(FCE- Grammar) Linking Words

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence.

1. Positive Addition

and (и, а)

And is used to connect words or phrases. And may be used to connect two independent clauses.

Steve and his friends are coming to dinner.

He is waving his arms and shouting at us.

It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind.

2.

both... and (как... так и)either.....or (или....или)both/either/neither +of (тот или другой, один из двух, любой из двух)

Affirmative Agreement either (и тот и

другой) too (тоже, также- в

конце предложения)

Negative Agreement neither (ни тот ни

другой) either (тоже, также

- в конце предложения)

both -не употребляется в отрицательной форме

We use both , neither, either when we are talking about two things.

Two subjects connected by both.....and take a plural verb. Both + noun + and + noun.

Do not use both /both...and... in negative sentences. Use neither / neither...nor...Either/neither of are singular if they are not used with or or nor.

either + noun + or + plural noun + plural verbeither + noun + or + singular noun + singular verb

both either + of neither the/these/ my/your...+noun

When we use both/ either/neither with of you always need «the, these, those, my, our, his...».You cannot say ‘both of restaurants’; you have to say ‘both of the restaurants / both of these restaurants.

Both my mother and my sister are here.

Both restaurants are very good. Neither restaurant is expensive. We can go to either restaurant. The research project will take both

time and money. Either John or his friends are going

to the beach today. Either John or Bill is going to the

beach today. Both of these restaurants are very

good. Neither of the restaurants we went

to was (were-Am.E.) expensive. Neither of them came to the

meeting. We can go to either of those

restaurants. Neither of the books is exactly what

I want. If either of you takes a vocation

now , we will not be able to finish the work.

We accepted neither offer. There were chairs on either side of

the table.

3. too (тоже, также)also(также)as well (так же)as well as (так же как, не только.....но и также.......)

either (= «также» с отрицательным глаголом

Also, as well, too are used with a similar meaning.

subject + negative verb + either (instead of too / also)

As well and too come at the end of the clause when you are adding something to a list of things that you gave in the previous sentence. But also comes in the middle of a clause: before the verb , after an auxiliary, modal or to be.Also /Too / As well are not used with two negative statements ( use either)

Bill likes golf and Tom likes golf too.

Bill would enjoy a game and Tom would too.

I haven’t seen him either. He didn’t like the book; I didn’t

either.

She doesn’t smoke. She doesn’t drink either.

Frank speaks French. He also speaks German.

I can also play the piano. We have also decided to get a new

car. « I’m going to get bread, cheese,

tea, and sugar». «Can you get some milk as well?»

She’s got a car as well as a motorbike.

4.

besides(кроме того)anyway ( во всяком случае)moreover(более того)what is more ( что более)in addition (to) ( в дополнении к, к тому же)furthermore( кроме того, к тому же)

These expressions are used to add information to what has already been said.Anyway / Besides are used at the beginning of a sentence when you have given one reason for doing smth and you want to add another. Besides = in addition toMoreover / furthermore / in addition = also. They are used at the beginning of a sentence to add a more important fact than the one that you gave in the previous sentence.In addition to / besides are used as prepositions. They are followed by an object, not a clause.

I hate asking for a pay rise. Anyway, there’s no point.

I don’t really need a new car. Besides, I can’t afford one.

The city provides many cultural opportunities. It has an excellent art museum. Moreover / Furthermore/ In addition , it has a fine symphony orchestra.

The city provides many cultural opportunities. In addition to / Besides an excellent art museum, it has a fine symphony orchestra.

Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden.

5. Negative Addition

neither... nor...(ни.....ни)nor (также не)not only...but also.... ( не только....но также и...)neither (также не, ни тот ни другой)

Nether...nor / not only...but also... + singular noun + singular verbNether...nor / not only...but also... + plural noun + plural verbNeither takes an affirmative verb.

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.

Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today.

Not only my mother but also my sister is here.

Not only my sister but also my parents are here.

6. Contrast

while ( в то время как)whereas (тогда как)

While and whereas are used to show clear contrast between two subjects within one sentence. They are followed by a clause.

Mary is rich, while John is poor. Mary is rich, whereas John is poor. Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor John loves playing outdoors all day,

while / whereas Harry likes playing computer games.

7.

but (но)yet ( тем не менее, все же, однако) still (тем не менее, все же)but...anywaybut... stillyet... still

But is used to join two words or phrases when the second one has the opposite meaning.They show contrast (unexpected result)

It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.

It was cold , but I still went swimming .

It was cold, yet I still went swimming.

Mary is rich, but John is poor.

8.

Although (хотя)even though (даже хотя)thoughbecause

because is used to express expected results; even though is used to express unexpected results. Although is followed by a clause and a comma. After Although we use a subject + verb. Even though is stronger than although. Although can’t be at the end of a sentence; though- can.We use though to mean ‘however’ at the end of a sentence. Think of although as «before the fact» and however as «after the fact».

Even though / Although / Though it was cold, I went swimming.

Because I wasn’t tired, I didn’t go to bed.

We went out although it was raining.

Even though I wasn’t tired, I went to bed.

Although he studied very hard, he didn’t pass the exam.

He didn’t finish the job, even though he worked all night.

The room is very small. It’s quite comfortable though.

I went swimming despite / in spite

9.

in spite of (несмотря на)despite (несмотря на)despite the fact that....in spite of the fact that....

in spite of / despite + Ving in spite of / despite + nounin spite of / despite + pronoun

in spite of = despite

of the cold weather. I went swimming despite the fact

that / in spite of the fact that the weather was cold.

