also mutually agreed before hand. Zone- 2 Aslati Bandhak- The land is leased for a fix term against an agreed amount but it can only be taken back after paying the amount with agreed interest amount. Jarpeski- The land is leased for an amount and can be taken back by repaying the same amount. Here the interest amount is not charged to the lessee. Adhbatai- This is more common for Kharif crops. The cost of input is deducted from the total price of produce and the remaining is divided equally among the lessee and landlord. In Rabi crops the produce is divided into four equal parts, three parts is retained by the lessee and one part is taken by the landlord. If the land is irrigated, the landlord gets one third of the produce, also, the landlord may get equal portion of the produce provided it has paid half of the input cost. Vasulati- The land is leased for a fixed term against an agreed amount. The land is freed after the term is over. Firauti- The land is in the possession of the lessee till the time the amount taken by the landlord is paid back. Zone-3 Batai 1- The land lord and lessee share the cost of the input and the produce (both grain and straw) equally but the lessee puts the labour on its



own. Batai 2- The lessee invests in seeds, manure and labour and after harvest it takes back double the quantity of seed it has sown and the remaining produce is divided equally between the lessee and the landlord. Zone- 4 Ardh Batai- If the seed used for sowing is old then the lessee will provide the total sed but the cost of manure is divided equally. The produce is also divided equally. But if seed is being sown then the cost including seeds is shred equally. Batai- There are different systems for Rabi and Kharif. In kharif all inputs except labour is shared equally and also the produce. Labour is provided by the lessee. In Rabi all inputs are provided by the lessee and the 2/3 of produce is taken. The land does not pay any thing and ets1/3 of the produce. Malgujari- The land is for a cropping season for a fixed amount (presently Rs 2000 per bigha). The land gets the amount irrespective of the quantity of production. Kath Kewala- Land is leased for a fixed term (normally 3-7 years) against a fixed amount. if the land lord does nt pay back the money within stipulated time. The ownership is transferred to lessee. Chalta Rehan- If an amount is taken by the landlord the land will be in possession for two crop season (almost 1 year) even the amount is paid back before the end of the year. Rehan- Normally 1 bigha of land is leased for Rs 5000. the possession on land is of the lessee till the time money is paid back. If the repayment is made during the cropping season (normally after June) it is treated as batai and the produce is divided equally. Zone-5 Thheeka- Land is leased for a fixed term against a fixed amount. the possession on land is with the lessee till the end of the term. Bhag mein- Generally for paddy cultivation, the land is leased to get an equal share of the produce. For Rabi crops like Wheat, Maize, Potato, Onion, Mustard, Garlic etc. the landlord gets 1/3 of the produce and does not share the inputs. Aadha- Both the landlord and lessee share the input cost equally and the produce as well. The labour and plough is supplied by the lessee. This implies to the medium quality of land. Krishani- The landlord contributes 2/3 of the seed and manure cost, the lessee contributes 1/3 of seed, manure and labour. the landlord gets 2/3 of the produce and the lessee gets 1/3 of the produce. This implies to the high quality of land. Bandhki- The land is leased for a fixed term (normally 3 years) against a fixed amount. The landlord does not have any right over the land during the fixed term. Bhag mein2- The lessee provides the seed, does all agriculture work. After harvest the quantity of seed sown is taken by the lessee and the remaining produce is equally divided between landlord and lessee. Batai- Seed and manure is provided by the landlord and lessee puts in labour. the produce is divided in the ratio of 5:3. 5 parts goes to lessee and 3 to the landlord. Generally implied in paddy cultivation. Satta- Land is leased against a fixed amount (normally Rs 3000-3500 for 1 bigha of land). The land is in the possession of the lessee. As the loan amount is repaid the land is returned to the landlord. Bhugut Bandha- Under this arrangement, land is mortgaged for up to 5 years (or for fewer years) in lieu of cash borrowings at a rate between Rs. 3000 – 5000 per acre per season. The mortgaged land is reclaimed at the end of the mutually agreed period. No interest is required to be paid. Das Aana Chhah Aana – Under this straight-forward system of share-cropping, 60 percent of the crop produce is claimed by the landlord.

Salient Trends of Change Dependence on agriculture The number of households depending upon agriculture has increased in about 47% of all sites of the study. This has been possible on account of a variety of reasons, including provision of irrigation arrangements in some places (e.g. Durhul village in Lohadaga), purchase of new land, nuclearisation of families, amongst others. About 40% of villages visited during the study indicated a decline in the number of families engaged in agriculture. This was attributed to declining productivity, changing preference to alternative livelihoods in cities, and migration of whole families out of the village. The dependence on agriculture has remained the same across about 13% of sites. Instances of bonded labour were identified in some villages of Chatra (e.g. Bara Naukadih), but the prevalence of such practices were recalled to have drastically come down.



Crop selection and practices During the last decade, crop preferences of a large number of farmers in Jharkhand has changed in favour of cash crops, particularly vegetable cropping in the rabi season, though few of the better off farmers in village like WY have taken to yearlong cultivation of vegetables. While much of vegetable cultivation makes use of traditional seeds (driven by preference of good taste), use of high yielding varieties of paddy has increased over the last decade, particularly varieties easily available in the market and through extension services of the government. Modern seeds of paddy like IR 36, IR 64, TCR, Sita etc. are preferred particularly on account of higher prices fetched in the market. However, though the areas under traditional varieties of foodgrains (Gondhali, Kurba, Jara, Kodo, Maize etc.) has declined, many farmers continue to grow them as a measure of risk minimization in view of high probability of droughts which have become a recurrent phenomenon in Jharkhand. Farmers in some villages particularly primitive tribes of Godda, Pakur and Dumka regions still practice Jhum (slash and burn) cultivation. Crop Rotation Since major portion of agriculture is rainfed and subsistence in nature only one crop is being taken by the majority of farmer. But with an increase in irrigational facilities and availability of seeds and fertilizers in market few additional crops are also coming up in some villages of Ranchi, Palamu and Santal Pargana areas mostly in the form of vegetable growing. Families whose members have migrated outside the village are able to bring in some cash for investing in such enterprises. Use of Fertilizers Cow dung (animal waste) manure is still the most used fertilizer by the farmers in all villages of the state. Besides this tree leaves, oil cakes, flowers of Karanj, wood ash, sitting of sheep herds etc. are also used for maintaining the soil fertility. But this is more because of their inability to invest rather than choice. As inclination towards chemical fertilizers has been observed among the well off farmers, who have already shifted to DAP and Urea in order to enhance the productivity of their land. Particularly the farmers in vegetable growing are totally dependent on the chemical fertilizers. Non availability of animal waste due to decrease in cattle population was also cited as reason for inclination towards chemical fertilizers. The primitive tribes engaged in shifting cultivation still depend on animal waste and dry leaves and do not see any advantages of using chemical fertilizers.



