Literacy, Access, & the Digital Divide

Nicki Garces, David MacKenzie, and Michael-Brian Ogawa

LIS 610Dr. Noriko Asato

Literacy :Focus on underserved groups

LIS 601 Fall 2010David Keali‘i MacKenzie

Definition

• Adopted by the ALA Committee on Literacy June 24, 2005, at its meeting during ALA Annual Conference in Chicago:

• [Literacy is defined as the ability to use] "printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one's goals, and to develop one's knowledge and potential." United States Department of Education, 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy.

http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/committees/ala/ala-literacy.cfm

• There are other types of literacy of interest to LIS professionals such as:

• Information Literacy• Media Literacy • Digital and/or Computer Literacy • Functional Literacy

Roberts, Peter. "Defining Literacy: Paradise, Nightmare or Red Herring?" British Journal of Educational Studies 43, no. 4 (December1995): 412-432. JSTOR (accessed October 29, 2010).

National Literacy Ranking

• The United Nations Human Development Report looks at many areas of development within a country. One of those areas is literacy. According to a 2007 index these are the top 20 rated countries with a high literacy rate among citizens age 15 and above:

http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/89.html

• Adult literacy rate (% aged 15 and above) http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/89.html

• “Data refer to national literacy estimates from censuses or surveys conducted between 1999 and 2007, unless otherwise specified. Due to differences in methodology and timeliness of underlying data, comparisons across countries and over time should be made with caution. For more details, see http://www.uis.unesco.org/.”

Literacy and Public Libraries in the United States

• “Libraries were “to furnish fuel for the fires beneath the great melting pot”” Roberts, F.B. 1912 “The Library and the Foreign Citizen.” Public Libraries 17: 166-169

• “By virtue of their superior knowledge of American history and

literature, librarians presumably had the expertise to supply just those reading materials that would simplify complex principles of democracy in a language understandable to immigrants.”

Stern, Stephen. "Ethnic Libraries and Librarianship in the United States: Models and Prospects." In

Advances in Librarianship, edited by Irene P Godden, 77 - 102. Vol. 15. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 1991.

Libraries and Immigrants: Late 19th-early 20th Century

• Librarians of the latter half of the nineteenth century saw themselves as agents of social improvement.

• Some librarians provided materials such as newspapers and books in the immigrants’ native language.

• Sometimes considered controversial when Americanization was seen as the ideal.

Stern, Stephen. "Ethnic Libraries and Librarianship in the United States: Models and Prospects." In Advances in Librarianship, edited by Irene P Godden, 77 - 102. Vol. 15. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 1991.

• Some librarians felt that offering specific language materials was a good way to transition them from the old country to their current one.

• Establishment of local library branches was a big step in reaching out to immigrant groups.

• 1890’s through 1940’s is often considered the ‘golden age” of ethnic librarianship because of the enthusiasm and zeal with which librarians assisted immigrant patrons.

Stern, Stephen. "Ethnic Libraries and Librarianship in the United States: Models and Prospects." In Advances in Librarianship, edited by Irene P Godden, 77 - 102. Vol. 15. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 1991.

Contemporary Issues

• Some research has shown that programs have not been effective in increasing adults’ basic literacy skills or in supporting parents’ interaction with children in literacy events and offer various reasons for this (Duffy, 1992; Janes & Kermani, 2001).

Lynch, Jacqueline. 2009. "Print Literacy Engagement of Parents FromLow-Income Backgrounds: Implications for Adult and Family LiteracyPrograms." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52, no. 6: 509-521.Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 29, 2010).

• A recent study was (conducted and) designed to determine the literacy practices of low-income parents living in three geographical situations in the United States:

urban rural

· Migrant- most identified as Mexican and spoke primarily Spanish at home

Lynch, Jacqueline. 2009. "Print Literacy Engagement of Parents FromLow-Income Backgrounds: Implications for Adult and Family LiteracyPrograms." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52, no. 6: 509-521. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 29, 2010).

Highlight of Results

• Parents reported engage in reading print on calendars or tickets (87%),

• reading directions, recipes, or shopping lists (87%)

• frequently reported reading messages or notes such as on greeting cards (85%)

Lynch, Jacqueline. 2009. "Print Literacy Engagement of Parents FromLow-Income Backgrounds: Implications for Adult and Family LiteracyPrograms." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52, no. 6: 509-521.Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 29, 2010).

