little handbook citilab

CITILAB LITTLE

HANDBOOK ON

PEOPLE-CENTERED DESIGN

Astrid Lubsen,

Citilab-Cornellà

Citilab little handbook on people-centered design

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First of all I would like to thank Ramon Sangüesa, Director of

innovation for making this project possible. Furthermore I would

like to thank:

Jordi Carrasco, Communication

Rosa Maria Casanovas, Seniorlab

Jordi Colobrans, Research, Breakout

Pau Domínguez, Aprendizaje

Isidor Fernández, Audio visual/ Social media

José Garcia, Aprendizaje/ Programación

Joan Guell, Programación

Irene Lapuente, Expolab

Rafael Martín, Hort Digital/ Aprendizaje

Alba Ortiz, Hort Digital/ Aprendizaje

Laia Sánchez, Audio visual / Social media

Enric Senabre, UrbanLabs/ Breakout

Dolors Solano, Seniorlab

Ricardo Torres, Hort Digital

for their active participation in the project usuaris @ctius. Many

thanks for all your effort, patience and valuable contributions during

and beyond the course.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


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WHAT

IS USUARIS ACTIUS?

Usuaris @ctius is a project that took place from November 2009

to April 2010 in Citilab-Cornellà. It involved practical training about

user-centered design methods for staff members of Citilab.

Citilab-Cornellà is an organisation that stimulates people-driven

innovation by creating a fascination of the tools, methods and

concepts of digital technology. The Citilab staff facilitates events,

trainings and projects in which citizens actively participate in

innovation.

In usuaris @ctius the staff learned tools and techniques to

facilitate creative processes, and to investigate people´s needs.

These methods are considered useful for all Citilab employees

who are involved in projects with citizens.

This handbook is written for the participants of usuaris @ctius as a

reference after the course. Secondly people who are new to Citilab

can use this book to get introduced into people centered design.


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This is a handbook for setting up and execute projects in which

citizens have a role in innovation. It consists of three sections that

provide insight and ideas for including users in Citilab projects.

CITILAB AND INNOVATION WITH CITIZENS

The first section (page 9-33) introduces the Citilab vision on

innovation with citizens and digital technology. It describes its

typical project based approach, and explains why collaboration

with citizens is the core of all activities.

DIY: PROJECTS WITH CITIZENS

The second section (page 35-43) gives guidelines for getting

started with citizens in a new project. An action list and a set of

guidelines help to make decisions and plan for user involvement in

your specific situation.

SELECTED TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

The last section of the handbook (page 45-85) contains examples

of techniques from the field of user-centered design, to understand

and co-create with people. Every example is shortly explained in

two pages. The proposed techniques can be seen as building blocks

that can fit into a project process. The selection of techniques can

be seen as a basis for further development: the Citilab staff will

adapt and extend the collection as they work with the techniques.

WHAT

IS THIS BOOK ABOUT?


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CITILAB

AND INNOVATION

WITH CITIZENS

This section gives an introduction in the vision of Citilab on innovation

from digital technology with citizens. It explains the importance

to include citizens in innovation in the current knowledge society,

how Citilab currently works with citizens in projects and trainings,

and how Citilab eventually aims to stimulate citizens to become

active and autonomous innovators.


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AN APPROACH

TO INNOVATION FROM

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

The mission of Citilab is to ´design the future with citizens´,

exploiting and spreading the impact of digital technology on

creative thinking, design and innovation. The centre gives space to

citizens who are involved in training and projects, and it functions

as an incubator for developer communities, business startups and

social initiatives.

The first step towards the long term objective is to promote the

use of digital technologies to citizens. Currently the Citilab staff

members offer a variety of courses to the citizens in order to provide

them with skills and knowledge in the field of digital technology.

The next step will be to promote the construction and innovation

of the Information Society with, and by these citizens. The vision

is that methods based on design thinking, participatory design and

open design should be applied in this process, and be adapted to

the open source and 2.0 culture that characterizes Citilab.


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SIX QUESTIONS

ON INNOVATION

WITH CITIZENS

Ramon Sangüesa is director of innovation in Citilab. In this interview he explains

his ideas on the transition from citizens as passive ´users´ to citizens who actively

participate in innovation of the knowledge society.

Can you describe how the education in Citilab differs from ´traditional´

education?

It is a “learning by doing” and “learning together” project-based approach. Once

citizens have learned the basics in digital technology, Citilab aims at facilitating

their transition from ´users´ of digital technology towards active creators who

autonomously organize themselves in communities that innovate in the knowledge

society. This requires that they also incorporate the ways of thinking and designing

that are associated with the types of design and organization emerging from years

of research, development and innovation in the digital world. This is why Citilab tries

as a much as possible to work on a learning programme that is centered around the

concept of a project.

Now, what is a project? A project is the development and realization along time

of an idea that interests a group. Of course, “projects” that interest plain citizens

are, most of the time, very tenously connected to technology: people want to

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cook together, tinker with tools, create their

own documentaries, renovate their house,

improve their working prospects, etc. These,

for Citilab, are very legitimate project starting

points. We have to be very respectful about

where people are, where they start from as

well as about their motivations. The goal of

Citilab facilitators is to be able to understand

the points of departure of the citizens, and

then translate, and connect them to the core

skills of digital culture.

So, it is crucial for them to be able to facilitate that evolution: from wherever

the citizen is to the core. Because digital culture has a core and Citilab as an

institution, has a goal, and a direction towards this core and from this core. All

citizens’ projects are great opportunities for people to learn about things that they

never had thought they would need or never had heard about, things that are at the

core of technological, digital thinking. These projects are also a great opportunity

for us to learn what people are interested in.

This implies that we have to learn to listen and to complement their initial idea with

connections to ongoing projects, to core skills and to revise or devise a completely

different set of activities to adapt to them. For other types of citizens, the techsavvy

ones, the hackers, the situation is a bit different. It is more

to listen and accompany their projects or see the learning

opportunity that they may bring to other citizens.

The required skills that people end up learning include

some that are not strictly technological but that stem from

technological practice. For example, projects may require

people to learn how to work with others online, which means

managing reputation and contributions in a similar spirit as

many Open Source projects.

There are other dimensions to this learning processes. For example, all along

the development of a project people discover that they are appreciated by their

contributions and find out their own unsuspected potential. Of course, this is not

what most people that approached Citilab in the first place expected to find.