Choice of Seeds The traditional practice was to keep a portion of the harvest for seeds for the next year but because of the insufficient production the farmers particularly the middle and small cannot afford to set aside any portion of their harvest. As a result they are bound to use the seeds available to them at the time of sowing. Taking advantage of the situation the local traders hard sell the hybrid and improved seeds to the farmers even on credit. Besides this the lure of increased production has also tempted the farmers to sow the hybrid and improved seeds. This is evident from the instance of exchanging 1.5 Kg of old seeds for 1 kg of hybrid seeds in some of the sites of the study. Changes have also been seen in the method of sowing. The broadcasting method for Paddy cultivation in some villages of Santhal Pargana have changed into transplantation methods. Use of Insecticides Traditional methods of disinfecting the crop like using wood ash, water from new bamboo, planting Sindwar branches etc. are still prevalent in the state. However, with the increasing trend of using hybrid seeds by some of the farmers the chemical insecticides are also being used. The farmers also feel that some of the insects can be removed by the chemical fertilizers only. Availability of chemical fertilizers in the villages was also cited as one the major reason for its increasing use. Implements for Agriculture A small section of farmers though are using pump sets for irrigation, sprayers for insecticides and tractors for ploughing, not much change in the implements used for agriculture was found across the study sites. The main reason as mentioned by the people is the fragmentation of land holdings into smaller sizes and non availability of capital for investment. The farmers using modern implements are those having capital and large areas of land to cultivate. Preservation and Storage Pattern The traditional methods of preservation of the grains like bins of bamboo, ropes with Sindwar leaves, earthen pots are used across the sites. Of late, bin of iron sheets, and polythene for storing the grains are on increase. It was found that different bins are used for different types of grains e.g. pulses, oil seeds and vegetables are stored in earthen pots whereas, the maize, kulthi, gram and paddy are preserved in Mori, which is made of bamboo and clay. Vegetables were also found stored in sand. Intensity of Labour A sharp decline in the availability of labour force has been reported from all sites of the study. The major reasons cited by the people were that the wage rate in agriculture work has not



Box 4.4 Average availabilty of food in months

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Zone-1

Zone-2

Zone-3

Zone-4

Zone-5

Months

increased in comparison to other job. Therefore, now a days the youth prefer to work in their own field or to migrate to outside the state for employment as the wages paid outside are better than they get in and around their village. As a result the available labourers are either aged people or women. There is also a section of farmers mostly small and marginal farmers from all the regions state that there has been no change for them since most of the labour is performed by the family members themselves. Systems of mutual help were also found existing in the villages in all regions. Fertility of Agricultural land Land fertility in general has declined in all the regions as cited by the people from all sites. Decrease in forest cover, non availability of animal waste and rapid soil erosion has led to low moisture retention capacity of the soil, which has adversely affected the soil fertility. In one site in Lohardaga it was found that the fertility of tand (up-land) land has increased due to increased irrigation facility by government. In some villages of Ranchi and west Singhbhum it was reported that there has been an increase in the use of chemical fertilizers, hence the fertility has not been affected. Selling away of top soil for brick kilns etc. has also led to decline in the soil fertility as reported from few sites. Sale of Agriculture Produce Although there are roughly 10 percent families who have surplus grains to sell but almost all families engaged in agriculture sell their produces. The major channels of sale are the same e.g. local traders, middlemen, local shop owners and customers in local hat (market), who use to operate even in earlier days. Even the barter system was found still prevalent in several sites. There has been a little change in selling the vegetables, which now goes to the urban market through traders from outside the village. Food Availability for the family

The food availability within the family from own agriculture has considerably gone down over the years. Presently, except the few well off farmers most of the families do not have enough food for round the year. The increased burden on agriculture because of increased population and lack alternative source of income in the villages were cited as the main reasons behind this phenomenon.



Chapter 5 Livestock – an insurance against crises

Although livestock rearing is not a stand alone occupation for the families in rural Jharkhand but the figures of livestock production indicates that this sector makes a sizable contribution to the State's economy.

Most of the dairy development activities in the Jharkhand are taken care of by the Dairy Development Directorate. There are three dairy plants located at Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Ranchi with a total capacity of 185 TLCPD under the Milk Federation. There are also 13 milk-chilling plants in different districts of the State under the Dairy Development Directorate. There are two wool collection centres in East Singhbhum district. Dumka, Deoghar and Godda districts account for higher population of' goats followed by the districts of South Chhotanagpur Division and Hazaribagh Division. Pigs are mostly concentrated in the plateau region of Chhotanagpur. Tribal people have a special interest and aptitude for pig husbandry. The State has 5 pig breeding farms Gatiriakarma, Hotwar, Saraikela, Jamshedpur and Kanke.,

A supplementary to Agriculture Most of the families though rear livestock, it is seen mainly as a supplementary occupation to agriculture and also a fall back mechanism particularly for the poorest of the poor. The quantum of livestock however, varies according to the economic status of the families. The number of families engaged in livestock rearing has increased over last decade but this increase is due to increase in the number of households in the villages. In fact, the number of livestock per family has decreased especially the cattle. Most of the livestock are local and especially all most all the family in hilly areas rears local breed of cattle because there is no practice of stall feeding and livestock mostly depends on free rang grazing. In few of the villages, villagers were provided hybrid cattle but it could not survive in the hilly region. Apart from this there is huge shortage of fodder in hilly regions. In other sites, people started rearing cross breed and they select cattle based on types of breed and its utility (to fulfill their emergency needs). Other factors contributing to less rearing as found in few of the village is the less demand of the local cattle. But at the same time there are few families especially the well offs who are rearing hybrid cattle and are able to manage sufficient fodder for their cattle; they also provide dry matter to the cattle. As far as availability of fodder is concerned, as per the people, there was enough fodder for the cattle till last decade due to dense forests. Apart from the forests, earlier the agriculture crop use to produce a good amount of residue but because of the changes in crop varieties, the production of crop residue has decreased. Earlier the crops used to provide more hay, straw after cleaning of paddy besides the green fodder. As a result, presently the livestock mostly depends on free rang grazing in the forest.

Livestock Production in Jharkhand-2001-02

Milk 10.73 lakh Ltrs. Eggs 661.4 million Wool 7.04 Lakh Kgs.



Table 5.1 Responsibility of Rearing Village –Lavkera, Simdega

FAMILY MEMBERS GRAZING MAINTENANCE TREATMENT SELL PURCHASE

CONTROL OVER

INCOME

ARRANGMENT OF FODDER

MALE *** ** ******** ****** ****** *** ********FEMALE ****** ******** ** **** **** ******* **

CHILDREN *

There is no significant change in keeping practices of the livestocks. Still people are keeping livestock either by providing place in their own house (mainly tribal families) or by constructing separate shed (other communities) within the homestead land. These practices are as same it was in the last decades. Regarding quality of cattle, people feel that the local breed of cattle survive for longer duration but it has less draft power. There are families, though small in number who rear improved breed which has longer survival duration and also good draft power but price-wise this is very costly. The families rearing cattle opined that availability of labour for cattle rearing has gone down as people prefer other occupations like selling of fuel wood, earn through wage labour etc. instead of taking the cattle out for grazing. Even earlier selling of cattle was not very common because rearing cattle is like a custom and it is not seen as an occupation. But over the years the thinking has changed. Now a days livestock rearing is seen as an asset, which fetches money at the time of emergencies (particularly small ruminants and poultry birds) and in some places, also as additional income. It is mostly soled in the local market especially for livestock, to the cattle traders. Other cattle products like milk, eggs are usually soled to the nearby restraints. Responsibility of rearing Livestock rearing requires regular care and management. The day to day role of members of

family is very crucial for better yield from the livestock. Although both male and female are involved in livestock rearing, this is considered as a part of the household work. From the daily schedule of men and women, it was found that both provide time in taking care of the livestock. Both male and female play significant role in the rearing process however, quantum of work varies. Both take the cattle out for grazing; maintain health care along with treatment, arrange of fodder and water and feeding, sell and purchase but men are mostly involved in arranging treatment, sale and purchasing, arranging fodder whereas women members mostly take care of grazing, maintenance, and feeding. Children mostly are involved in grazing the cattle.