• Parents reported engaging in menu reading (69%)

• reading periodicals (68%), • application writing such as for a job or housing

(66%) Lynch, Jacqueline. 2009. "Print Literacy Engagement of Parents From

Low-Income Backgrounds: Implications for Adult and Family LiteracyPrograms." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52, no. 6: 509-521.Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 29, 2010).

• reading comics or cartoons (33%) • writing poetry, stories, or a reflection (29%) • writing instructions (28%) • As parents’ literacy levels increase through

literacy instruction, parents will begin to read more widely (Purcell-Gates et al., 2002) and further print materials may become authentic for adult learners.

Lynch, Jacqueline. 2009. "Print Literacy Engagement of Parents FromLow-Income Backgrounds: Implications for Adult and Family LiteracyPrograms." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52, no. 6: 509-521.Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 29, 2010).

Suggestions for Improving Immigrant Literacy

• Rosemary Chance, assistant professor with the Department of Library Science at Sam Houston State University in Huntsville, Texas makes these suggestions for school librarians who wish to support literacy among immigrant families, and Latino immigrants in particular:

• Family literacy nights • Bilingual book clubs for parents and children • Literacy bags: books and activities appropriate

for the age and reading level of students. These are brought home to encourage reading out loud.

Chance, Rosemary. 2010. "Family Literacy Programs--Opportunities and Possibilities." Teacher Librarian 37, no. 5: 8-12. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed October 28, 2010).

National Organizations Addressing Literacy

The ALA’s Office for Literacy and Outreach Services (OLOS)

• Promotes library services that support equitable access to knowledge and info in libraries

• Focuses on underserved populations including new and non-readers, people geographically isolated, people with disabilities, rural and urban poor people

http://www.ala.org/ala/aboutala/offices/olos/index.cfm

• Also people generally discriminated against based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, language and social class

• Offers training and technical assistance to libraries and librarians

• Subcommittees include:• Subcommittee on Bookmobiles • Subcommittee on Library Services to Native Americans • Subcommittee on Library Services to the Poor and Homeless • Subcommittee on Older Adults • Subcommittee on the Diversity and Outreach Fair

http://www.ala.org/ala/aboutala/offices/olos/index.cfm

ALA Committee on Literacy (COL)

• Develop and recommend Association policies concerning literacy

• Encourage the development of programs, educational opportunities to assist libraries and, librarians promote literacy.

• Raise awareness of literacy issues within ALA Develop and maintain partnerships with other

national Literacy organizations. http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/committees/ala/ala-literacy.cfm

• Subcommittees and taskforces include: • Literacy Assembly • Literacy Providers Subcommittee • Literacy Program Subcommittee • Research-to-Practice Discussion Group

• Round tables and associations that partner with OLOS and COL:

• Ethnic and Multicultural Information Exchange Round Table (EMIERT) • Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Round Table

(GLBTRT)

http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/committees/ala/ala-literacy.cfm

• Social Responsibilities Round Table (SRRT) • Association of Bookmobile and Outreach Services

(ABOS) • Association for Rural and Small Libraries (ARSL)

http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/committees/ala/ala-literacy.cfm

Center for the Book In The Library of Congress

• Established by public law in 1977 to promote books, reading, literacy and libraries, as well as the scholarly study of books.

• Has a Center in all 50 States, the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

• State centers sponsor programs that highlight their area's

• literary heritage • call attention to the importance of books, reading, literacy and

libraries • Hawai‘i affiliate is at the State Library

http://www.read.gov/cfb/

If I Can Read I Can Do Anything

• A national reading club for Native American children • It’s mission is :

• To Encourage…Native children and community members to read for pleasure

• To Provide…Indian communities with opportunities to engage in and communicate about reading

• To Promote…Library use at tribal schools

• To Help Improve…Tribal school library collections

• To Support…Tribal school librarians

http://sentra.ischool.utexas.edu/~ifican/index.php

• Participated in the 2010 teen book drop• For 2010, 44 schools were enrolled:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r3nxeDnHmwU

Hawai‘i

• National Center for Education Statistics:

http://nces.ed.gov/naal/estimates/StateEstimates.aspx

Hawai‘i Literacy

• Their mission is to help people gain knowledge and skills by providing literacy & lifelong learning services.