´The goal of Citilab facilitators is to be able to understand the points of departure of the citizens, translate, and connect them to the core skills of digital culture.´


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´The trick is for Citilab facilitators to know how to manage the expectation gap and to show people what other Citilabers are already doing in their own projects.´

´We work with and for people. We have to learn to design new learning processes for creating innovators.´

In fact, most people come to us thinking that we will teach them about internet,

computers, etc. not about computational thinking, digital culture, design and

collaboration too. So, we have to manage this expectation gap properly. That’s

the reason why we still have to devise “entry points” to citilab

activities which look very much like classical “courses” ... and

end up developing a project-based approach.

The trick is for Citilab facilitators to know how to manage the

expectation gap and to show people what other Citilabers are

already doing in their own projects. This helps in communicating

the main characteristics of the Citilab learning process to

novices. However, this understanding and this process have

taken a long time to develop and to communicate clearly. It is

only after the first two years that we are really creating a working bridge between

the classical training course approach and the learning that taks place in groups of

self-directed peers around projects.

For anyone coming from digital culture, all these processes of learning by doing,

group collaboration, or project based learning are very natural ways of interacting,

working and, in the process, learning. Unfortunately, this is not what it is happening

in our schools at the moment. We could talk some other day about how we are

approaching schools to work with technology and its concepts, methods, culture

and ways of constructing knowledge. But, for the time being, the Citilab approach

and the approach followed in schools are still different.

Finally, don’t forget that Citilab is a Living Lab, i.e., a context

for innovation. Our main outcome is not just new applications,

or services (which we strive to co-create with users and

companies) but mainly, new learning opportunities, activities

and new innovators, i.e., Citilabers. That is, it is a living lab that

innovates... about how to create innovators. We work with and for people. We have

to learn to design new learning processes for creating innovators.

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Apart from knowledge and skills in digital technology, what competences

should citizens possess in order to become innovators of the knowledge

society?

I think that the main abilities that citizens should have are still not very much

promoted in our culture. For example, the will to try new things out, the will to learn

from failure, or to, simply put, to embrace failure and start from the lessons of

failing in achieving your project.

A second group has to do with the ability to not separate learning from doing and

to integrate a reflective step in all actions. This is the basis for a design approach

to developing new things: have an idea, create a question, and create an artifact (a

program, hardware, a urban iniative, a collaborative platform, etc.) that will help you

understand what was that you wanted to create and what you learned in the process.

This reflective practice includes also some degree of other design thinking abilities.

A third group of competences has to do with the ability to share knowledge and to

cooperate with others in carrying on the projects that you think deserve a go. So,

this also has to do with some type of organizative skills and organization forms of

the digital culture.

I would say that this boils down to be able to design, share, and organize yourself

to work together... sometimes online.

People tend to start from a very different point. Most people come here convinced

that they cannot do much, that they barely could do anything more than learning

the basic Internet skills, etc. That’s what the knowledge society means to them:

Internet and that at the most basic level. Don’t forget that the geographical area

where we are located has a strong industrial tradition in traditional sectors that

didn’t involve a lot of technology and almost no digital technology. Most of our

membership has just basic primary education.

Those with a professional background in industry feel pressed to learn something

about “the digital” but think they cannot do the connection between their past skills

and present and future digital technologies and methods. In a way, by a strange


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and unfortunate combination of culture, schooling, types of jobs and other factors,

a great proportion of people come here convinced that they cannot learn much and,

even less, contribute to the learning of others. One interesting thing of the local

working class culture, on the positive side, is that there is a strong commitment to

work, to work together, and to respond to calls to action. Citilab tries to exploit this

context.

It is very rewarding for them (and for us) to realize that in the process they can gain

a clear space as builders of the knowledge society. They all have knowledge to

start with and they can learn to connect it with digital design processes.

Can you describe a roadmap on how citizens will go through this transition

over the coming years, and how employees of Citilab should facilitate this

process?

As you know, it is easy to make predictions about he past but predictions about the

future are extremely difficult. No one in the early 90s could foresee the impact of

mobile phones, or the raise of peer production modes that have changed sectors

(and jobs) like music production completely. Forecasting is a risky business.

That said, in the near future there will be a change in the current needs and interests

of citizens as innovation is concerned. The same goes for their need to learn new

“digital things”. There is lot of talking about what will happen with current “Digital

Natives” when they grow and become full citizens both in the spheres of work and

politics. Their needs will not be the same as current generations since they will

have been inmersed in “all things digital”.

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One surprising thing, however, is that this inmersion is done under the pressure

of consumerism most of the time. There is a relationship with technology that is

mainly an experience of usage and, to a lesser degree, of building content and in

an even lesser degree in building things digitally (mostly context, not so much code

or hardware). This may change in the future, but still there is an imbalance towards

usage instead of construction and fully conscious collaboration and learning.

One of the things that not currently is addressed is just what we are trying to do

here, which is to divert attention from the superficial and ever changing aspects of

digital technology and of typical process of innovation and focus on the core skills

of digital culture and its peculiar ways of building knowlege.

Don’t forget that we devised our approach after several years of research of what

was different in the knowledge society because of precisely the widespread irruption

of computation, information and its concepts and methods, not just their market

success.


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´In our analysis, the principal contribution of the computational revolution is the idea of process on one hand and on the other in the way that new knowledge is created´.

At a very abstract but deep level, computation and information give you a look

on the world that is very different from the one given by the scientific tradition

that sparked the Industrial Revolution, not to mention from the

experience of technology as a consumer. This is somewhat in

line with Herbert Simon´s idea of a ´Science of the Artificial´,

based on the design stance.

In our analysis, the principal contribution of the computational

revolution is the idea of process on one hand and on the

other in the way that new knowledge is created. This new

knowledge is mainly tested and later theorized by construction.

It is close to traditional engineering but with the difference that

the (informational, computational) artifacts that you learn to build are much more

autonomous and complex than in previous times. Think just what it is involved in

creating robots, sensor systems, sensor networks or social networks. It requires

a lot of knowledge about processes, about how to define them and how to design

them. This is what the MIT tradition calls “procedural epistemology”. If you become

familiar with this way of thinking and doing then it is easy for you to unify many

aspects of reality, from synthetic biology to personal fabrication, peer production

and new political ways of organizing. Internet adds up to this complexity and

contributes in creating new ways of coordination and organizing so that networks of

citizens can achieve a big impact in innovation. Don’t forget that Citilab is a design

artifact (both digital and of bricks and mortar). This design artifact, Citilab, tries to

test the hypothesis that innovation in the new society hinges critically in grasping

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the concepts of computational and informational culture, that we call, for short,

digital culture. So, you can see a convergence of different ways of thinking and

doing that are mainly based on the idea of computational process, information and

knowledge representation and the design of complex processes and networked

structures.