SMALL BIG

GOAT ******** ****** ******** ******* * *** **** ****** **** *** 1PIG ***** ***** ******** * ********* ** *** ******** 3COCK/HEN******** ****** ******** ****** ****** ********** * ******** ******** 2SHEEP ******** ****** ******** **** *** **** ** *** 4DUCK * ****** ****** ** ********* * ****** 5CATTLE ******** ****** ******** ** ** 6

RAPID GROWTH

PRIORITYTYPES

SELLING AS PER NEED

GRAZING

LAND

MAINTENANCE (HOUSE)

FACILITY FOR

GRAZING

FACILITY FOR

SELLING

SELF-CONSUMPTION

RELIGIOUS (SACCRIFY)

INCREASE IN NUMBER

FEAST DURING

MARRIAGE

Table 5.2 Preference among Livestock Vill- Jhilingkela,Murhu

Preferences within livestock During the discussions people enumerated that several factors are taken into consideration in

selection of cattle/ birds for rearing such as; availability of grazing land in the vicinity and other facility for grazing/ fodder, maintenance ability, accessibility to market for selling, self-consumption need, religious and marriage purpose, number of offspring/ yield and duration of growth, opportunity for selling at the time of emergencies. It was observed that small ruminant and birds are the most preferred among the various livestock. Even within small ruminants, goats are the most preferred followed by pig. Chicken is the third priority. The basic reason for selecting goats and pigs is that there is no need of stall feeding for them and also availability of land for grazing. Apart from that, small ruminant need comparatively less fodder requirement, they can survive even in the drought conditions. Some additional Advantages with goat rearing , which were cited by the people were that; Goat give birth twice in a year and is used for selling and self consumption. While selling, it gives handsome amount and market is always available for them. Mostly, community sells them within or nearby village market. Similarly, a pig gives birth on and averages 8-12 piglets in 144 days. Like goat, it also survives in the local favorable conditions and also helps during distress apart from consumption. Sheep, Duck and Cattle follows in the priority list of the people.



Box 5.3 CASTE WISE LIVESTOCK REARING- Hazaribagh, Dumka and Giridih C A S T E / T Y P E S O F C A T T L E O X C O W B A F F A L O G O A T P I G H E N P I G E O N S H E E P

K U M H A R * * *B A N I Y A * *B A D H A I * *H A R I Z A N * * * * *P A S W A N * *G A T W A L * *L O H A R * *B H U I Y A *Y A D A V * * * *T R I B A L * * *M U S L I M * * *C A T E G O R Y W I S E L I V E S T O C K R E A R I N G

C A T E G O R Y O X C O W B A F F A L O G O A T P I G H E N P I G E O N S H E E P

S T * * * * * *S C * * * * * *O B C * * * * *C A S T E W I S E L I V E S T O C K R E A R N I N G - M A T R I X S C O R I N G

C A S T E / T Y P E S O F C A T T L E C O W B A F F A L O G O A T P I G H E N P I G E O N

Y A D A V * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *T R I B A L * * * * * * * * * * *M U S L I M * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

N U M B E R O F L I V E S T O C K W I S E W E L L B E I N G

C A T E G O R Y F A M I L I E S C O W B A F F A L O O X G O A T H E N P I G E O NW E L L O F F 5 1 1 1 0 1 4 8 1 0M I D D L E 1 3 1 3 6 1 1 4 4 2 6 4 0P O O R 5 3 5 1 0

Livestock rearing in different castes and well-being categories There is lot of variation different well-being categories and castes as far as the rearing of livestock is concerned. This variation is in both, the types as well as numbers of cattle/birds as found during the study. Almost all the marginalized castes and tribes under ST ,SC and OBC

rear all types of livestock except pigs, which is not reared by the OBC. Pigs are reared by STs and SCs and not by the OBCs. Kumhar, Baniya, Badhai, Harizan, Paswan, Gatwal, Yadav, Muslim, Lohar rear bullocks, cows. However, in most cases Kumhar, Baniya, Bhadai from the OBS group do not rear small ruminants. Other castes like Harizan, Paswan, Gatwal Lohar, Bhuia, Yadav, Tribals , Muslim all rears small ruminants and birds except pig and sheep. Pig is mostly reared by Harizan, Bhuina, and tirbals. As far as numbers in livestock rearing is concerned, Yadav and others who mainly depend on agriculture, rears cattle in large numbers, while other caste rear in comparatively smaller number. The tribal and Muslim rear small ruminants in large numbers.



Caste wise purpose of rearing of livestock Box- 5.4 CASTE WISE / USES

MILK- SELF CONSUMPTION

MILK BUSINESS

AVAILABILITY OF COW DUNG

PLOUGH CART MEAT-SELF SACRIFY INCOME EMERGENCY

YADAV * * * * * * * * *TRABAL * * * *HARIZAN * * * * * * * *MUSLIM * * * * * * * Purpose of rearing of different livestock TYPES OF CATTLE /USES

MILK- SELF CONSUMPTION

MILK BUSINESS

AVAILABILITY OF COW DUNG

PLOUGH CART MEAT-SELF SACRIFY INCOME EMERGENCY

COW * * * OX * * *BAFFALO * * * GOAT * * * *BULL * * * *PIG * * *SHEEP * * * *PIGEON * * * *HEN/COCK * * * *

Livestock utilization The purpose of rearing different types of livestock also varies among different caste groups. Cattle are generally reared for milk, which consumed and also sold. The other uses of cattle are; preparing manure, ploughing, pulling carts. The small ruminants and birds are generally reared for meat, religious sacrifices, additional income and fulfilling emergency needs. The

study further reveals that the purpose of rearing varies from caste to caste. Tribal and SCs rear small ruminants for self consumption, emergency need, support to family income and religious sacrifices while they rear attle for plough and pulling cart but not for milk. Seasonal variations in the Price of livestock Livestock is an important source not only for cash earning but also fulfill the emergency need at the time of distress e.g. ill health, payment school fee for children, hospitality of guests, performing customs/ rituals etc. among the rural communities. Community sells their livestock within the village and in the local market too. The price of the livestock is not uniform round the year. The prices fluctuate heavily, which is fueled by the in the market. Since bullocks are mostly purchased for ploughing agriculture field and pulling cart. The Demand of bullocks is high before or at the beginning of agriculture season, whereas prices of cow is high when the fodder availability is at its peak and rest of the month its price goes down.



Village –Ghagh, Giridh Box 5.5

TYPES POOS MAGH PHAGUN CHAIT BAISAK JETHH ASADH SAWAN BHADO AASWIN KARTIK AGAHAN

COW ** *** ** ** *** * * * ****** ****** *** *OX * * * * * ***** ******** **** * * * *BULL(KADA) * * * * * **** ****** **** * * * *HE-GOAT * ** ** **** ****** **** **** * * ******** ** **SHE-GOAT * * * * * * * * * * * *PIG * * ** * ** * * * * ** * *DUCK * * * * * * * * * * * *HEN **** ****** * * ** ** ** * * **** * **

Reasons for price fluctuation

TYPES POOS MAGH PHAGUN CHAIT BAISAK JETHH ASADH SAWAN BHADO AASWIN KARTIK AGAHAND J F M A M J JU A S O N

COW

OX

BULL(KADA)

HE-GOATSHE-GOATPIGDUCK

HEN HIGH PRICE DUE TO PICNIC HIGH PRICE DUE FESTIVAL

HIGH PRICE DUE TO DEMAND FOR PLOUGHING

HIGH PRICE DUE TO DEMAND FOR PLOUGHING

LOW PRICE DUE TO DISEASES HIGH PRICE……..…..DUE TO FESTIVAL AND RELIGIOUS PURPOSE

HIGH PRICE DUE TO FODDER AVAILAITYLOW PRICE DUE TO LESS FODDER AVAILITY

Similarly demand of small ruminant especially goat starts increasing from the month of Oct and it continues till before the rainy season. This is because of beginning of the festival seasons. Similar is the case of poultry birds. During December -January and May -June the price of poultry is very high due to festivals and commencement of New Year, in rest of the months the price is down comparatively.

The suggestions for improvement of status livestock in the state from the rural communities varied

from place to place, however, stress on availability of training and capital was received from all the zones. Similarly the encouraging and discouraging factors were also identified in order to promote this in the rural areas of the state. Presented below is the aggregated output from all the zones.