• Started in 1971 in Kalihi, staffed by volunteers • Programs include:

• Adult literacy • Classrooms on Wheels (their bookmobile) • English as a second language • Drop in center

http://www.hawaiiliteracy.org/

Hawai‘i State Library

• The library often has free programs open to the public to promote literacy

• Most recent programs include • Teen Read Week 2010 (Oct. 17-23) an initiative created by

the ALA • Focused on book displays that include a range of materials

as well as events designed to get teens into the library – included a story teller and African dance and music

http://www.librarieshawaii.org/programs/index.htm

• HSPLS Annual Teen Summer Reading Program encourages reading and strengthens reading habits:

• 3,000 teens statewide participated this recent summer • Collectively read nearly 24,000 books

http://www.librarieshawaii.org/index.htm

Access for Racial/Ethnic Groups With a Focus on Immigrants

Nicki Garces

Racial/Ethnic Groups

• Native Americans• African Americans• Asian Americans• Latino Americans – Aside from the Native Americans who were displaced from

their land, the other groups came because of labor– All are heterogeneous groups– Correlation between educational attainment and income

(Payne, 1988)

Definitions

• ACCESS: the right of entry to a library or its collections. In a more general sense, the right or opportunity to use a resource that may not be openly and freely available to everyone.

• ACCESSIBILITY: the ease with which a person may enter a library, gain access to its online systems, use its resources and obtain needed information regardless of format.

From the ODLIS- Online Dictionary for Library and Information Sciencehttp

://www.lu.com/odlis/

Brief History of Library Access for Various Racial/Ethnic Groups

• Americanization Movement and the Adult Education Movement in the early 1900s– Response to urbanization and the creation of

economic divisions– 1918 ALA Committee on Work with the Foreign Born

• Report: ¼ of the male population old enough to vote were foreign born; ½ of that number were not citizens

(Jones, 2004)

Brief History of Library Access for Various Racial/Ethnic Groups- con’t

African Americans• No library services prior to Civil War• 1900s southern branches started servicing African

Americans but based on the separate but equal doctrines established by the 1896 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson

• Northern African Americans faired better with services due to the Harlem Renaissance

• 1930s FDR Works Progress Administration brought library services to African Americans for the first time

(Jones, 2004)

Brief History of Library Access for Various Racial/Ethnic Groups- con’t

• Library Services Act (LSA) of 1956– Federal funding for public libraries – Many libraries traced their roots to LSA funding and improved

services and access for the various groups in both rural and urban areas

– 1961 changed name to Library Services and Construction Act (LSCA)

– 1995 expired under U.S. Department of Education– 1996 Museum and Library Services Act signed into law and

continued with the Library Services Technology Act (LSTA) grants• Expanded to other types of libraries

(Jones, 2004)

Brief History of Library Access for Various Racial/Ethnic Groups- con’t

Other Grants• Model Cities Act of 1966 from Congress• Bilingual Education Act of 1968• VISTA and Community Action Projects• 1971-1975 National Indian Education Association (NIEA) library

project– Use of Higher Education Act grants to create a library & cultural center,

tribal library system and community school library in three different states• All three communities agreed to maintain these libraries after the funding was

over

• Partnerships for Change Grants from the California State Library (Jones, 2004)

Ethnic Library Associations

• 1970 Black Caucus of the American Library Association (BCALA)

• 1971 REFORMA National Association to Promote Library Services to the Spanish-Speaking

• 1979 American Indian Library Association (AILA)

• 1980 Asian Pacific American Librarians Association (APALA)

Ethnic Library Associations-con’t

The associations share the following:• Provide professional opportunities for minority

librarians• Develop access to and expansion of ethnic

information/collections• Promote the recruitment of bilingual & bicultural

librarians • Promote the recruitment of racial/ethnic students

into LIS program• Work with other groups that share the same vision(Echavarria & Wertheimer, 1997)

The U.S. Population

• 281.4 million = total population in 2000– 35.3 million Hispanic (12.5%), a 57.9% increase– 36.4 million black (12.9%)– 874,000 Native Hawaiian and/or other Pacific

Islander (0.3%)– 2.5 million American Indian and/or Alaska Native

(0.9%)– 11.9 million Asian (4.3%)

(U.S. Census, 2000)