This is becoming mainstream now. It has spawned enormous forces of change

in many spheres. In a way, we are already living in a postdigital world, a world

informed by the digital way of designing and organizing complex processes based

on information and knowledge. This is impacting many, many areas that will affect

all of us. Take for example, Craig Venter’s words in presenting

his research achievement in creating artificial bacteria “This is

the first self-replicating species whose parent is a computer”.

You cannot use more computational terms to describe this

feat! And you’d better understand the logic of how it was done

and what it entails. You can find similar developments in other

areas: ecomomics, politics, environment, you name it. As a

citizen, you cannot be content to be left aside. You have to be

knowledgeable about this if only to have an opportunity to have

your say in the processes of change that are sweeping our

world. But, apart from the leaders of this change, most people

are left out of the conceptual tools and practical methods to

assess what is going on. For a democratic society I think this

cannot be tolerated.

For me, the way to get citizens on the technological design track, is to help them

learn by actually getting involved in this type of practice and processes. Then they

can decide whether to join or to resist against the processes of change.

So, to make things short, I see that we will have to keep working on our approach

to get more and new types of people reach the core of the technological ways of

designing and innovation. Basically, we will have to find more and more new “entry

points” that connect with their needs, interests and pressing issues in years to

come. “Entry points” are artfifacts (events, meetings, activities, courses, etc.) that

are easy for citizens to relate to their needs and interests and to discover something

else. “Entry points” are also skills of Citilab staff to be able to devise these tools

´For me, the way to get citizens on the technological design track, is to help them learn by actually getting involved in this type of practice and processes. Then they can decide whether to join or to resist against the processes of change.´


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´We have to understand

people, we have to identify

those who can act as

tractors of fellow citizens

in learning, building,

innovation, propagating

change...´

and to work with people. Employees of Citilab have to be alert and responsive to

the joint evolution of society and technology. So, it is fundamental that they are

proactive and familiar with an extensive set of tools to be able to understand what

is important for citizens and how to relate that to the core skills of Citilab.

All this includes a foreseeable change in the practice of design where you

help people become designers instead of just designing for them. So, Citilab

employees will have to first improve their designer toolset and then forget about

being designers in the traditional sense and go for the last design techniques

where designers become facilitators of design environments where users become

designers. This is a burgeoning area of design research. In a way, what now is

happening in design is very much in tune with Citilab, since it strives to become an

ecosystem of innovation and digital design. So, Citilab has to pursue a research

programme on its own about all these new design areas.

How can methods from the field of user centered design

contribute in this roadmap in your opinion?

On one hand they will contribute a lot. On another, these

methods are just a starting point. All the previous answers can

be translated into a single sentence: “understand people” or,

if you prefer, “understand your users”. I prefer to say, instead

of users, “fellow citizens”, but let’s stick to the current jargon.

So, Citilab staff have to resort to a wide arrangement of tools to reach out and

understand what people really want, know and do. This, requires going deeper

than the surface level, i.e., to resort to techniques that unearth rich information and

multiple perspectives about what the users really are asking us for.

This serves for all aspects of Citilab, from training to learning, from communication to

content creation, from event planning to exhibition design. We have to understand

people, we have to identify those who can act as tractors of fellow citizens in

learning, building, innovation, propagating change...

All these needs of Citilab can benefit from many different well-proven methods

currently used in the discipline of design, specially the area that has come to be

known as “human-centered design”.

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But, as I said, these methods are only a first stepping stone in a longer path, where

we have to start using human-centered techniques, to devise activities, courses,

workshops, events, exhibitions, ideas for projects methods, all the different formats

that we are simultaneously using at Citilab, and move on to designing environments

to let users become designers, digital designers that is.

What other methods would you consider to stimulate citizens to initiate new

projects by themselves in the future?

I am following closely all methods that stem from human-centered design and

overlap with open design, peer to peer open design and “design for complexity”.

There is also a wealth of insights coming in from other disciplines not exactly

classified nowadays as design such as organization innovation. In this overlapping

area you can find very useful methods to facilitate the emergence of patterns of

behaviour, of design behaviour that is. Our collaboration with Columbia University

in research of new ways of organizing is very promising in that sense.

Also I want to start collaborations in design research with several other senior

fellows at Ontario College of Art and Design in seeing how strategic design and

participatory design can give us new methods, methods that can be tested, and fine

tuned in Citilab, and become part of the regular “Citilab toolbox” in the future. Also

all the strands of research connection with “design for transformation” or turning

innovation into transformation are worth exploring.

How do you see the role of Citilab facilitators in the next years?

I see them as designers who devise participatory institutions where users become

designers of their own future. I also see them as people much more connected


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to a wider design and innovation community, well aware of what is going on in

the world of innovation, social transformation and its connection to design (digital

or not). They should also be communicators of the methods that they are able to

create. In that direction I see a lot of interest in finding correlates in the virtual world

of current (and future) nondigital design methods. Also to use some of the lessons

of the digital world - as peer to peer, open source, and social media- to devise

new environments for participatory digital design. As I said before, this is already

happening in the area known as “peer to peer open design” which we have to follow

very closely. The work of Massimo Menichinelli and his group is very relevant,

I think. So is the work of several italian designers that look at the crossroads of

innovation, the digital culture, citizenship and sustainability.

There is plenty of work (and fun) ahead!

from: www.openp2pdesign.org


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PROJECTS

WITH AND BY CITIZENS

All activities, events, trainings and design processes in Citilab

are called projects. Projects focus on applying and constructing

knowledge in the field of digital technology and are usually

initiated and executed in a collaboration between members and

staff members. Some projects are initiated by staff members who

involve citizens in their project, others are initiated by citizens

themselves and facilitated by staff members.

An example of a project initiated by a member of Citilab is a senior

who learns about digital technology and decides to make a blog

about his life, or a group of children who construct and program

their own robot. An example of a project initiated by professionals

is Expolab: the development of an exhibition with a team of

professionals who collaborate with citizens in various stages of

the process.


