Lit. TermsLit. TermsLit. TermsLit. Terms

Metaphor• A comparison without the use of

the words “like” or “as”• Example: She is a rose.

Simile• A comparison using the word

“like” or “as”• Example: She is as beautiful as a

rose.

Personification• An object/animal is given human

qualities, such as human thoughts, feelings, attitudes, & characteristics/personalities

• From the Latin root “per” = through

Tone• The attitude a writer takes

towards the subject of a work, the characters in it, or the audience

Mood• The emotions a text evokes in the

reader

Apostrophe • Someone (absent, dead, nonexistent/

imaginary, or unspecified), some abstract quality/idea, or some personified thing is addressed (spoken to) as though actually present

• Examples: “O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth,” “Oh Sinner!”

Parallelism • When several elements of equal

importance are expressed in a sentence• The same pattern of words show two or

more clauses/ideas have the same level of importance; the repetition of words/grammatical structures/phrases, etc.

• Parallel sentence constructions

Allusion• A reference to a historical or literary figure,

text, event, object, work of art, etc. outside of the literary work

• Often well known (something the author assumes the reader is likely to be familiar with)

• It is up to the reader to make the connection• Common allusions are to the Bible,

Shakespeare, mythology, politics, or current events

Alliteration• Repetition of initial consonant

sounds or any vowel sounds in successive or closely associated syllables

• Example: “fiery flood of fierceness”• Example: Peter Piper picked a peck

of pickled peppers• Example: killer cat

Assonance• Repetition of vowel sounds within

successive or closely associated words• Does not need to happen at the

beginning of words• Can create a soft fluency in sound and

internal rhyme• Example: “on a proud round cloud in a

white high night”

Consonance• Repetition of consonant sounds

within words, rather than at the beginning

• Example: All mammals named Pam are clammy.

Inversion/Anastrophe• Words placed out of normal English

order, often to accommodate the metrical pattern & maintain the regular meter/rhythm/rhyme; the placing of sentence elements out of their normal positions

• Think Yoda!• Example: “Worried, I am. Afraid, is he.”

Anaphora• Repetition of

words/phrases/clauses at the beginning of successive or closely associated lines/sentences

• Common in speeches• Used for emphasis

Epistrophe/Antistrophe• Repetition of

words/phrases/clauses at the end of successive or closely associated lines/sentences

Conceit• An extended metaphor that makes

a surprising or shocking connection between two different things

Allegory• A form of an extended metaphor in

which objects, persons, and actions in a text are equated with greater (symbolic) meanings outside of the narrative itself and often represent generalizations about life

• Often has a strong moral lesson• Often characters are personifications of

abstract qualities

Elision• Omitting a syllable or sound in a word to make it easier

to say or pronounce or to ensure rhythm/maintain meter in poetry/create pleasant sounds

• From the Latin “elidere” = to strike out• Usually runs two words together by the omission of the

final or initial sounds• Common uses: laboratory, temperature, vegetable• Shortened syllable count for poetry: ‘tis (instead of it is)

‘twas (instead of it was)• Slang: gonna, dunno

Syncope• Omitting letters within a word (the

interior of a word) to omit sounds/syllables

• Examples: o’er=over, n’er=never

Apocope• Omitting the end of a word to

make it easier to say• Examples: abs=abdominal

muscles, ad=advertisement, bio=biology, decaf=decaffeinated, demo=demonstrated, limo=limousine

Rhetorical Question• A question asked for effect• Does not require a reply• From the root “retro” = backwards

Conflict• The struggle between two opposing forces• External: man vs. man, man vs. nature,

man vs. society, man vs. fate• Internal: man vs. self (such as one person

having two ideas/values in opposition; a struggle for mastery by two elements within the same character)

Persona• The speaker of the poem• The “I”

Dialogue• A conversation between two or more

characters• Often serves to advance the action,

give the impression of naturalness, present the interplay of ideas and personalities among those conversing, and/or give relief from descriptive/expository passages