U.S. Population- con’t

• 281.4 million = total population in 2000– 31.1 million Foreign Born (11.1%)• 52% Latin America• 26% Asia• 16% Europe• 6.0% other areas of the world

• By year 2010, Hispanic population will surpass 47 million

(U.S. Census, 2000)

Current Immigrants - Demographics

• Settling in non-traditional gateway cities– Gateway cities: Pittsburg, Philadelphia, NY & Chicago– NY and Chicago are still popular cities for immigrants– Now settling elsewhere in the West & South East: Colorado,

Georgia, Nebraska & North Carolina– Mostly in suburbs

• Population made up of more adults (transitioning from young to middle adulthood)

• Have lower educational attainment• Earn below poverty line

(Library & Technology Reports, 2004; Najera, 2007)

Immigrants’ Information Needs

• Information on host country• Immigration information: law, U.S. citizenship• English as a Second Language (ESL) material• Vocational information: chemical safety, back

care, lifting techniques (request from jornaleros)• Medical information: community health clinics• Domestic information: i.e., babysitting services

(Gaus et al, 2008; Najera, 2007; Pyati, 2003)

Barriers of Access• Geographic: distance, lack of car or reliable transportation system, work &

library hours• Language Barriers

– Feel uncomfortable approaching a librarian who cannot speak the patron’s mother language

• Cultural– Library traditions in home country; negative experiences with government

agencies• Unaware of library’s function and role

– Oral traditions– Intercultural mediators- friend or family member relied on for translation or

information– Gatekeepers- prominent community members which have access to resources

(“go-to” person for information)(Burke, 2008; Najera, 2007; Payne, 1998; Pucci, 1998; Pyati, 2003)

Barriers of Access-con’t

• Institutional (library’s)– Policies regarding obtaining library card, using

computers, borrowing books and fines– Lack of or outdated materials in foreign language– Catalog searches for material in foreign language– Librarians don’t know how to service limited

English speakers(Najera, 2007; Payne, 1998; Pucci, 1998; Pyati, 2003)

Barriers of Access-con’t• Political legislation

– REAL I.D. Act of 2005• Federal standardization of I.D.s • REFORMA advocates alternative

ways to obtaining library card – 2006 Sensenbrenner Bill (HR

4437) killed in the U.S. Senate• “Anti-illegal immigration bill”• Criminalization of those who

“harbor or aid” illegal immigrants church members, teachers & possibly librarians

– The library therefore, becomes a “contested public space”(Gaus, 2008; REFORMA, 2005)

Some Best Examples from Libraries

• Queens, NYPL: New Americans Project (NAP)– ESL materials– Coping skills program for new immigrants

• Austin, TX PL: New Immigration Centers– Independent ESL study; “Talk Time” English Conversations

Program – Computer training; Spanish Book Club

• San Antonio, TX PL: 1st in nation to use Spanish language catalog system– “Lea Por Vida” (Read for Life)- partnership based– “Born to Read” Program

Suggestions to Improve Access• Figure out the community’s ethnic makeup • Apply for grants• Hire bilingual & bicultural staff• Provide sensitivity training and/or train staff with basic Spanish,

Chinese, etc.• Relax or provide alternatives regarding library policies• Expand the collections; include materials in other languages and on

immigrants’ homelands• Promote library services out in the community• Create partnerships with other community agencies, organizations and

groups (Asch, 1998; Burke, 2008; Library & Technology Reports, 2004; Najera,

2007; Payne, 1998; )

Issues Regarding Improving Access

• Limited sources of funding/budget cuts– i.e., Pio Pico Koreatown Branch, LA Public Library

• Materials in another language will hinder learning the English language (English Only)

(Stephens, 2007)

• The Immigration Debate

How About Hawai‘i?- Hawai‘i State Public Library System (HSPL)

• HSPL librarians are usually monolingual rely on paraprofessionals who are bilingual

• The branches that serve more diverse communities would have more bilingual & bicultural staff

How About Hawai‘i?- Hawai‘i State Public Library System (HSPL)- con’t

• Book Mobiles• Originally had 3 running:

Moloka‘i, Kahuku, and Wailuku (Mau‘i)• Now one (Wailuku) due to

budget cuts and use

From www.librarieshawaii.org/services/wailukubookmobile.htm

How About Hawai‘i? –Initiatives from Some Ethnic Communities

• Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i – Resource Center– World War II Internment in Hawai‘i• http://www.hawaiiinternment.org/

• Filipino Community Center – Computer classes, NCLEX-RN Review classes– eFil Archives & History Center• http://www.efilarchives.org/

Works Cited Burke, Susan K. “Use of Public Libraries by Immigrants.” Reference & User Services Quarterly. Vo. 48, 2 (2008):

164-174.