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All Citilab projects are initiated by or based on the interest or a need

of the citizen(s). By executing the project, citizens gain knowledge

about digital technology, explore new purposes of usage, or initiate

the development of new technology.

In any Citilab project the citizen plays a central role. A project

process typically consists of four phases, which are described in

this paragraph. In each phase the specific role and contribution of

the citizens is considered by the staff members. The phases can,

but not necessarily have to be followed in the order as described.

DEFINE

First of all the objective and scope of the project are defined.

Information or skills might be needed in order to reach the

objective. In this phase an inventory of the required knowledge

or skills is made, and a plan on how to obtain this. A planning of

the further activities as well as the role and responsibilities of the

collaborators is made to provide structure for the work during the

rest of the process.

PROJECT PROCESS

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LEARN

The project objective is a motivator for people to dive into a certain

topic. It could be that the required information is available on the

internet, but often the knowledge or skills can also be obtained by

learning from and with other people. During the learning phase the

steps towards the project goal are defined in more detail.

CONSTRUCT

Once the people on the project team have obtained a basic level

of knowledge and skills, they can apply what they have learned

to construct new knowledge or to develop a new application.

While working on the project it might happen that more learning

is required. The learning and constructing phase usually go hand

in hand.

REFLECT

Regular reflection is needed throughout all phases in the process,

but especially towards the end of a project reflection is needed to

assess what has been achieved or what can be improved. Often

new questions arise, which can be the start of a new project.

DEFINE

LEARN

CONSTRUCT

REFLECT

citizens

questions andproject goal

skills andknowledge

answers and newquestions

prototype ornew knowledge


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CASE:

EDUCATIONAL

WORKSHOPS 4 KIDS

A CASE PROJECT: WORK IN PROGRESS

The Citilab education team was assigned to develop 1.5 hour

workshops for groups of primary schoolchildren, to complement

their education in class. They decided to develop the workshops

in a collaboration between teachers, children and colleagues

from Citilab with expertise in education, design, programming and

audiovisual tools. This chapter describes the project for as far as it

has been executed at the moment of writing.

The figure on page 27 shows the phases define, learn, construct

and reflect, and de desired result of each phase. It also shows the

desired interaction with both teachers and children throughout the

process,

The Citilab team applied a number of techniques from the usuaris

@ctius course throughout the project. The following pages

describe the activities and result per phase. More details about the

techniques that were used can be found in section three (page 45

and onwards.


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DEFINE

The Citilab team defined the objective of the project: to develop

workshops for school classes in Citilab, to complement the

curriculum. The developers realized they needed to know more

about the education in primary schools, so they decided to involve

teachers and children in the process. The result was a planning of

research and design sessions with teachers and children.

LEARN

An online enquiry with teachers provided first insight in the

activities and issues in primary schools. To gather more in depth

information, the citilab team invited teachers to make a mindmap

and tell detailed stories about their practice. After the session the

Citilab team made an affinity diagram to cluster the rich data

into interesting themes. The result was a selection of themes that

served as a basis for the development of workshops.

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CONSTRUCT

The education team organized a brainstorm session with experts

in audiovisual tools, scratch and low tech education to generate

ideas on how these tools could serve to convey the content that

was provided by the teachers, in an attractive way. The team

designed six proposals for workshops, and reflected these with

the teachers by means of storyboards in a focus group session.

Based on the comments of the teachers, they wrote manuals and

prepared prototypes for another feedback round.

REFLECT

At the moment of writing six different workshops with Scratch,

Arduino, audiovisual tools and pencil and paper games were

under construction. The demos will be reflected again in one or

more focus group sessions with teachers, and the children will

be invited to participate in pilot workshops. This will result in a

final iteration step before the workshops can be launched after the

summer holidays of the schools in September 2010.


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PRELIMINARY RESULTS

At the point of writing the project had not been finished yet, but the

education team already learned some interesting things from the

interaction with teachers.

Initially the Citilab team assumed that the workshops would have to

be content oriented in order to be helpful for the teachers. During

the sessions it became clear that the teachers were especially

interested in the refreshing approach and the way of constructing

knowledge in Citilab. This led to the idea to develop a methodology

or a format for learning by doing, rather than ready-made workshops

on specific topics.

The teachers were interested to participate in the development of

a programme that includes education in school and workshops in

Ciitlab. The added value of this closer collaboration is that the children

get more out of a workshop. Moreover, the teachers´expertise on

conveying content, and the Citilab expertise of learning in new

ways with digital technology can amplify each other.


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DIY: PROJECTS WITH

CITIZENS

The previous section gave an introduction into Citilab and its

view on people-driven innovation, as well as an example of how

citizens are involved in projects and activities. For Citilab staff it

is important to be able to listen to the needs and wishes of Citilab

members and to stimulate their creativity.

This section provides a starting point for people in Citilab who

want to collaborate with citizens. A checklist and guidelines help to

consider the possibilities for user involvement, to select adecuate

techniques and to make a planning of the project process.

It is important to remember that collaborating with people in a real

life environment is different from laboratory research. The steps

can be planned in advance but you will see that they will constantly

have to be adapted to the constraints in situ; so be creative and let

the results of your efforts surprise you!


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This checklist can be used before starting a project with citizens.

The questions help to consider the most important issues regarding

the collaboration with people.

DEFINE THE PROJECT GOALS

What do you want to achieve/investigate/learn/explore?

What are the requirements for the end result of the project?

Can you split up the project in phases?

What are the desired outcomes of the phases?

GET TO KNOW THE CITIZENS

What do you know about the needs and interests of the citizens?

What do they get out of the collaboration in the project?

What do you know about their daily context?

What information is missing?

ACTION LIST

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DEFINE THE ROLE OF THE CITIZENS

What is the motivation to involve people? (Motivation for people to

get involved in your project could for example be curiosity, social

contact, societal relevance, idealism or a reward)

What is the expected outcome of the contribution of the citizens?

How many people are needed? What are their roles?

PLAN THE PROCESS

How would you split up the project into phases? (see page 16,17)

What you are the activities in each of the project phases?

Which people will be involved in each phase of the project?

Specify: what is the motivation for participation?

When are the deadines for the activities in the project phases?.

SELECT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

How do you want to collaborate with people? (one session vs long

term collaboration)

What outcome do you expect? (empathy, inspiration, co creation)

How do you see your role as facilitator?

To what extent is the result going to impact the project?

How much time and resources do you have?