Theme• The main idea/central

concept/topic/message of a literary work

• Usually requires a subject & a predicate

• Example: “the vanity of human wishes” instead of “human wishes”

Symbol• Something that is itself and also

represents/stands for something else (suggests another level of meaning)

Foreshadowing• The presentation of material in a text in

such a way that later events are prepared for (prepares the reader for future action)

• Establishment of mood/atmosphere• Appearance of objects/facts as clues• The revelation of a fundamental

character

Onomatopoeia• The use of a word that suggests its

meaning (sounds like what it means)

• Examples: buzz, clang

Juxtaposition• The placing of two things close

together or side by side for the sake of comparison/contrast

Motif• A recurring image, word, object,

phrase, or action that unifies the text

Bildungsroman• Coming of age story• About growing up

Literal Language• Exact in meaning• Not exaggerated

Figurative Language • Language that is not exact in meaning• Not to be taken literally• Means more than what it says on the surface• Gives a feeling about a subject• Makes meaning fresh/clearer • Expresses complexity• Extends meaning• Captures physical or sensory effect

Abstract Language• Ideas• Concepts• Not physical• Can’t be perceived via 5 senses• Examples: war, love, freedom,

success

Concrete Language• Sensory words• Objects/events available to the 5

senses

Detail• Part of an effective description• Breaks down elements of

description to elaborate on each part

Archetype• An image, descriptive detail, plot pattern, situation, symbol,

or character type that occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion, folklore, etc.

• Examples: the hero, the quest, the journey, the task, the fall, the flood, death & rebirth, the devil figure, he unfaithful wife, the scapegoat (death in public ceremony expiates community’s sin), the outcast (banished from social group for some crime), the temptress (sensuous & beautiful, attracts protagonist & brings about his downfall), the earth mother (symbol of fruition/abundance/fertility, offering spiritual/emotional nourishment), the Platonic ideal (spiritual ideal, source of inspiration, idealized by protagonist who has intellectual attachment to her), the sorrowing mother (loses children, intense grief), light-darkness (light=hope/renewal/spiritual illumination, darkness=unknown/ignorance/despair), water-desert (water=birth/rebirth/regeneration, desert=spiritual sterility), heaven-hell (skies & mountains=gods, bowels of earth=diabolical forces)

Foil• A character who contrasts with another

character (such as in personality/attitude) in order to highlight aspects of the characters’ personalities and make them stand out more

• Often used to highlight characteristics of the protagonist

Aphorism• Brief statement of opinion or truth• Brief, memorable saying that expresses

a basic truth• Many cultures pass on wisdom in the

form of aphorisms• Examples: “Lost time is never found

again.” – Benjamin Franklin“Nothing great was ever achieved without

enthusiasm.” - Ralph Waldo Emerson

Catharsis• Emotional relief/purification/purging

/clarification that an audience was supposed to experience upon viewing a Greek tragedy

• In drama, refers to a sudden emotional climax that evokes overwhelming sorrow, pity, laughter, or any other extreme change in emotion, resulting in restoration, renewal, and revitalization in audience members

Paradox• A statement/idea that appears

false/contradictory/absurd but actually is true

Cacophony• A combination of harsh &

unpleasant sounds• Often caused by consonance• Used in both poetry & prose to

convey angry/discordant tone/feeling

Euphony • A combination of pleasant sounds• Often created through assonance• Used in both poetry & prose• Common in love poems or pieces

that want to convey soft & pleasant feelings

End Rhyme• Rhyming words at the end of lines• Example: been & sin

Internal Rhyme• Rhyme occurs at some place

before the last syllable in a line• Example: Here I am, an old man in

a dry…

Slant/Half Rhyme• Near rhyme• Partial rhyme• Imperfect rhyme• Examples: Dry & died, devil & evil,

grown & moon

Irony • Portrays the difference between appearance &

reality, expectation & result, or meaning & intention

• Verbal irony: words are used to convey the opposite of what is meant

• Situational irony: an action or event directly contradicts the expectations of the characters, the reader, or the audience

• Dramatic irony: a contradiction between what a character thinks and what the reader/audience knows to be true (when the reader/audience knows something that the character does not)

Paralepsis • Emphasizing a point by seeming to skip

over it, which brings what’s being omitted to the forefront of people’s consciousness

• Example: “Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it. / It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you.”

