Literary Traditions in India

Classification of literature in ancient India

Purpose Style Core theme

Evolution of literature in Ancient India

• 1500 - 600 BC - Vedic literature in oral form • 600 - 300 BC

– Vedangas– Panini’s Astadhyayayi– Buddhist literature in Pali language - Pitakas– Jaina literature in Prakrit language – Greek accounts of Achaemenids and Alexander

Evolution of literature in Ancient India

(Herodotus)• Mauryan Age - Greek literature - Megasthenes Indica

– Political literature - Arthashastra– Buddhist literature – Abhidamma Pitaka

Evolution of literature in Ancient India

• Post Mauryan Age – Smriti (Manusmriti) ü Epicsü Scientific literature

Ø Charak samhita (Medicine)Ø Sushruta samhita (Surgery)

ü Sangam literature in South India• Gupta and Post Gupta Period – Smriti (more additions)

§ Puranas§ Philosophical literature§ Scientific literature

§ Aryabhatta§ Varahmir

§ Plays§ Biographies § Law Books

Vedic literature • Veda : vid to know• Veda : revealed by Gods, apaurusheya, Shruti literature• Role of Brahmana priests in carrying forward the Shruti

traditions through the Smriti traditions• Passing over the corpus of literature to the next

generations through Shruti and Smriti traditions

Vedic literature Four Vedas

• Rig Veda – Collection of hymns to be recited during rituals – Divided into ten mandalas (2nd - 7th - oldest)

• Yajur Veda – Book of sacrificial prayers – Prescribes rituals for different sacrifices– Book for Adhvarus

Vedic literature• Sama Veda

– Contains rhythmic compilation of hymns of Rig Veda– Also has hymns for soma sacrifice to be sung by ‘Udgatris’

• Atharva Veda– Collection of popular beliefs, superstitions and magic spells

of the folks – Earlier not considered part of Vedas – Mundaka Upanishad part of Atharva Veda

Vedic literature Subdivisions of Vedas

• Samhitas– Contains mantras and benedictions without meaning

and sounds • Brahmanas– Explain the symbolism and meaning of samhitas– Also contain scientific knowledge - Astronomy,

Geometry, Architecture – Some Brahmanas also contain mystical and

philosophical material

Vedic literature • Aranyakas

– Written as forest books containing philosophical elementsand mysticism

– Emphasis on meditation and moral values– Bridge between Brahmanas and Upanishads– Details of life of forest dwellers

• Upanishads– Philosophical speculations emphasising upon spirituality– Discussions between Teacher and pupil– Known as ‘Vedanta’

Vedic literature Upanishadic philosophy • Philosophical exposition related to earthly existence, creation,

meaning of rituals

Brahma • The ultimate reality, God, Creator and originator • Universal pantheism • Saguna and Nirguna Brahma

Atma (Soul)• Ultimate reality within an individual • Immortal, Imperishable, Permanent• Yagnyavalkya and Maitri - Atma identified with Brahma

Vedic literatureMoksha• Realisation of unity of Atma with Brahma ‘Brahma-Atma

Aikyam’• Shankaracharya Advaita Vedanta - ‘Aham Brahmasmi’• Emphasis on ‘Gyan Marga’ for moksha• Early Upanishads emphasis on performance of rituals for

moksha• Later Upanishads Katho Upanishad for meditation and

contemplation for realisation of Brahma

Vedic literature Doctrine of Karma• Brihadranayaka Upanishad • Desire - Will - Karma - Destiny• Legitimised existing social hierarchy

Maya (Illusion)• World as Maya• As creation of Brahma

“Upanishads as epitome of Vedic knowledge”

Vedic literature Shruti and Smriti literature• Shruti– “that which has been heard” and is canonical– revelation and unquestionable truth, and is eternal– Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads

• Smriti– “that which is remembered, supplementary and may

change over time”. – entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature– comprises Vedanga,, Puranas,, Upveda etc

Vedic literature Upveda

applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain thesubjects of certain technical works

• Arthaveda: Deals in sociology and economics and associatedwith the Rigveda

• Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with theYajurveda

• Gāndharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associatedwith the Samaveda