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SEND INVITATIONS

How many people are required for your method?

Which people should be involved?

- What profiles are you looking for?

- Who might be willing to collaborate?

- What is their required expertise?

Where are you going to find these people?

Are you going to invite them via mail, friends, social networks?

PREPARE ACTIVITIES

Do your research on the selected methods: can you find more

information on how to conduct the session?

What do you need in terms of tools, materials, technical support?

What will you explain and what questions are you going to ask?

Where are you going to do the session?

Is there a possibility to practice the session in advance?

39

GET PEOPLE IN ACTION

How to stimulate and facilitate the participants?

How do you make the participants at ease during the session?

How are you going to document the session? Audio or video

recordings, photos, notes?

ANALYZE RESULTS

Process the results immediately: search through the data, what

surprised you, what strikes you, what patterns do you see?

What can you conclude, what can you use for your project?

Reflect on the outcome: what can be improved next time?

What do you know about their daily context?

What information is missing after the session?

Have new questions come up? How are you going to learn more?

DOCUMENT AND COMMUNICATE

Document the data: how are you going to communicate results?

How are you going to update the citizens about the results?


40

FURTHER

CONSIDERATIONS

FOR WORKING WITH

CITIZENS

During the usuaris @ctius classes the Citilab staff members have

been able to exchange their experiences in working with people.

This paragraph lists a number of recommendations for collaboration

with citizens that came up during the classes, divided in short term

activities such as workshops or user research sessions and long

term projects such as courses.

FOR SHORT WORKSHOPS AND ACTIVITIES

It is important to consider the privacy of the people you work with.

Agree to what extent you can use photos, quotes, ideas and other

results from the session.

People usually participate voluntarily, so make the users sessions

pleasant and valuable and fun for them.

Think of what you can offer participants in terms of compensation,

a reward, mentioning their name, or just a good atmosphere.

41

FOR LONGER PROJECTS AND TRAININGS

Since the citizens conduct their project voluntarily, it is crucial that

you understand and address their motivation for participation.

Sometimes people start a project out of curiosity for digital

technology, others because they want to contribute to society, and

others because they are interested in the social contact of the

project group. Find out what they really want.

Many adults who learn about digital technology need time in

getting comfortable with a computer. Take small steps, repeat new

knowledge and work with mini excercises.

People should not only learn how current digital technology works,

but also learn about new technology by finding it out themselves

or with peers. In this fast changing era an important skill is to be

able to learn independently without someone that tells you step by

step what to do. After a period of guided education people should

be able to keep on learning independently.

If people work on a theme they like they are generally more

eager to learn new tools and skills in order to reach their personal

objectives. A good project goal functions as a motivator to get in

touch with more new technology.

Between people there are different levels of creativity. Creativity

can be learned to a great extent, but not everybody can or wants to

be the producer of the next innovation. It is important to understand

the ambitions of people and take this into account when defining

the project goals with them.


42

DRAW YOUR PROCESS

Once you have answered the questions from the checklist it is

recommended to capture your decisions in a scheme. An example

is given on page 29. The users are drawn at the centre of the project.

The phases of the process are written in a circle that represents the

whole project. After each phase there is an intermediate result, for

example the intermediate result of the define phase is a definition

of the project, including research questions and a plan for user

involvement. The possible user sessions can be indicated in this

picture as well.

You can use the example on the next page to make a visualization

of your project but you can also create your own. It is best to use

a large sheet, so you have plenty space to put in all your thoughts

and decisions.

This is how it works: first divide your project into phases, such

as define, learn, construct and reflect. Write down the desired

outcome of each phase. Then define the activities within each

phase that lead to the desired outcome. Then indicate in which

43

points of the process you could benefit from collaborating with

citizens. Specify their expertise and role in the development, and

the desired outcomes of the collaboration. Then choose adecuate

tools or techniques for the collaboration, using the examples from

this handbook or define your own way of working. Once you have

this picture you can make a detailed planning and set dates for

the meetings with citizens. Communicate your planning to all team

members and keep everybody updated during the project.

DEFINE

LEARN

CONSTRUCT

REFLECT

citizens

questions andproject goal

skills andknowledge

answers and newquestions

prototype ornew knowledge


44

45

SELECTED

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

This section provides a selection of the most useful tools and

techniques for user involvement that were discussed during the

usuaris @ctius project. The methods have been derived from

the IDEO method card set and other online resources for user

centered design techniques. See the references on page 88 for

more information.

The examples in this section form the beginning of a collection that

will grow and improve as people in Citilab gain practical experience

in their projects.

The methods can be used in combination with each other, and

with methods and procedures that are already used in Citilab. All

techniques can be adapted and modified to suit the situation in

practice.


46

HOW

TO USE THIS SECTION

Each technique is summarized in two pages. The first page gives

insight in why, when and with whom the technique can be useful,

The small icons in the margin indicate the purpose, number of

participants and required time for the technique. See page 47 for

an explanation of the icons. The second page gives an example of

how the technique can be implemented in the context of Citilab.

There is more detailed information available

online for most of the methods; the two page

overview should be seen as a starting point

for further exploration. The references on

page 88 give links to a number of useful

resources.

XX

47

TECHNIQUES FOR EMPATHY

Empathy is the ability to understand and share others people´s

feelings. The empathy techniques help to get understanding

of their motivations, rituals and desires of a few people. These

techniques are considered important for all employees who are in

contact with citizens in Citilab.

TECHNIQUES FOR INSPIRATION

The techniques for inspiration involve procedures for generating

insight and initial ideas from and with people. The techniques can

be used both by the staff and members of Citilab to come up with

solutions together, especially in the beginning of a project.

TECHNIQUES FOR CO-CREATION

Citizens can participate in the development of innovation in a role

as ´ínformant on their experience´ but also as creators of new

ideas and solutions. The co-creation techniques help to develop

solutions during group activities. The techniques can be used both

by the staff and members of Citilab to generate and elaborate

solutions together.

NO. OF PARTICIPANTS

This icon indicates the optimum number of participants for the

technique. Often a trade off between generating a lot of superficial

data from many people, and getting in depth with only a small

number of people. All methods in this handbook are qualitative.

TIMING

The clock gives an idea of the time needed to prepare, execute

and analyze a technique: a couple of afternoons (quarter full),

several days (half full) or several weeks (full)


3-10

Ensure that people are reminded to do their

activities on a regular basis, otherwise they

might forget to document after a while.