Constantino, Rebecca, ed. Literacy, Access, and Libraries Among the Language Minority Population. Lanham, MD, & London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1998.

Echavarria, T. Wertheimer, A.B., “Surveying the Role of Ethnic-American Library Associations.” Library Trends, Vol 46, 2 (Fall 97) . HTML full text view via Academic Search Premier. (accessed October 23, 2010).

Gaus, Eve R. and Weech, Terry. “The Meeting Room: Libraries as Community Centers for Culturally Diverse Populations. BOBCATSSS (2008): 221-227. Available at http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/conferences/bobcatsss2008. (accessed October 13, 2010).

Jones, Plummer A. Still Struggling for Equality: American Public Library Services with Minorities. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries Unlimited, 2004.

Library & Technology Reports. “Computer Technology & Non-English Speaking Patrons.” (May-June 2004). Available at www.techsource.org. (accessed October 17, 2010).

Works Cited-con’tNajera, Derek. “U.S. Public Library Services to Latin American Immigrants: A Survey of Information Needs,

Barriers to Access, Best Practices & Guidelines for Developing Library Services at a Local Level.” WebJunction. (June 4, 2007). Available at http://www.webjunction.org/155/articles/content/445210 . (accessed October 13, 2010).

Payne, Judith. “Public Libraries Face California’s Ethnic and Racial Diversity.” Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation, May 1988.

Pyati, Ajit. “Limited English Proficient Users and the Need for Improved Reference Services.” Reference Services Review. Vol 31, 3 (2003): 264-271.

REFORMA National Association to Promote Library and Information Services to Latinos and the Spanish-Speaking. http://www.reforma.org. (accessed October 25, 2010)

Stephens, Julia. “English Spoken Here.” American Libraries. Vol. 38, 10 (November 2007): 41-44.

U.S. Census. http://www.census.gov. (accessed November 02, 2010).

MB Ogawa

The Digital Divide

• The divide between those with access to new technologies and those without (NTIA; Irving, 1999)

Digital Divide: Complexity

• Census Bureau’s data: narrowing gaps in computer usage among various ethnic and income groups (Samuelson, 2002)

• Historical data for other technologies (Phone and Television) indicate increased adoption rates (Fink and Kenny, 2003)

The Digital Divide

• 3-Dimensional Model (Martin, 2003)

– Motivation

– Possession

– Skills

Bridging the Gap

Types of Digital Divide

Socio-economic Status (SES)

• High SES groups adopt Information Communication Technology (ICT) (Guillén, 2005)

• Guardian education (Koivusilta et al., 2007)

• Both parents (Koivusilta et al., 2007)

Minority and Ethnic Background

• 2002 NTIA statistics• Computer use– Asian Americans (71.2%) – Whites (70.0%)– Blacks(55.7%) – Latinos (48.8%)

• Internet use– Whites and Asian Americans (60%) – Blacks (39.8%)– Latinos (31.6%)

Minority and Ethnic Background Impacts

• Minority groups traditionally attended larger schools (Brown, 2000)– Same number of computers (less per student)– Less access at home

• Blacks access similar to Whites and Asians when SES was controlled (Mossberger et al., 2006)– Latinos had less access even though SES was

controlled

Developing Countries

• Digital divide between developed and developing countries (Ahmed, 2007)– Open Access (OA) to help

lower the information/digital divide

• MIT $100 laptop initiative to help lower the digital divide (Young, 2005)

Ethical Dilemma

Is it ethical to help close the digital divide with other countries if they

were never exposed to the technology to begin with?