• Ayurveda: Deals with medicine and associated with theAtharvaveda

Vedic literature

• Vedangas– six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and

understanding of the Vedas.– Shiksha (Phonetics)– Kalpa (Ritual Canon)– Vyakaran (Grammar)– Nirukta (explanation)– Chhanda (Vedic meter) – Jyotisha (Astrology)

Vedic literature Sutras• Condensed format of Vedic knowledge

Kalpa• Applied science of Vedas • Srauta sutra - Rules for performance of public rituals • Sulva sutra - Construction of fire altars • Grihya sutra - Domestic rituals for the dvij householder• Dharma sutra - Duties and responsibilities of various varnas

The Epics• Long narrative poems • Ramayana - Maharishi Valmiki

– consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (Kandas) and 500 sargas)

• Mahabharata - Maharishi Vyas – Originally consisting of 24,000 verses,– Later expanded to 1 lakh verses – Divided into total 18 parvas (chapters) – Bhagavad Gita is part of Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata

PURANAS• Main Puranas are 18 encyclopaedic collection of myths and

legend• Dated generally around 4th or fifth century BCE (some later also)• 18 Mahapuranas and 19 Upapuranas• Mahapuranas deal with Vaishnavite and Shaivite traditions • Mahapuranas have five subjects:

– Sarga- the creation of Universe– Pratisarga-the periodical process of destruction and re-

creation– Manvantara-the different eras or cosmic cycles– Vamsha-Solar and Lunar lineages– Vamshanucharita- genealogies of kings

PURANAS• Bhagvat Purana, the most popular (9th century) - Impetus to

Vaishnavite Bhakti tradition • Vaishnavite Puranas - Vishnu Purana, Naarad Purana, Garud

Purana etc• Shaivite Puranas - Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda

Purana, Agni Purana etc• Puranas - a blend of mainstream and folk life • Shudras allowed to study Puranas

Sanskrit works • Panini

– Astadhyayi - Written in in the 6th to 5th century BC by the– set the linguistic standards for Classical Sanskrit.– sums up in 4,000 sutras the science of phonetics and grammar

that had evolved in the Vedic religion

• Patanjali (2nd century BC)– Mahabhasya - Commentary on Astadhyayi– linkage between words and their meaning – Yoag Sutra - Codified knowledge of Yoga

Sanskrit works • Bhasa’s Swapnavasavadatta - the romantic narratives about

the Vatsa king Udayana and Vasavadatta, the daughter ofPradyota, the ruler of Avanti

• Bhavabhuti’s (8 CE) Uttara-Ramacharita - Uttara Kanda oframayana

• Vishnu Sharma’s Panchatantra - collection of interrelatedanimal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose during Gupta period

Sanskrit works Kalidasa’s works • Meghadutam (the Cloud Messenger) • Abhijnanashakuntalam• Vikramoshaiyam• Malavikagnimitram• Kumarasambhava• Raghuvamsham• Ritusamhara

Sangam Texts

Development of literature in Medieval India • Advent of Turks in India - Arabic and Persian literature

• Decline of Sanskrit• Emergence of regional languages

• Sanskrit – Apabhramsha – Regional languages andmodiefied form of Hindi

• Khari Boli – Different dialects of Hindi in North India• Emergence of Hindustani - Amir Khusrau called it Hindawi

Development of literature in Medieval India

Urdu• Synthesis of Khadi Boli and Persian - growth of Urdu• Amir Khusrau 1st to write in Urdu

• Bahmani Kingdom - Dakkhani form of UrduSufi Saint Gesu Daraz’s ‘Miraz – ul - Ashiquin’

• Further development – Sultanate and Lucknow – Ghazal• Climax of Urdu - 18th century

- Mir Rafi Sauda- Mir Taqi Mir-Mirza Ghallib

Persian• Historical accounts

– Al Beruni’s Kitab ul Hind - Encyclopaedic account – Strong inclination towards Indian culture, philosophy, scientific

knowledge – Admired India’s knowledge of astronomy, mathematics

Indian caste system and practices

Development of literature in Medieval India

Persian• Court Historical work

i) Slave Dynasty - Minhaz Siraj - Tabaqat - i Nasiri - Sultan Nasirud Din Mahmud of Delhi and also Muslim rule foundation inBengal

ii) Tughlaq dynasty - Ziauddin Barani - Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, dynastichistory from the reign of Ghiyas ud din Balban - Firoz Shah Tughluq(first 6 years)