48

What: Ask citizens to keep a written and visual documentation

of their impressions, circumstances and activities related to

a certain topic.

Why: The technique is non-intrusive, because the participants

document when the researcher is not present all the time.

The technique allows to reveal and discuss patterns after the

documentation period.

Get started: Provide citizens with a note block and a (video)

camera and ask them to document their experiences related to a

topic during a couple of days or throughout a series of events. The

results can be analysed by the research team but also together

with the participants. The analysis can be the basis for a new

project proposal.

CAMERA JOURNAL

49

Ideas for Citilab projects:

BREAK OUT

Participants can take pictures of their

daily self-employment at home, or

those who do paid employment in

an office (spaces, tools, places to

“escape”, co workers, etc). It would

make a joint statement as a “track”

brief in the Breakout, and can be

used to identify each participant’s

needs and routines, or even compare

them with a visual narrative of the

Breakout

EDUCATION

Participants can make a visual diary

of what they want to learn or teach,

in order to identify needs but also

allow for some self-organization or

generation of offers and demands

between Citilabers who want to be

more active. It is seen as a good

ingredient for what can be called

“collective learning”

Citilab could develop a personal blog

where the user itself turns green (in

the good and the bad sense of the

word) and images that are good or

bad in terms of sustainability. The

user can indicate “self-blame” and

“self-congratulations´. In the end it

should help to design solutions in

the city to move ahead in areas of

consumption, mobility, recycling, etc.

SUSTAINABILITY


4-8

50

What: In a group session people make a collage about their

experience related to a certain topic. When the participants

explain the images in their collages they reveal rich

information about their daily live experiences.

Why: Images are an entry to reveal latent knowledge on a

motivational and emotional level. Once people are allowed to

express something about their life in a non-verbal way, they are

better able to tell about their experiences, desires and dreams.

The results can be used by a design team to get empathy or

inspiration.

Get started: Give the participants a small preparation exercise

(see ´sensitizing tools´). During the session: provide a set of

prepared images and ask the participants to make a collage about

how they experience a certain topic. Then, discuss the collages

in the group, so that people can react on each others experience.

Optionally a second collage can be made with a focus on their

vision on the future. Afterwards, analyze the stories of the people

and cluster them into themes or insights and communicate them

to a design team.

COLLAGE MAKING

51

Example: In the Expolab project, groups of people explained how

the evolution of internet had changed their daily lives. Their stories

were transscribed on pieces of paper and added to the collages for

the analysis of the material. See also http://expolab.net/


4-8

52

What: This is an exercise that results in a preliminary map,

showing the relations between concepts, persons or projects

(or services, or products, it can be anything)..

Why: The technique can be used to visualize the relationships

between users and their positioning or self definition in a

collaborative exploration. The most interesting results can be

obtained if a mixed group of people participate in a session.

Get started: Work in small groups on separate tables. Begin with

a blank panel or flip over sheet, and use words and connections

with arrows to collaboratelively draw a map of a concept or a

project.

CONNECTION MAPPING

53

Example: This method has been used in an Urban Labs workshop iin collaboraton

between Citilab and Platoniq. See also www.platoniq.net


> 20

54

What: A set of targeted questions sent by email to a large

group of people with a specific profile.

Why: Online enquiry tools, such as Google Docs forms, can be

used to quickly generate answers from a large number of people.

It gives a first impression on the perspective of the target group on

a certain topic in the beginning of a project. In the end phase of a

project enquiry tools can be used for reflection on the results.

Get started: Prepare the questions in a questionnaire format,

considering the required amount of respondents, the desired

feedback and the amount of time. There are free online tools

available that makes the answers appear in a spreadsheet

automatically. Citilab has people who are specialized in this type

of research technique.

ONLINE ENQUIRY

55

Example: Asking profile information and feedback from participants of a Breakout

session.


6 - 12

56

What: A sensitizing tool can be a booklet or a cultural probe

with short exercises and open questions around the topic

you want users to start thinking about. People receive this

probe and during a couple of weeks they do the excercises

as a preparation for a generative session (this is a session in

which people express their experience or ideas through the

creation of artefacts).

Why: By sensitizing people first, they will be better able to access

their latent knowledge in a generative session. In addition, it gives

the researcher insight in the lives of people at a moment when the

researcher is not actually present with them.

Get started: Prepare a a booklet or a little box with postcards,

images, open questions, stickers etc. The excersises should be

playful, open and short. It should typically take 5 or 10 minutes a

day to complete. Examples are available at:

http://www.designandemotion.org

SENSITIZING TOOLS

Try to keep questions

as open as possible

and try not to reveal too

much about the session

in advance

57

Example: In the Expolab project the participants of a collage

session filled out a cultural probe with questions about the role of

technology in their daily activities. See also http://expolab.net/


2-6

58

What: Developers or teachers can do role playing games in

order to get empathy for their users. Playing the role of the

other user helps to see issues from a new perspective.

Why: Putting yourself in the shoes of the user helps to identify

problems and to really imagine a future situation. It is a useful

excercise to come to a mutual understanding.

Get started: Take on the role of end user during an improvised

scenario play. Pick an exemplary situation and try to act out

different scenarios. After the scenarios have been played out, the

participants discuss their ´learnings´ and draw conclusions for the

design.

STEP INTO MY SHOES

59

Example: In the Hort Digital team the teachers use this method.

They switch roles with the participants in their class as one of the

activities during the course.

?


6 - 12

60

What: A semi-structured interview is a flexible interview in

which researchers allow new questions to be brought up

during the interview as a result of what the user says.

Why: This method helps to focus an interview on the topics at

hand without being constrained to a particular format. This freedom

can help the researcher to adapt the questions to the interview

context/situation, and to the people they are interviewing.

Get started: Prepare a short list of themes that you are interested

in. Take time for the interviews, for example two or three hours.

Preferably visit people in their environment because then you get

the best insight in their context. During a conversation with the

participant, address the themes on the list but also leave space

for unexpected topics. Create trust first, before starting to talk

about more sensitive topics. Gather as many material as possible,

exploring what type of media works best for you.

SEMI-STRUCTURED

INTERVIEW

61

Pick smart documentation tools


2-6

62

What: Organizing ideas or expressions to find the correlations

and identify valuable categories.

Why: The technique can be used to make sense of rich data, by

organizing expressions into clusters of themes, or to define idea

directions. An affinity diagram can be made as a follow-up of a

generative session.