Box 5.6 Encouraging and Discouraging Factors for Livestock Rearing

Government initiatives for promotion of livestock

The state Government under its different programmes has made several efforts to promote livestock rearing in the state. The major initiatives were found in the Santhal Pargana region. The efforts were mainly in terms of providing loan to the families interested to purchase livestock. The outcomes of these supports were not remarkable as it had no provision of forward and backward linkages. However, the situation was entirely different in one of the study site in Giridih district. In Giridih, a milk cooperative was formed with providing proper training on rearing, treatment, fodder management, etc. to the involved families and establishing marketing links. The member families cited about the outcomes of the initiative as under;

• Marginal increase in income • Increase in employment opportunity • Decline migration • Availability of milk for family consumption • Availability of cow dung • Increase land fertility by use of cow dung manure • Low malnutrition and less diseases among the children • Remunerative price of milk (less inputs and good income)

*** Chapter 6

DISCOURAGING

ENCOURAGING FACTORS

DISCOURAGING FACTORS

Managed By Family

Supports Agriculture

Animal Wastes

Manure

Dairy

Adds To Income

Fodder Availability

ReligiousPurpose

Milk For Family

Meat

Hospitality Asset for Emergencies

Lack ofFodder

Lack Of Space

No Market

HighInputCost

VulnerableTo Diseases

No vet Care Facility

Tech KnowledgeLacking

Lack Of Capita

Fear Of Wild Animals



Forests – the Lifeline of the Poor in Jharkhand

Forests in Jharkhand extend over 23,605 sq.km. representing 29.61 % of the total geographical area of the State of which 82 % are Protected Forest and 17.5 % are Reserve Forest with a small amount of un-classed forests (33.49 sq.km.). Dependence on forest produces is an important source of livelihood for a large number of poor families in the state, and the pattern of dependence shown great variation across different regions of the state. This section of the report focuses on describing the crucial role of forests in the lives of the poorest, and seeks to underpin key policy implications towards optimizing the same.

There are many ways in which forests contribute to the economy of poor households in Jharkhand. Collection and sale of forest produces provide significant livelihood opportunities to the rural poor (for example, through collection and sale of tendu leaves, which are value-added and resold as bidis); require very little capital or any special skills like literacy; sales are possible in retail as well as in bulk; stored forest produces provide insurance against difficult periods to poor families; besides coming in handy for a number of other reasons, e.g. consumption as fruits, flowers, leaves, timber, oil for treatment, manure, fuel etc.

Unfortunately, there has been a steady decline in the availability of forest produces in Jharkhand and the gradient of decline has been the steepest during the last decade. Produces that have disappeared at an alarming rate include Mahua – the lifeline of many tribal communities on account of its multiple uses – and Kendu leaves, which bring in valuable cash reserves during lean months. Exhibit 6.1 shows the general pattern of changes in the availability of the most valued forest produces, as experienced by people of Jumal village in Saraikela district. The analysis of the villagers of Jumal is largely representative of the general trends of decline in the availability of forest produces. While the availability of Mahua has declined to a maximum of 3 kg a day (from 7 to 8 kg a day, two decades ago), that of Kendu leaves has declined to a meager 150 packs a day (from up to 500 packs a day). Exhibit 6.1: Trend change in availability of the forest produces

Change over 20 years In terms of quantity Forest produces Then Now Then Now

Mahua ******** *** 7-8kg/day 2-3kg/day Chiraita **** ** Bahera *** * Kukhadi ***** *** Phutka ***** *** Fuel wood ******** *** Kendu ****** *** 400-500 p/day 150 p/day Mango ****** *** Jamun ****** *** Sal ******* ** 200-300p/day 100p/day Char ******* *** Herbs *** -- Chironji ******* *** 3kg/day 1kg.day Kusum ******* **** 60-70kg/day 40kg/day



In addition to declining availability of forest produces, various other difficulties were recounted by the poor with regard to accessibility of forest produces. The cessation of operations of forest department relating to procurement of MFPs drew flak from the poor across a large number of districts, which was believed to have resulted in heavy dependence on middlemen. This was stated to be responsible for suppression of prices, and delayed payments. Some of poor communities consulted in the eastern districts of Jharkhand lamented how they often have to settle for returns that fall short of the opportunity cost of the number of days spent in gathering forest produces. Prices of forest produces were recalled to be fluctuating drastically, often forcing the villagers to sell their produces at sub-optimal rates. In addition, villagers in several areas of Jharkhand, particularly women, lamented harassment at the hands of policemen and forest officials. Most of the instances of harassment were related to carrying of forest produces out of villages. Workload of members of family in collecting forest produces During the study it is found that man, women and children are involved in collection of the forest produces (Table 5.2). Except lac and saag collection, male and female both are involved in collection of various types of fruits, medicinal plants, fuel wood, flowers, bark and roots. Lac is collected by male whereas saag is generally collected by women. Children are involved mainly in the collection of fruits wherein workload of women is found greater in compared to men in terms of quantum of workload in collecting forest produces by each of them. It is quite visible from the matrix scoring of the comparison of workload among male, female and children women are involved in greater extent in collecting fruits, fuel wood, leaf, flowers, Saag, ,bark, roots etc. while male are involved in collecting medicinal plants(herbs), lac in greater extent to ensure the livelihood of the family. The general trend of collecting Mahua, Pithore, Kendu leaf and fruits, Bhelwa, Kusum, Datun, karanj, Char, Bark(Meda), Sakhua flower, saag is done by mostly female While male generally collect herbs, lac, jackfruit although they also collect the above mentioned produces collected by female but in very small in quantity. Rest of produces is collected by both male and female at one and the samel.

Produce wise situation Forest cover of the Jharkhand no longer has similar trend as it is in the other region of the country and is found continuous depletion of the forest density. Except few of the forest produces in very limited sites, almost all the important produces are declining with different

Type of produces

Male Female Children

Fruit 000 0000000 0 Medicinal 0000000 000 Fuel wood 00000 00000 Leaf 000000000 Lac 0000000000 Flower 00000 00000 Bark 000 0000000 Saag 000 0000000 Roots 00000 00000

Table 6.2



pace. Important trees such as Saal , Kendu Mahua, Awala, Kusum, bamboo, tamarind, Amda, Jackfruit, Karanj, Jamun, Paras, Kher , different types of herbs like harra, behara and others,, fruits, flowers roots, are declining is much greater pace. The most alarming situation is few of the sites was observed for kendu, Saal, Mahua, Kusum Gaith roots, Jamun where these kind of forest produces have vanished from the forest areas. Few of the produces like Saal, Kendu, Bamboo, Tamarind Paras, kher use to provide cash earning and also for the self consumption. At the same time with the effort of the local community there are some encouraging trends where Awala, Chirongi, Ber, lac puttu, Tassar are still found either without change of its quantity or increasing in numbers.

Caste wise work division among male and female Table 6.3

Female Male Types of work ST SC OBC ST SC OBC

Adolescent

Collection y Seldom visit

Seldom Seldom Both boys and girls go to collect datum and leaf

Access to forest

y Same person

Same person

Same Girls

Preparation for selling

Y Same person

Both male and female

M&F both

Sell y Same person

Male both

Factors affecting markets Among the various factors that affect the market of the forest produces, the most important are role and influence of the middleman/traders and mismatch between the demand and availability of the forest produces. Both these factors decide the price of the forest produces in the market. Interestingly, there two factors found mostly in West Singhbhum, Ranchi, Loradgadda, Gumla, Simdega at the greater extent with limited in the rest of the district of the state Jharkhand Apart from this, there are other common factors like extortion by police and forest department, geographical confine like overflows of rives, information gap of the price and demand of the different types of the produces, branding of the name of the particular person i.e. customer generally approach to that person who mostly sale a particular type of the produces, government policy such as no fixation of the minimum support price and also stop purchasing of the forest produces, demand of the produces at the local shop, cash earning are few of them that also affect marketing of the forest produces. During the study, it is also found that role of the traders affects in both the ways which depends of the numbers of such traders involved in same kind of the produces. If there is least number of traders for that particular produces then community get less prices due to the monopoly of those traders. On contrary with the good numbers of traders for the same kind of produce then community get more benefits.