- Fatwa-i-Jahandari - Book on political ideals for a Muslim ruler

Development of literature in Medieval India

Author Book Content

1. Hasan Nizami Taj-ul-Mathir History of Ilbari Turks

2. Minhaj-us-Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri History of Sultanate till 1260

3. Amir Khusrau (known as Tutt-i-Hind, Parrot of India)

Qiran-us-SadainMiftah-ul-FutuhAashiqaNuh SiphirTughlaqnamah

About Sultan KaikubadConquests of JalaluddinKhaljiRomance of Khizr Khan & Devala RaniAn account of Mubarakshah KhaljiRise of GhiyasuddinTughlaq

Author Book Content4. Feroz Shah Tughlaq Futuhat-i-Feroz Shahi Autobiography

5. Zia-ud-din Barani Tarikh-i-Feroz ShahiFatwa-i-Jahandari

History of TughlaqDynastyLegal advice on worldly rule

6. Shams-i-Siraj Afif Tarikh-i-Feroz Shahi History of TughlaqDynasty

7. Ibn Batuta Kitab-ul-Rehla An account of Delhi Sultanate

8. Isami Futuh-us-Salatin Bahmani Kingdom

Bhakti literature

• Rise of Vernaculars

• Theme based on devotion• Writings of Female Bhakti Saints-Voice of Dissent• North Indian traditions- Saguna and Nirguna Literature• Ram Bhakti & Krishna Bhakti literature• Sufi literature- Malfujats• Oral traditions

Sufi literature • Persian, Urdu and regional languages • Mystical literarture• Malfujats – sayings or discourse of saints • Makhtubat – letters by Sufi saints to disciples

Literature during the Mughals• Literature of all genres, including Persian, Sanskrit,

Brajabhasha, Avadhi and other regional languages continuedto flourish under he Mughals

• Persian was the language of the court• Many Persian poets from Iran such as Utbi and Naziri moved

to the the Mughal court• Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi were the leading poets• Akbar set up a translation department• Mahabharata was translated under the supervision of Faizi,

Abul Fazl and Badayuni

• Ramayana was translated into Persian by Abdul QadirBadayuni

• Atharvaveda was translated by Haji Sirhindi• Dictionaries of Persian languages were also compiled• Tulsidas a famous Hindi poet wrote Ramacharitamanas• Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan produced a blend of Bhakti

poetry• Akhbarat – Newspaper in Akbar’s court

Famous Books written during the Mughal period

Author Book Content

BaburGulbadan Begum Khwand Mir

Tuzuk-i-Baburi Humayun Nama Qanun-i-Humayuni (Humayun Nama) Tarikh-i-Humayun

Autobiography in Turkic Biography of HumayunAccount of Humayun’sreign

BayazidAbdul Qadir Badayuni

Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Akbar’s reign

Abul Fazl Akbarnama(in 3 volumes)

vol. I-History of Mughal Royal family from Timurto Humane vol. II-History of Akbar’s Reign

Abul Fazl Akbarnama(in 3 volumes)

upto 1602 vol. III- Ain-i-Akbari – principal source for Akbar’sadministrative institutions continuation of AbulFazl’s Akbarnama till Akbar’s death in 1605

Mulla DaudNizamuddin Ahmed

Tarikh-i-AlfiTabaqat-i-Akbari

History of Akbar’s reign

Jahangir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Autobiography of Jahangir in Persian

Mutamid Khan Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangiri History of Jahangir’sreign

Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshahnamah History of Shah Jahan’sreign

Muhammad Waris Padshahnamah History of Shah Jahan’s reign

Inayat Khan Shah Jahan Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign

Muhammad Salih Shah Jahan Namah History of Shah Jahan’s reign

Aurangzeb Raqqat-i-Alamgiri A collection of his letters

Muhammad Kazim Alamgirnamah History of Aurangzeb’s reign

Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lubab History of Aurangzeb’sreign

Aqril Khan Zafar Namah-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’s reign

Muhammad Saq Masir-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’sreign

Ishwar Das Futuhat-i-Alamgiri History of Aurangzeb’sreign