Gender

• Children typically introduced to technology via video games (Cooper, 2006)– Video games traditionally geared

towards boys– Girls had high anxiety when playing

“war” games– Girls had less anxiety than boys when

playing “Arithmetic Classroom”– Princeton college females were less

sure about their technology skills than male counterparts

Age

• Digital Native (Prensky, 2001)– Native speakers of digital technology

• Digital Immigrant (Prensky, 2001)– Non-native speakers of digital

technology• Technology skills of students,

faculty, and staff not that different (Salajan et al., 2010 and Waycott et al., 2010)– Technology purposes differed

What hand motion to you make to demonstrate “writing a paper?”

Impact on Libraries

• 1993: Vice President Al Gore stated that libraries could serve as a “safety net” in providing access to all

• 1994: President Bill Clinton indicated that he wanted to (Internet) connect all libraries by the year 2000

• Virtually all libraries have Internet access

• New mode for accessing information (Internet): Educational, Recreational, Informational

Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA)

• Filter’s for Internet access• E-Rates for those that

participated• Public libraries: Some

rejected due to information freedom

• Virtually all schools have Internet filters

Library’s Role

• K-12 Schools and Higher Education Information skills (motivation and skills) (Kafai and Bates, 1997)

• Public Libraries: Access for public (Kinney, 2010)– Only access point for many

underserved and disadvantaged populations

– Reverse correlation for underserved and wealthy populations

Hawaii Examples

• Dr. Violet Harada: Pathways to Excellence in Research and Learning (PEARL)

• Dr. Violet Harada: Hawaii Networked Learning Communities (HNLC)

• Kamehameha Schools: Electronic Assessment

Libraries

Work Cited• Brown, M. (2000). Access, Instruction, and Barriers Technology Issues Facing Students At Risk.

Remedial & Special Education, 21(3), 182. • Cooper, J. (2006). The digital divide: the special case of gender. Journal of Computer Assisted

Learning, 22(5), 320-334.• Fink, C., and Kenny, C. 2003. W(h)ither the global digital divide? Washington, DC:World Bank.

Retrieved October 30, 2010, from http://old.developmentgateway.org/download/181562/w_h_ither_DD_Jan_.pdf

• Guillén, M., & Suárez, S. (2005). Explaining the Global Digital Divide: Economic, Political and Sociological Drivers of Cross-National Internet Use. Social Forces, 84(2), 681-708.

• Harada, V. H. (2009). School librarians as learning specialists: Working collaboratively in the 21st century school. Doshisha Daigaku Toshokangaku Nenpo (Doshisha University Library Science Annual Report), 35, 59-75. Kyoto: Toshokan Shisho Katei (Library Science Program, Doshisha University).

• Irving, Larry. (1999). Falling Through the Net: Defining the Digital Divide. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fttn99/introduction.html

• James, J. (2008). Digital Divide Complacency: Misconceptions and Dangers. Information Society, 24(1), 54-6.

• Kafai, Y., & Bates, M. (1997). Internet Web-searching instruction in the elementary classroom: Building a foundation for. School Library Media Quarterly, 25(2), 103.

Work Cited cont.• Kinney, B. (2010). The Internet, Public Libraries, and the Digital Divide. Public Library Quarterly, 29(2), 104-161.• Koivusilta, L., Lintonen, T., & Rimpelä, A. (2007). Orientations in adolescent use of information and

communication technology: A digital divide by sociodemographic background, educational career, and health. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 35(1), 95-103.

• Martin, S. (2003). Is the digital divide really closing? A critique of inequality measurement in a nation online. IT & Society, 14, 1–13.

• Mossberger, K., Tolbert, C., & Gilbert, M. (2006). Race, place, and information technology. Urban Affairs Review, 41(5), 583-620.

• (NTIA) National Telecommunication and Information Administration (2002). A nation online: How American are expanding their use of the Internet. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.

• Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives: Digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. Retrieved October 30, 2010, from www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf

• Salajan, F., Schönwetter, D., & Cleghorn, B. (2010). Student and faculty inter-generational digital divide: Fact or fiction?. Computers & Education, 55(3), 1393-1403.

• Samuelson, R. 2002. Debunking the digital divide. Washington Post March 20:A33.• Waycott, J., Bennet, S., Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B., & Gray, Kathleen (2010). Student and faculty inter-

generational digital divide: Fact or fiction?. Computers & Education, 55(3), 1393-1403.• Young, J. (2005). MIT Researchers Unveil a $100 Laptop Designed to Benefit Children Worldwide. Chronicle of

Higher Education, 52(14), A41-A42.

Thank you!

Questions?