Factors influencing forest based livelihood

There are several promotional factors that support forest based livelihood of the community. The most important of them are price of the forest produces, processing, and availability of the valuable trees which provide fruits, herbs, fuel wood and also fulfill consumption need, accessibility of the market, govt support and role of traders. There are many other factors also contributing forest based livelihood support to the community such as check of the illegal felling of forest trees, transportation to the community for accessing to the market, facility of the cold storage for the preventing from getting spoil of the few of the produces, establishing effective coordination between village forest protection committee and the forest department, control of the community over forest produces, strong forest protection committee Availability of forest produces

Forest provides complex mix support to the community year round. Availability of the forest produces varies month to month along with the quantity of produces but community generally collect these produces that ensures their livelihood during lean season as well. The most common features found during the study is the availability of fruits, flowers, bark throughout the year with monthly variations of different varieties of these produces. It is observed that four months starting from March to June, community procures various types of fruits and is found in abundance in these months in comparative to the rest of the months. In two months mainly August and September there is no any fruits are available in the forest as the patterns is found during the study. At the same time, the available of flowers in these two months is more in compare to the rest of the months but collection of

Produces

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Frui

t

Kar

anj,

Tam

arin

d

Ken

du,B

helw

a K

aran

j, B

er,

Mah

ua, k

endu

, hel

wa,

K

aran

j. B

er ,

Kar

i

Mah

ua,P

ithor

e, e

ndu,

he

lwa,

Kus

um K

aran

j, C

har,

Sakh

ua, k

ari

Mah

ua, P

ithor

e, e

ndu,

B

helw

a, K

usum

ara

nj,

Cha

r, Sa

khua

Pith

ore,

Kus

um ,

Jam

un,

Sakh

ua, P

utu

Kus

um Ja

mun

, put

u

Aw

ala

Kar

anj,

Tam

arin

d, A

wal

a

Kar

anj,

Tam

arin

d, A

wal

a

Med

icin

al

Har

ra,

Beh

ara

Har

ra,

Beh

ara

Fuel

w

ood

star

t

End

Leaf

Chi

rong

e

Chi

rong

i

Ken

du, S

arai

Ken

du, S

arai

Ken

du

Ken

du

Ken

du

Flow

er

Mah

ua

Mah

ua

Cha

wai

Cha

wai

Rug

ada

Khu

khad

i R

ugad

a

Khu

khad

i

Khu

khad

i H

arsh

ringa

r

Har

shrin

gar

Har

shrin

gar

Roo

ts

Gai

th

Gai

th

Table 6.4



variety of flowers continues till the month of December. The availability of bark is observed throughout the year. The collection of fuel wood generally begins with the onset of winter season and it continues at the end of the summer season. During rainy season, they do not able to collect fuel wood but for these months they generally keep stock for using during these months. During rainy season, villagers collect Saag that is found abundance during these months. Table given below give a complete view of the availability of variety of forest produces. Income from forest produces Table- 6.5

Prod

uce

Ava

ilabi

lity

Rat

e

A. I

ncom

e

Prod

uce

Ava

ilabi

lity

Rat

e

A. I

ncom

e

Prod

uce

Ava

ilabi

lity

Rat

e

A. I

ncom

e

Mah

ua 1 Q-10

Q 1000 1000- 10000

Tam

arin

d

20-40Kg 5 100-200

Rug

ada ½-1 Kg 20-30 10-30

Pith

ore

1kg 110 110

Ber

30Kg 2 60

Chh

awai

1-10Kg

Kus

um 10kg-

5Q 3-5 50- 2500

Putt

u

2Q H

arsh

ring

ar

1-10Kg

Kar

anj

5-50kg 7 35- 350

Her

bs

5Kg

Khu

khad

i

5000

Cha

r 40Kg

Lac

30Kg-3Q 80 2400- 240000

Kac

hana

r

10Kg

Man

go 40Kg-

3Q 5 200- 1500

Ken

du

leaf

100-200 bundles

Mah

ua

Flo

wer

75Kg 10 750

Jack

frui

t

30Kg-4Q

Chi

rong

i

5-20Kg

Bar

k ½-7Q

Jam

un

1-5 baskets

Sara

i 20-25Q

Sakh

ua

8Q

Saag

1-2 Baskets



Chapter 7 Dependence on Wage Labour Livelihood mobility during lean periods

Dependence on wage labour, mostly of the unskilled and underpaid variety, is an important source of livelihood for a majority of rural poor in Jharkhand. The pattern of dependence on wage labour varies significantly across different regions. While the livelihood-related mobility of poor people in the southern and eastern parts of the state is mostly restricted to agricultural sites within the state and nearby areas, the western and central regions comprising of Palamau, Lohardaga, Garhwa, Chatra and Latehar districts exhibit patterns of migration that extend up to urban locations in neighbouring states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, besides various northern states including Delhi and Punjab. Migrating labourers falling in the latter category access a variety of short-term livelihood alternatives during lean agricultural periods. Jharkhand being a Monsoon-dependent state for agriculture, most villages of the state take only a single crop, and the whole of the early part of the year extending up to the onset of rains constitutes a lean period for a large number of agricultural labourers. The migrants are subjected to survive on extremely basic conditions under threats of violence, starvation and health hazards. The phenomenon of migration in the state of Jharkhand broadly follows four different patterns, i.e.

i. Rural to urban migration of skilled as well as unskilled labourers from villages in districts like Palamau, Lohardagga and Latehar to towns in Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, primarily to work in brick-kilns and construction sites under supervision of contractors.

ii. Rural to urban migration to urban centres within Jharkhand; found common in

villages of West Singhbhum, Ranchi, Saraikela Kharsawa and Jashpur.

iii. Migration to towns in north India, mainly to livelihood sites and towns in the northeastern states, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.

iv. No migration at all, or migration confined to nearby places only, e.g. in

villages in Godda and Pakud districts. The duration of outstation stay also varies from place to place. The commonest length of outstation stay ranges between the months of Aghan (starts mid-November) and Jeth (starts mid-May) corresponding to the lean months of agriculture in places where only a single, kharif crop is cultivated in a year. Another kind of migration spans the whole of the year except the months of plowing and harvesting (i.e. Ashad and Kartik). Another kind of migration is an occasional act undertaken in response to sudden crises and periods of prolonged food scarcity. In addition, there are permanent migrants who visit their native villages only during festivals like Navratri and Diwali.



An enquiry into the well-being status of households commonly migrating out of their villages in search of livelihood reveals an alarming phenomenon. Besides the poorest households, people belonging to the higher categories of well-being, including small and medium farmers are also subjected to the vagaries of a lean period, and therefore compelled to migrate in search of livelihood. The fact that migration isn’t a coping alternative only of people hailing from the poorest strata of society indicates a secular decline in the overall well-being levels of rural households in Jharkhand.

Of various alternatives available to migrants, working as agricultural labourers was rated as an option preferable over other choices on account of various conveniences. It was believed to be a safe option for engagement of women with no fears of accidents, certainty of wage payments and the traditional nature of the work. However, migration to agricultural sites was mostly seen to be confined to nearby areas. A range of livelihood alternatives were identified in the course of the discussions with migrating labourers based in different parts of the state. The common choices included earthworks, stone-crushing, rickshaw-pulling, brick-making, construction work, mining, agricultural labour, cattle grazing and miscellaneous jobs available in wage sites managed by the government. Table 6.1 brings together the key features of the common livelihood choices accessed by migrant labourers. Table 7.1: Typology of livelihood choices of migrant labourers Livelihood choice Nature of returns Significant features Agricultural labour 3 kg rice with two meals

(sowing); 1/6 part of harvest; Overall, between Rs. 3500 – Rs. 5000/- per year, or up to 10 – 11 quintals of food-grain

Patterns of gender-based differences in wage rates found common, with women commonly receiving lesser wages across all regions (Rs. 25/- a day as against Rs. 40 – 50/- per day for men, in most regions However, women account for greater number of days of employment as agricultural labourers (up to 80 days in a year, as against 50 days for men, in a household, on an average)

Brick making Up to Rs. 5000/- in a season; with payments ranging between Rs. 60 – Rs. 100/- per day

Patterns of gender-based differences in payment of wages exist, with women’s wages falling short by Rs. 10/- a day. The range of payments found highest in the eastern districts (Sahebganj, Dumka etc.)