Get started: First, make a pile of sticky notes or printed cards with

expressions, needs, ideas or insights that have been generated

by a group of people. Then, place a card from the pile on a blank

sheet and take a next card. Each following card is placed close to

another card with similar significance. Placing and replacing the

cards will result in a verbal and visual representation of emerging

categories. The activity is closed by defining a keyword, a phrase

or a representative drawing of each category.

AFFINITY DIAGRAM

63

Example: A Citilab team invited teachers to tell stories about of their work with

children. Their examples were summarized on sticky notes and categorized in

themes of interesting topics for Citilab workshops.

It is recommended to take time for the analysis; do several

sessions over a couple of days in which the cards are reviewed

and reshuffled into useful clusters that are understood by all

team members.


2 - 6

64

What: Try to put yourself in the position of a person with

specific needs, using low cost tools.

Why: To get an empathic understanding for users with disabilities

or special conditions. This method allows to find out not just what

people are saying and doing, but also what they are thinking and

feeling by yourself. People don’t always do, think or feel what they

tell you and then it is useful to apply empathy tools, to see the

design challenge from the point of view from the end user.

Get started: Use for example clouded spectacles and weighted

gloves to actually experience processes as though you yourself

have the needs of different users. The experience gives insight in

the requirements for designing applications, products or services.

EMPATHY TOOLS

65

Example: This method can serve for the development of InvinTV, an

activitiy for people with disabilities, based on the Inventa TV format. The

team can try the use of very heavy sunglasses to experience what it is like

to be blind. It is a first exercise that should not be seen as a replacement

for working with end users.


2 - 8

66

What: Future headlines are fictional articles published on

journals, simulated by designers. They try to imagine what

kind of impact their design will have on the society.

Why: This technique can be used to quickly generate answers

from a large number of people. It gives a first impression on the

perspective of the target group on a certain topic.

Get started: Do this exercise as a group activity for designers,

citizens and/or developers as part of a co design session. The

future headlines can be on posters made by hand or elaborated

with a graphic design programme for example.

FUTURE HEADLINES

BREAK OUT

It would be a good exercise to see

what users are doing and where they

are within a year. The Breakout team

could make a tag cloud about their

motivations for example. It triggers

the coordinators of a project to get

to know the users: what are they

interested in, what do they want to

know?

67

Do this excercise in the initial phases of the

process, when it can have the most impact.


68

> 2

What: A visual representation of a fictional user, showing his/

her characteristics, needs, goals and desires. The character

is composed of data from user research.

Why: Personas provoke empathy, inspiration and new questions.

A ´realistic´ representation helps designers to become interested

in the end user, and to make design decisions from the users´ point

of view. A good idea of one or two users can be more inspiring than

a set of data on the average characteristics of a target group.

Making personas helps design teams to come to a shared

understanding of the person.

Get started: Create a one or two page collage with images and

text, showing a photo and some (fictitious but realistic) personal

details, and descriptions of his or her attitude, behaviour,

environment, routines and skills. Images and quotes from user

research sessions make the character more ´real´. A persona can

be digital as well as analog.

PERSONAS

69

Example: This booklet contains descriptions of three different

characters within the target group. It consists of photos from their

daily environment and short quotes from interviews with them.


3 - 12

70

What: Redesign by offering a mirror, using audiovisual

tools.

Why: The technique can be used to redefine appreciations of

users, to redesign with users or to reflect on initial ideas. It helps

to reveal personal patterns that people are not usually aware of.

Get started: First film a person, and then watch the visual material

together. By showing the visual material and the actions, new

questions and answers will be provoked. The discussion can be

the starting point for a redesign session with citizens.

.

VIDEO OBSERVATION

71

BREAK OUT

In the scope of a Breakout session

we can ask people to make pictures

of their daily work. The Breakout

team can compare the fotos with the

Breakout in order to design a new

setup. A new (half-developed) format

can be offered and the next time the

same thing can be done again.


3 - 12

If you do this in a large group, make

sure you keep all people actively

participating in the process

72

What: A group process for gathering needs, wishes and

insights. People express their thoughts and react on thoughts

of other people.

Why: This is a way to do a first exploration of needs, ideas or

design solutions. First people are able to express their individual

thoughts. Then, the collection grows as they start reacting on each

other, in a face to face conversation or by writing their responses

directly on the wall.

Get started: State a central ´problem´. Write a few keywords that

represent the problem on a wall, with enough space between the

words. The participants write down their ideas, thoughts and/or

needs related to this problem on sticky notes, or directly on the wall.

Then, ask participants to react on the post its on the wall, and

also to have conversations with each other and summarize this

on new post its. When people are done talking about the topic on

that part of the wall they move on to see if they can contribute to

another topic.

BRAINSTORM WALL

73

Example: The Citilab education team organized a workshop with teachers to

gather examples and issues related to the primary school curriculum.

Example: In an usuaris @ctius class the needs for collaboration with citizens

were collected.


> 2

74

What: A one-page representation about a persona, or a

concept, in images and words that allows people to get

involved quickly.

Why: It is a way to get involved people who don´t have time to

read a big document. It also helps to raise curiosity and provoke

questions. Visuals help to attract people´s interests. Words will

provide the explicit information.

Get started: An infographic can be digital as well as analog. The

image should give the user the topic and the key learnings easily.

Use a combination of words and images. Make sure the infographic

is either self-explanatory, or use the infographic to trigger people

to read more information that is linked to it.

INFOGRAPHIC

75

Example: An online booklet explaining the process of a collage session for Expolab.

Example: A template for a project card that seniors use to explain their project.


6 - 25

76

What: People collaborate in groups, making 3D representations

of their ideas. The objects are the basis for a discussion in

which ideas are detailed and new ideas are being generated.

Why: Constructing objects manually stimulates the more creative

part of the brain. The technique helps to explain ideas that are

hard to explain in words. Moreover, it forces the participants to be

more specific about their ideas.

Get started: Prepare a variety of scrap material like paper, felt,

Lego, cardboard, pencils etc. Start with a short brainstorm in

which the participants express ideas around a design topic. Then

let them represent one idea by means of a 3D object. People can

work alone to focus on their own experience, or work in a group to

elicit a more dynamic discussion. Allow at least two hours for the

creation part.

LOW TECH PROTOTYPING

77

Example: In the Expolab project groups of people created 3D objects to show how

the evolution of internet had changed their daily lives. While creating the objects the

participants were triggered discuss and question their thoughts.