Imagery• Descriptive language that evokes a sensory experience (sight,

smell, taste, touch, sound); visual is most common• Visual imagery = sight is most common (Example: The

crimson liquid spilled from the container and onto the white page.)

• Auditory imagery = sound (Example: The bells chimed.)• Olfactory imagery = smell (Example: His socks, still soaked

with sweat from Tuesday’s P.E. class, filled the classroom with an aroma akin to salty, rotting fish.)

• Gustatory imagery = taste (Example: When I was swimming in the ocean, I accidentally took a gulp of briny, bitter liquid, causing me to cough and gag.)

• Tactile imagery = touch (Example: The soft play-dough oozed between Connor’s fingers.)

Diction• Word choice• Formal diction: elevated & dignified, often

complex & impersonal, follows grammar rules• Middle diction: maintains correct language but

less elevated, reflects how most educated people speak

• Informal Diction: plain language of everyday use, includes slang, idioms, & common words

Syntax• Sentence structure; arrangement of

words• Even with formal diction, a lack of

variety or overly simplistic syntax can lower the level of language in an essay (compound, complex sentences vs. short, choppy sentences)

Point of View• The related experience of the narrator (not the author!)• Texts often encourage the reader to identify with the narrator, not

the author• Can occur in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person• 1st person: narrator is a character that is part of the story, &

narrative is limited by what the narrator knows/experiences/infers/discovers, used frequently, sacrifices omniscience for greater intimacy with one character, uses “I”/”We,” narrator can be the protagonist or someone close to the protagonist who is privy to the protagonist’s thoughts/actions or an ancillary character who has little to do with the action of the stpry

• 2nd person: main character is referred to with 2nd person personal pronouns (such as “you”), rare, difficult to take seriously, usually paired with present tense

• 3rd person: narrator is outside the action• Omniscient: narrator is all-knowing, knows everything that needs

to be known including all characters’ thoughts/feelings/motives• Limited: narrator stays within the confines of what one knows/sees

(only a part of the whole story), reader only gets the narrator’s biased perspective

• 3rd person omniscient: most common prior to 20th century• 3rd person limited: most common during 20th & 21st centuries

Characterization• The process by which an author reveals information

about a character; methods the author uses to develop the personality of a character; - what the narrator/other characters say/think about (or respond to) the character- what the character says/thinks- what the character does- what the character looks like

• Direct: often a sign of poor writing, telling (not showing, e.g. He was a dimwitted man.)

• Indirect: showing (not telling) often inferred through action

Types of Characters• Round=complex, (not always the good guy), fully developed

both physically & emotionally, usually the main character that develops over the course of the story

• Flat=one-dimensional, undeveloped, often unrealistic, lack complexity (not necessarily a sign of poor writing)

• Dynamic=round, continuously change & evolve, often grows significantly & learns to be a better person (but can go the other way)

• Static=can be round or flat, does not change, essentially remains the same over the course of the story

• Protagonist=the main character/hero, the character the reader is supposed to root for, can be more than one character

• Antagonist=character that is in opposition to & works against the protagonist, doesn’t have to be a person (e.g. setting or situation)

Setting• The location, time, social circumstances

in which story takes place• Often contributes to the mood of the

story• General setting: overall location & time

period• Immediate setting: particular time &

place within a story (similar to scene)

Hyperbole • Extreme exaggeration for effect

(not to be taken literally)• Example: I’m so hungry, I could

eat a horse!

Plot: sequence of events in a text

Exposition• Part of the work that introduces

the characters, setting, events, basic situation, background information, etc.