Road construction Up to Rs. 70 per day Some migrants from the central uplands travel to the north-east to earn up to Rs. 2500/- per month on work-sites of Border Roads Organization

Factories Up to Rs. 2000 (month) Driving Up to Rs. 3500 (month) Work in textile mills Up to Rs. 3000 (month)

Employment available only to workers having prior contacts with owners of the enterprises/ contractors

Work in hotels Between Rs. 500 – 800 per month

A popular livelihood destination of young children, mostly in the age-group of



Earth works Up to Rs. 900 – 1200 in a year, corresponding to 15 – 20 days of work

Gender-based differences in wage rates common (women given between Rs. 40 – 50 a day, as against Rs. 50 – 60 for men)

Stone-cutting Up to Rs. 1000 – 1100 per month

Available up to 120 days in a year

Rickshaw pulling Up to between Rs. 7000 – Rs. 8000 in a year, corresponding to up to 120 – 130 days of work.

Shows significant variation across regions. Highest in the eastern part (Godda, Dumka, Sahebganj etc.), with daily income ranging up to Rs. 125/-; the range for other regions varies between Rs. 50/- - Rs. 80/- a day

Sale of fuel-wood Up to Rs. 3000 per year A popular livelihood option for women, who secure their earnings from sale of fuel-wood for up to 125 days in a year

Work in house-construction sites

Up to Rs. 2500/- in a season for unskilled labourers (with patterns of gender-based differences in wage rates visible)

Shows significant variation across regions. Masons: Rs. 80 – 100 (all regions); Rs. 120 (central districts around Ranchi) per day; Unskilled labour: Between Rs. 50 – 65 per day; white-washing: Rs. 70/- per day (in the central districts around Ranchi)

Forestry work Up to Rs. 1000 per year; work opportunities in forest sites more prevalent in the central districts

Payments meet the minimum wages norm, though not when administered through contractors (up to Rs. 40 per day in such cases, with gender-based differences)

Mining work Up to Rs. 3000/- per month; plus bonus. Temporary labourers get up to Rs. 80 per day, while those on contract get up to Rs. 60 per day

Unauthorized, clandestine sale of coal is common, and yields between Rs. 100 – 200 per day to the venturous labourers

Domestic help Payments within the state range up to Rs. 500/- per month

A new trend, with young girls migrating to big cities to work as domestic help. Payments recalled to range up to Rs. 1200 per month, in north-eastern states.

Bidi rolling Up to Rs. 35 – 40 a day for rolling 1000 bidis; Rs. 28 in the central districts

Women in migrating families find bidi rolling a convenient household-based

Carpentry Between Rs. 80 – 120 per day

Available up to 15 – 20 days in a season

Lac cultivation sites Up to Rs. 25/- per day (in addition to meals)

Available up to 60 days in a year. Children also employed, for lesser wages (Rs. 18/-).

The glaring lack of a policy framework favouring workers in the unorganized sector came strikingly to the fore in the course of discussions with migrants labourers pursuing a variety of livelihood options. Several occupational hazards and risks were recalled in the course of analyzing the experience of availing of the aforesaid livelihoods. The seasonal migrants to the north-



eastern states (e.g. to the work sites of Border Roads Organization) were required to make their own arrangements of accommodation under testing circumstances (including adverse weather, threats of conflicts with local labourers and militants etc.), often resulting in the compulsion to stay collectively (often in groups of 15) in extremely unhygienic and unsafe conditions (e.g. in makeshift tents). Vulnerability to ill health, and the inability to rest adequately in the wake of illnesses were recalled by migrants to brick-kilns as key challenges faced in their work. Some of the labourers lamented how their compulsions affected the education of their children and the well-being of the elderly staying back in the villages. Many of the labourers also contracted diseases that affected their ability to put in strenuous work of continual nature. However, the usefulness of the income earned from spending a complete brick-manufacturing season, normally amounting to about Rs. 5000/-, was felt to be a key factor prompting people to migrate to brick kilns, as it enabled them to repay their outstanding debts. The women coming to the towns to sell firewood spoke of harassment at the hands of officials of forest department and police, who often extract bribes to allow them to carry their head-loads or to operate from the pavements of the towns. The labourers operating through contractors lamented the delays in their payments and the humiliating experience of being at the receiving end of abuses and scolding on a daily basis. Children coming to towns to work in hotels are made to commit their availability as labourers for one full year, and are denied their wages completely if they leave their work-site before completing a year. Several cases of physical and mental exploitation of the children came to the fore in the course of interactions with them. Most labourers working in employment sites run by government departments aired their dissatisfaction against the exploitative practices of contractors. The common complaints related to arbitrary delays in release of payments, the requirement to chase the contractors for payments and to cater to his exploitative demands. Labourers working in stone-breaking sites complaints of respiratory ailments caused excessive exposure to stone dust and tedious work hours ranging up to 14 hours in a day, particularly while working under contractors. While work on stone-breaking sites was stated to be available throughout the year, most labourers preferred availing of this option as a last resort in the absence of any alternative livelihood. Many of the labourers are engaged in unlawful mining activities undertaken by private agencies without permission from state authorities, and have been subjected to raids and arrest. Non-availability of any hospitalization or financial support in the wake of accidents was stated to be a key discouraging factor in taking up mining. Several labourers working in stone-breaking sites and mine-workers complained of TB and severe physical injuries incurred in pursuit of their livelihood. In most villages visited during the study, the compulsion to move out of villages in search of livelihood was found to be uniformly acute for most parts of the year, except the rainy months of intense agricultural activity. Exceptions to this pattern are villages in the southern districts, particularly West Singhbhum and Saraikela Kharasawa.

***



Chapter 8 Rural Artisan: On the threshold Artisan is another sector that provides livelihood opportunities to a vast majority of rural poor in the state, mainly the poorer sections, minorities and women. Although a very small number of families are engaged in this sector but their presence was found in almost all the study sites. The artisanship are primarily based on the existing resources of that particular area e.g. wood, leaves, minor forest produces, clay, stones etc. but there are some other cottage industries related to bidi rolling, weaving, metal work as well. With the advent of modern technologies producing the consumer goods in bulk, the preference for this sector is gradually diminishing although the number of families engaged in this sector has increased. This increase is mainly due the extension of the families and not because of new families entering into the profession. Types of work

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Bamboo

Leaf plate

Bidi

Carpentry

Blacksmith

Weaving

Metal

Pottery

Leather

Fig 8.1 Seasonality of Artisan work

The other interesting fact revealed during the study was that none of the families engaged in these livelihood are totally dependant on it. It is supplemented by agriculture, agriculture labour, wage labour etc. during the lean season depending on their skill and assets owned (Fig..). It is also due to the fact that all such livelihood options do have lean season, when they have to suspend their work either because of non availability of raw materials or due to lack of facilities like work-place, storage and market linkages.



Fig-8.2 Enabling & Restricting Factors for Artisans

No Work Place

Lack of info on

modernization

Tradition

Competing Factory

P d t

No Facilities

Family support

Out of Curiosity

Caste based

occupation

Skilled Artisan

Economics Back SupportEmployment No Alternative

Existing Knowledge

Household industry

Availability of raw

materials

Part time

Engagement

Commonly needed

Products

Work throughout year

Support from Govt.

Dept.