See also http://expolab.net/


> 6

78

What: Collaborative open source design project in the virtual

environment of Second Life with designers from all over the

world

Why: By making the design process open source, designers can

stimulate each other and build on each others ideas to enhance

the outcome.

Get started: Organize an open design competition for designers

from all over the world. The designs are created under a creative

commons license, and the winning designs can be built in a

physical space. The designs are not submitted the last moment,

but the open construction process is part of the competition. This

allows the organizers to guide the design process, and it is an

opportunity for the designers who would normally not meet to help

each other to make the designs better.

OPEN DESIGN CONTEST

79

Example: in the Expolab project Citilab worked together with the Tech Museum

California, who provided a virtual space for a design contest in Second Life. The

Expolab team had weekly feedback sessions with the participants in the contest, to

discuss how the exhibition proposals could be improved.


6 - 25

80

What: Create a network of seniors who work as volunteers in

explaining technology. This method is based on the principle

of peer to peer learning.

Why: Peers can teach each other in adequate ways because they

speak the same language. In addition it is good for the volunteers

that they can help others with the knowledge they have acquired.

Through spreading the knowledge the digital divide within the

group of seniors can be diminished.

Get started: First, seniors learn about digital technology in the

regular Seniorlab group in Citilab. Then they are stimulated to take

on the role of volunteers and teach others what they have learned.

They facilitate the education of other seniors in their network who

would otherwise not get in touch with digital technology.

PEER 2 PEER LEARNING


1-4

82

What: A storyboard is a visual representation of a future

situation through a series of drawings or pictures, put

together in a narrative structure.

Why: Making a storyboard helps developers to imagine future

usage from the point of view of the user and it forces them to

make design decisions. A storyboard can be used as an empathy

tool, as a design tool, to convince a client about an idea, or to

document a common vision within a team.

Get started: A storyboard is based on a future scenario, usually

from the point of view of one single user. The beginning of the

story can start with an introduction of the user and possibly its

´problem´. The story explains the benefits of the new application

for the user. The narratives can be represented by drawings,

photos, a schedule, an animation or a video.

STORYBOARDS

The look and feel of the storyboard highly influences the reactions of users.

Think carefully what should be achieved with the storyboard. Elicit reactions,

explain an idea, convince people, invite people to come up with more ideas?

83

Example: these storyboards have been used to explain, discuss and improve

workshop proposals with teachers.


6 - 12

84

What: This exercise results in a visual map of words and

drawings around a central concept or theme. It can be done

as an individual or group activity to collect information that

is in people´s minds, or to generate, structure and classify

ideas.

Why: Reacting on words and images helps to sort out a complicated

concept into elements, individually or in collaboration. The images

help to reveal memories, associations and connections that are

not revealed with words only. The exercise stimulates the brain to

get a flow of connections and associations going.

Get started: Draw a ́ nucleus´ with a central concept or idea in the

middle of a blank sheet. Then, use lines, words and drawings in

order to build a system of connected thoughts around the starting

point. A mindmap can be made from scratch during a session, or a

start can be made in advance to help people get started.

WORD-IMAGE ASSOCIATIONS

The choice of words and images influences the response of the participants.

During a session you can let the people work on the wall first, and start a

discussion afterwards to discuss how they interpreted the words and images

85

Example: The word-image technique has been used in a session with teachers to

make an inventory of things they teach in class and to indicate issues.


86

87

GLOSSARY

KEYWORD

Affinity diagram

Brainstorm wall

Camera journal

Citilab - approach

Collage making

Connection mapping

Cultural probe

Empathy tools

Future headlines

Infographic

Generative session

Low tech prototyping

Online enquiry

Open design contest

Peer 2 peer learning

Personas

Project

Project phases

Semi-structured interview

Sensitizing tools

Step into my shoes

Storyboards

Video observation

Word image associations

PAGE / PÁGINA

62

72

48

10

50

52

57

64

66

74

50

76

54

78

80

68

24

26

60

56

58

82

70

84

PALABRA CLAVE

Diagrama de afinidad

Pared de ideas

Diario visual

Aproximación Citilab

Sesión de ´collages´

Mantel de conexiones

Sonda cultural

Herramientas de empatía

Titulares para el futuro

Infográfico

Sesión generativa

Prototipo de baja tecnología

Encuesta online

Concurso de diseño abierto

Aprendizaje peer 2 peer

Personajes

Proyecto

Pasos de un proyecto

Entrevistas semi-estructuradas

Herramientas de sensibilización

Ponte en mi lugar

´Storyboards´

Observación de vídeo

Asociaciones texto-imágenes


88

REFERENCES

Ten online resources that are worth checking out:

Citilab: http://www.citilab.es

IDEO toolkit and card widget: http://www.ideo.com/news

Service design tools: http://www.servicedesigntools.org

Design games: http://poste.posterous.com/design-games

Design & Emotion Society knowledge base: http://www.

designandemotion.org

Studiolab TU Delft: http://studiolab.io.tudelft.nl/contextmapping

Waag Society: http://www.waag.org

Usuaris @ctius blog: http://citilab-cornella.com/research

Online DIY booklets: http://issuu.com

Peer 2 peer open design: http://www.p2popendesign.org

89

Recommended further reading:

Jones, P. (2008). Socialization of practice in a process world: Toward participatory

organizations. In Proceedings of Participatory Design Conference 2008, Indiana

University, Oct 1-4 2008.

Menichinelli, M. (2008). openp2pdesign.org_1.1. Accesible in: http://www.scribd.

com/doc/6208079/openp2pdesignorg11

Menichinelli M., Reti collaborative. Il design per una auto-organizzazione Open

Peer-to-Peer, Tesi di laurea, rel. Ezio Manzini, Politecnico di Milano, A.A. 2004/05

Schuler, D. & Namioka, A. (1993). Participatory design: Principles and practices.

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Shirky, C (2009) Here Comes Everybody: the power of organizing without

organizations. Penguin Press

Ståhlbrös,Anna. Forming Future IT. The Living Lab Way of User Involvement. PhD.

Thesis, December 2008 . Luleå University of Technology Social Informatics

Von Hippel, E. (2006) Democratizing Innovation. The MIT Press 2006. Accesible

here: http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/democ1.htm

Von Stamm, Trifilova, A. (Eds) (2009) The Future of Innovation. Gower.


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