• The “set up”• Provides clarity for future plot• Usually best when done indirectly

Inciting Action• The introduction of the central

conflict• Lets readers know what the

protagonist is up against• Hints at circumstances of climax

Development/Rising Action

• Development: conflict increases• Rising action: events that lead up to the

climax, complication of the action, begins with exciting force (which starts the conflict), gains interest & power as oppositions come into conflict, proceeds to climax

• Events that push the story forward• Adds tension to the plot

Climax• The height of suspense/interest• Turning point• Point at which conflict reaches its

highest point• The “big battle” (can be external

or internal)

Falling Action• Events after the climax that lead

to the resolution• Not always necessary/apparent

Resolution • The end of the central

conflict/tension• May tie up loose ends• Not always happy

Denouement• Any events that occur after the

resolution• May tie up loose ends• Not always happy

Connotation• Connotation: the emotional

association of a word (negative or positive)

Denotation• Denotation: the definition/meaning

of the word, without emotional associations

Canon• Originally referred to the books the

Catholic Church chose to include in the Bible

• Later came to refer to the texts that have been the most influential in shaping Western culture (often called the “Western Canon”)

Figurative • Not literal

Genre • type/category of literary works

based on form, technique or subject matter.

Drama• the realistic portrayal of serious

events; a story told in action by actors who impersonate the characters. (play)

Tragedy• a type of play that ends/results in an

unfavorable and unhappy ending/catastrophe and is treated with seriousness and dignity

• A play about a character’s downfall• Main character(s) may end up dead or

defeated• Catastrophe/suffering awaits many of

the characters, especially the hero

Comedy• a lighter, with humor, form of

drama that aims primarily to amuse (tells anecdotes/stories), and usually is marked by a happy ending. (marriages)

Stage Directions• Material that an author adds to a

text to indicate movement, attitude, manner, style, or quality of speech, character, or action

Dialogue• A conversation between two or more

characters• Often serves to advance the action,

give the impression of naturalness, present the interplay of ideas and personalities among those conversing, and/or give relief from descriptive/expository passages

Soliloquy• An extended speech delivered

while the speaker is alone, in order to inform the audience of what is passing in the character’s mind (his/her inner thoughts or what the speaker is thinking inwardly, with the audience as listeners)

Monologue• An extended speech delivered by

a single speaker to listeners (another character or crowd) onstage, but the listeners do not speak

Aside• when an actor directly addresses

the audience, or another character, but is not supposed to be heard by other actors onstage (usually shorter than a monologue/soliloquy)

Anadiplosis• “Doubling back”• Repetition of last word of a preceding

clause• Word used at end of sentence & used

again at beginning of next sentence• Example: “Fear leads to anger. Anger

leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.”

Ecphonesis• Emotional, exclamatory phrase; call

out/express sudden emotion• In drama, poetry, song• Rhetorical device in ancient literature• Greek in origin• “O” often used but not necessary

- To Renaissance audience, “O” literally meant one’s heart was bleeding - “O” sounds = distraught emotional state & serious health concern

• Examples: “O, the times!”

Asyndeton • From the Greek “unconnected”• Deliberate omission of conjunctions

from a series of related clauses • Speeds up the rhythm to make more

memorable• Examples: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

“government of the people, by the people, for the people” “Friends, Romans, Countrymen”

Chiasmus • “to shape like the letter x”• Two or more clauses are related to each other through a

reversal of structures in order to make a larger point• Criss-cross structure• Inverted parallelism• Popular in Greek & Roman texts• Example: “He knowingly led, and we followed blindly.”

A B A B subject, adverb, verb, conjunction (cross) subject, verb, adverb

Antithesis• From Greek for “setting opposition”• A counter proposition• Denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition• Setting the opposite brings out a contrast in meaning

by obvious contrast in expression• Examples: “Many are called, but few are chosen.”

“Give every man thy ear but few thy voice.”“Man proposes, God disposes.”

• In literary fiction, can describe a character who presents the exact opposite (personality type/moral outlook) to another character, e.g. Voldemort & Dumbledore