Assured Employment

Only source of

livelihood

Better Income

prospect No Agriculture Land

Needs less Capital

Local Need based

Products

Supplementary

Income

Mutual support to dev

skill

Local Market

Training available

Design support by

Agents

Low Income

No Storage Place

Limited Market

Labour Intensive

Income in Kind Scarcity of Fuel

Less Remunerative Influence of

Middlemen

Risk in New productsLess Capital

The Force-Field Analysis (FFA) to understand the drivers that make them stick to the profession and the de-motivating factors discouraging them to give up their profession was undertaken during the study provides a clear picture of their situation. A compiled version of FFAs suggests that there are more reasons for the people to continue with the profession but at the same time not much has been done by the government and other agencies to alleviate the miseries of the population involved in artisanship. Abiding by the tradition has come out as a major reason to stick to the artisanship. As it becomes a household industry the children by default learn the art at a very young age and pursue it further as their profession. Lack of any other option of livelihood and their own inability to undertake any other option forces them to continue the same. In some of the locations particularly in Lohardaga, where NGOs have been instrumental in the extension of government schemes have benefited the handloom operators. The



support is being provided to them in terms of training, modern designs, working capital and marketing linkages. Support that can make a difference Training on modern techniques The practitioners feel that their products are not able to compete with the present market because of the traditional techniques are still in practice. If they are able to adopt modern techniques they can products would be enhanced in both quality and quantity. Formation of Handicraft Committee at District level There should be a body of artisans, which safe-guards the interests of artisans and liaison with different government departments for the development of the sector. Establishing Market Linkages Presently the artisans are able to reach only the local markets. If this can taken up by any government department, they can have access to a wider market, which in turn would provide them a better price for their products. Ensuring Availability of Raw materials Although availability of raw materials is at their doorstep for most of the artisans at present but of late a decrease in the availability is being found. For instance most of these occupations revolve around the natural resources and depletion in these is a cause of concern for them. Therefore, an effort in this direction should be given priority. Support for packaging and Storage Most of the artisans come from the lowest strata of the community not having capacity to invest on facilities like storage and packaging of their products which, according to them is essential for sustained business. Fixation of prices for handicraft items In order to regulate the market of handicraft the artisans feel that it is necessary to have a fix on the prices of different items. This would relieve them from exploitations by the middlemen and subsequently help them to acquire the price of their hard work. Advertisement of products They feel that their products do not have demand because the general people do not know about them. Therefore, to promote the demand of their products it is essential that their products get good advertisement. As of now they are too small to take this up. Hence they want support from government towards this as a part of forward linkage.

***



Chapter 9 Suggested Ways Forward During the course of the study several suggestions were voiced by the people involved in different means of livelihood. Some common suggestions from all the study zones are as under; Agriculture & Horticulture

• Improved irrigation facilities- Lift irrigation, Improving perennial water sources,

Deepening of old ponds and Improved outlet system of ponds

• Capacity building for improved agriculture practices

• Accessibility to loan facilities

• Cold storage facilities

• Promotion of organic farming, Vermicompost, FYM

• Treatment of traditional seed

• Formation of Kisan Samiti and Cooperatives

• Provisioning of regular supply of electricity

• Promotion of multiple cropping

• Promotion of cash crop

• Technology for rain fed agriculture

• Safety measures for crop protection

• Information on area specific crop production

• Crop insurance – during diseases infection /drought

• Formation of block level MahaSangh

Box 9.1 In Jharkhand, agriculture is not only the means of livelihood but the sole supporter of life and considered to be single pillar, sustaining the culture and values of rural people, and thus it is their way of life. The state is having a virtually stagnant rural economy, barring a few patches of growth. Therefore, the need of the hour is to bring about rapid transformation in agricultural sector, without which eradication of rural poverty, hunger, malnutrition, diseases, unemployment and inequality is not possible. The Green Revolution has been still a dream and stands at a distant land. Several research studies on this issue have been conducted with the remark that either these technologies have serious limitations or the technology adaptation and transfer system is inadequate to transfer them to resource poor farmers. The mismatch between the technology and socio-economic environments of small and marginal farmers is also a serious constraint. There is also an indication that Government policies have not benefited the rainfed farmers, rather acted against their interest. The technology generation systems are equally at fault as they have not given due attention to understanding the socio-economic conditions of the rainfed farmers. Jharkhand has the vast expanse of natural resources, viz; land, water and plant bio-diversity. These natural resources provide ample scope of their sustainable utilization for the productivity enhancement and economic upliftment of the inhabitants. The agro-climatic conditions of Jharkhand offer enormous potentialities for development of horticulture. The development of horticulture will help the region to attain self sufficiency in food production and thereby improving the status of food and nutrition security, enhancing household income, promoting the export opportunity, reducing the dependency on forest and controlling the further degradation of the ecosystem to a great extent. Since rainfed agriculture is the main feature of farming in Jharkhand and if agriculture has to be developed the only way is to generate appropriate dryland farming technologies and their transfer to the farming community.



Horticulture: Issues for urgent attention

Watershed approach for horticulture Generation of authentic and accurate database on horticulture Appropriate seed and nursery policy Rejuvenation and area expansion with quality planting material Promotion of multitier cropping system Adequate post harvest management Operationalization of Agri Export Zone for vegetable Promotion of primary processing at community level, and Promotion of private sector investment

S Kumar and Bikash Das, Horticulture and Agro-forestry Research Programme, Ranchi

excerpt from paper presented in the workshop by PACS on ‘Evolving Strategy to Enhance Food Security and Livelihood Options in Jharkhand’

Forest Related

• Encouraging traditional system of protection

• Mahua tree should be free from contractors

• Promotion of Cooperatives for better marketing

• Training on process and packaging for different types of produces

• Building storage facilities

• Control of villagers on forest produces

• Promotion of forest based cottage industries

• Capital support for wholesale marketing

• Promotion of Van Suraksha Samities with support from Gram Sabha

Box 9.2 The state has 22 lakh hector of rainfed upland and medium land out of 29.6 lakh hector cultivable land. The productivity of this type of land is very low and through cereal based cropping system, the yield is about 1.5t ha or less per annum. The present area under horticulture crops is little over 1.3 lakh hector, which constitute only 5.9% of total under upland and medium land. Fruit crops occupy 0.28 lakh hector and vegetable crop are grown in 1.02 lakh hector. The area under floriculture is meager. The state of Jharkhand is endowed with a climatic condition that is conducive for successful cultivation of a diversity of horticulture crops although the high variability of rainfall, low moisture holding capacity of soil, high runoff due to undulating terrain and absence of developed aquifers makes agriculture in the region a high risk venture for ensuring livelihood security for the poorest. However, the favourable environmental conditions, virgin soils and abundance of skilled manpower in this area offer an immense scope for growing horticulture crops. There is an urgent need for collaborative and integrated support from all the stakeholders of development for ensuring livelihood security of the farming community in Jharkhand. (S Kumar & Bikash Das, Ranchi excerpt from paper presented in the workshop by PACS on ‘Evolving Strategy to Enhance Food Security and Livelihood Options in Jharkhand’)



• Establish coordination between Van Suraksha Samiti , Gram Sabha and Forest

Dept

• Plantation programmes

• Ensure fair prices for NTFP by opening separate purchasing centres

Animal Husbandry

• Promotion of piggery and proper training

• Capital support

• Marketing support

• Fodder availability

• Promotion for commercialization

• Introduction of technologies for improved animal husbandry practices

• Improved veterinary services

• Breed improvement

• Training for taking care of livestock

Forestry represents the second-largest land use in India after agriculture. Forest communities are generally poor and dominated by tribal groups, whose traditional cultures and institutions often have strong links to the forest. While most forest communities appear to be agrarian based, forests still play an important supporting role as a safety net during lean times. Fuel wood, fodder, and other non-timber forest products also provide seasonal subsistence. Commercial products such as timber currently play a small role in overall livelihoods, due to cultural factors, poor incentive structures, and general restrictions on trade posed by forest legal and policy frameworks. Although policies governing JFM at the national and state levels have evolved over the past 18 years to put more emphasis on forest livelihoods and poverty alleviation, the program’s main thrust is still largely toward forest rehabilitation and conservation. India is at an important crossroads with respect to its forest sector and community-based forestry programs. Forests are under intense pressure, mainly from human activities, with the current consumption of timber and fuel wood well above sustainable harvest levels. There appears to be great potential for increasing production to meet this supply gap, especially from forests managed by communities and farms. In addition, a number of non-timber forest products, such as medicinal plants and aromatic oils, are beginning to show economic promise. The ability of communities to tap into these emerging opportunities is hampered by a complex legal framework, command and control regulatory approaches, insufficient understanding of community forest institutions, and poor access to efficient market channels. JFM still focuses largely on commercial plantation management under forest department jurisdiction, with communities providing protection services in return for better nontimber forest product access and a share of any timber revenue. There appears to be a broad agreement among many stakeholders that continued evolution of JFM toward a model in which communities are more fully empowered with rights and responsibilities can both strengthen forest conservation and increase rural livelihoods. There is, however, no clear national consensus on how to implement this transition, how quickly reform should occur, or what the immediate and longer term policy and program priorities should be. INDIA: Unlocking Opportunities for Forest Dependent People ( A world Bank Study Report on JFM)

Box 9.3



• Provision of cattle shed • Promotion Artificial Insemination

Box 9.5 Promotion of livestock – Suggestions from the communities

Areas of improvement

Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Zone 5

Training and knowledge upgradation

** **** * * **

Facility of capital ** ** * * * Market facilities * * Grazing land * * * Forest conservation * * Improved livestock ** ** Treatment facilities ** *** * Scientific management of livestock

*

Knowledge of medicine

**

Pricing * * Non farm Activities

Modernization of traditional business

Training

Capital support

Promotion of bamboo cultivation on large scale

Marketing strategy to be developed

Managing balance between cost of production and sale price

Livestock is the second largest source of livelihood after agriculture in Jharkhand. Livestock makes multi-faceted contributions to the socio-economic development. However, in the mixed crop-livestock systems its importance goes beyond direct fod production function. It supplies draught power and organic manure to crop sector and hides, bones blood and fibre to the industries. Thus, by being as an important means of income and employment for these household livestock helps alleviate poverty and smoothen income distribution. Jharkhand has 3.17% of country’s dairy population but milk production is only 2.47% of the country’s total milk production. The per capita availability of milk in Jharkhand is around 110 Gms. per day which is much less than national average, which is 240 Gms. per day. One reason is that animal is kept on secondary basis, that is to supplement the agricultural income or for aiding farm activities. Therefore the entire approach has to be changed, livestock production should become the primary means of livelihood. Dr. Seba Palit Sarkar excerpt from paper presented in the workshop by PACS on ‘Evolving Strategy to Enhance Food Security and Livelihood Options in Jharkhand’) Box 9.4



Wage Labour

More employment opportunities in the village

Fixation and effective implementation of minimum wage for different types

of wage

Organizing/Associating unorganized sector and its registration

Encouragement to professional education

Fixation of working hours

Safety and security at the working site

Transportation facilities

While intensification of agriculture remains the most promising opportunity, attention needs to be paid to simultaneously to off-farm as well as agricultural and allied activities to expand employment opportunities. There are synergies between these and a growing agricultural base. Important to consider here is that while off-farm, non-farm or service sector activities are important under several circumstances, the return from them are usually much less as compared to farm sector activities. Also these require serious negotiation with the market and an ability to withstand market fluctuations. Often these will require creation of mechanisms for collective action through activity specific users’ groups to negotiate with the market and reach economies of scale because a direct interface between the small producer and the market is unviable or risky to the producer. The other important consideration for a non-land activity is ensuring uniform return to the family. Small producers are more concerned with regular uniform return than profit maximization or lumpy cash-flow. Some essential prerequisites A few things are prerequisites for livelihood promotion of the poor in poor areas. The first is about social mobilization. Social mobilization not only provides linkages and negotiating space, it also deals with “being” level issues. Many of our discourses on livelihood promotion deal with infrastructures, linkages and sectors but ignore the human elements. While Poorest Area Civil Society (PACS) Programme begins with social mobilization and thereby gives an edge to the recipients, there should be no complacency regarding the quality of social mobilization. The second is about area saturation. It is difficult for any effort to succeed if it is scattered, which is often the case. We move around a large area promoting groups here and there- the groups feel isolated and the livelihood promoter increases its costs. Sporadic activities here and there fail to establish linkages and die prematurely before they have made any impact. We need to cover as many poor as possible in compact area and saturate the same with activities. The third is about the social, cultural and institutional fit to decide the approaches. In short, this will mean understanding the people and the area, technology that will fit the case and suitable institutional arrangements that are necessary. (Soumen Biswas, PRADAN excerpt from paper presented in the workshop by PACS on ‘Evolving Strategy to Enhance Food Security and Livelihood Options in Jharkhand’)

Box 9.6



Address the problem of recurrent drought, depleting forest cover and generating employment opportunities in the state

Improve Agriculture extension services and ensure availability of

Institutional credit

Ensure rights over non timber forest produces

Design government schemes as per the local context.

Ensure hassle free and easier access to basic services and social security schemes.

***

The communities expect greater commitment on the part of the government to:



Annexure- 1

List of Location covered in the study

Sl No. Village Block District

1. Balmanko Bhuski Godda 2. Makandu Kudu Lohardaga 3. Singaro Merang Khud Chatra 4. Nawadih Lohardaga 5. Gome Pratappur Chatra 6. Bara Naukadih Chatra 7. Baghartola Chatra 8. Ludam Kothatola Gumla 9. Sarata Gadhwa 10. Gansa Latehar 11. Batauwa Ramuna Gadhwa 12. Sohgara Lesliganj Palamu 13. Mareenang Eajara Lesleeganj Palamu 14. Durhul Kisko Lohardaga 15. Kundo Kuru Lohardaga 16. Dumriya Khas Bano Simdega 17. Kuda Murai Ranchi 18. Pakar Tola Raidih Gumla 19. Ludam Kothatoli Raidih Gumla 20. Nawa Tola Ranchi 21. Gunee Ranchi 22. Tilobdar Godda 23. Dumarthar Saraiya Hat Dumka 24. Kadampur Jama Dumka 25. Kathnara Jama Dumka 26. Garapathar Dumka 27. Simra Pradhan Jama Dumka 28. Jogeshwar Pakur 29. Mohlee Tola Masliya Dumka 30. Neeche Simra Dumka 31. Chhota Khambee Pakur 32. Baspaharee Bareedih Jamtara 33. Mohanpur Jamtara 34. Baredih Deoghar 35. Jeetpur -Do- 36. Khikhataree Deweepur Deoghar 37. Jikhadih 38. Beraho 39. Dudhpaniya 40. Besh



41. Dhegura Nagar Hazaribagh 42. Ghaghardih Giridih Giridih 43. Simas Dohar Budhidih Hazaribagh 44. Labdera Simdega 45. Jumal Saraikela 46. Nuwaguan W.Singhbhum W.Singhbhum 47. Moktama Eachak Hazaribagh 48. Bara Kadam RajNagar Saraikela 49. Sahar Bera Chandeel Saraikela 50. Pireetola Katwa W.Singhbhum 51. Etiwanda Gaun Bandgaun 52. Jhingamirch Sonuba W.Singhbhum 53. Miyahid Nagar Ranchi Ranchi 54. Kauwathath Godda 55. Jiyarapa Khunti Ranchi 56. Pidihatu Murhu Ranchi 57. Jilingtola Murhu Ranchi 58. Pundee Mandu Hazaribagh 59. Belangee Khunti Ranchi 60. Ghagharee W. Sighbhum 61. Chhota Daldali Pahar Barhet Sahebganj 62. Gadiganj Barher Sahebganj 63. Rampur Godda 64. Barandela Sadar Chaibasa W.Singhbhum 65. Dobbo Saraikala Kharsama

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