Despite / In spite of her excellent qualifications , Carol didn’t get the job.

Despite / In spite of having excellent qualifications , Carol didn’t get the job.

10.

on the other hand (с другой стороны)

Use this at the beginning of a sentence when you have just mentioned one side of an argument And you are going to mention the opposite side.

Mary is rich. John, on the other hand, is poor.

Nuclear power is relatively cheap. On the other hand, you could argue that it’s not safe.

11.

however (однако, как бы ни) nevertheless (тем не менее)nonetheless ( тем не менее)

However and nevertheless link contrasting ideas in two different sentences.

It was cold. Nevertheless , I went swimming.

I like him very much. However / Nevertheless, we are very different.

12. Giving Examples

for example (например)for instance (например)

for example = for instanceThese expressions introduce particular examples to illustrate what has been said.

e.g. = for examplee.g. = exempli gratia (Latin)e.g. -AmEeg - BrE

There are many interesting places to visit in the city. For example, the botanical garden has numerous displays of plants from all over the world.

There are many interesting places to visit in the city. The art museum, for instance, has an excellent collection of modern paintings.

such as (такой как)like (подобно, как)

especially(особенно)in particular(в особенности)

such as = for example I prefer to wear casual clothes, such

as jeans and a sweatshirt. Some countries, such as Brazil and

Canada, are big.

13. Cause/ Reason

as (так как)since (поскольку, так как)

As / since = because, and they can begin a sentence; they are followed by a clause.

Since Monday is a holiday, we don’t have to go to work.

Since you are a good cook and I’m not, you should cook the dinner.

As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut.

As they live near us, we see them quite often.

14.

because (of) (потому что, так как, из-за)due to (из-за, благодаря)

Because introduces an adverb clause; it is followed by a subject and verb. Because of / due to are phrasal prepositions ; they are followed by a noun object.

Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.

Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.

Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.

Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home.

We stayed home because of / due to the cold weather.

now that ( теперь когда, поскольку)

now that = because nowNow that is used for present causes of present or future situations.

Now that the semester is over ( =because the semester is now over) , I’m going to rest a few days

and then take a trip. Jack lost his job. Now that he’s

unemployed, he can’t pay his bills.

15.

for this reason (по этой причине)

as a result (of) (в результате)

as a result of smth. = because of smthUse as a result of to say what made something happen.Use the simple/good/obvious reason (that) to explain why something happened

Hundreds of people lost their homes as a result of the war.

Con died as the result of a heart attack.

We can’t take you all, for the simple reason that there isn’t enough room in the car.

16. Condition

if /whether(если)whether or noteven if = even though

Whether or not expresses the idea that neither this condition nor that condition matters; the result will be the same. Even if gives the idea that a particular condition does not matter. The result will not change.

I’m going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not it is cold. (or : whether it is cold or not)

I’ve decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold. I’m going to go swimming.

You must go tomorrow if you are ready.

You must go tomorrow even if you aren’t ready.

17.

in case (в случае)in case of (в случае еслиin the event that

In case / in the event that express the idea that something probably won’t happen , but it might. It means «if by chance this should happen». In case is followed by a present /past tense or should.(do not use will after in case)In case of... = if there is...

I’ll be at my uncle’s house in case you (should) need to reach me.

In the event that you (should) need to reach me, I’ll be at my uncle’s house.

I always slept by the phone in case he rang during the night. = I always slept by the phone because (I knew) he might ring during the night.

We bought some food in case Tom came.

In case of fire, please leave the building as quickly as possible. =if there is a fire.

18.

only if (если только)unless (если только ...не, разве только)

unless = if...not = except ifunless + affirmative verb =if + negativeWe often use unless in warnings: (We’ll be

late unless we hurry.)

I’ll go swimming tomorrow unless it’s cold.

Don’t tell Sue what I said unless she asks you. (= except if she asks you)

I’ll go swimming tomorrow if it isn’t cold.

You’ll get wet unless you take your umbrella.

Unless you start at once you’ll be late = If you don’t start at once you’ll be late.

19.

otherwise (иначе, в противном случае)or (else) (иначе, в противном случае, а то)

Otherwise expresses the idea «if the opposite is true, then there will be a certain result».Or else and Otherwise have the same meaning.

I always eat breakfast. Otherwise , I get hungry during class.

You’d better hurry. Otherwise, you’ll be late.

Take your umbrella. Otherwise, you’ll get wet.

I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry during class.

Take your umbrella, or (else) you’ll get wet.

20.

provided (that) / providing (that) (при условии если)as /so long as (если только, при условии что)on condition (that) (при условии если)

Provided that can replace if when there is a strong idea of limitation or restriction (mainly used with permission)Provided / Providing - only if a particular thing happens or is done.As / so long as is used before saying the conditions that will make something else happen or be true.

You can camp here provided you leave no mess.

Provided you pay me back by Friday, I’ll lend you the money.

It’s a lot easier to get good marks on a short -answer question, providing you do it well.

My parents don’t care what job I do as long as I’m happy.

They spoke on condition that their names would not be used in the article.

21.

as if / as though ( как будто, как если бы)

Like is followed by a noun object or a clause. As if /as though are followed by a clause. Usually the idea following as if/ as though is «untrue». In this case, verb usage is similar to that in conditional sentence.

It looks like rain. It looks as if it is going to rain. It looks as though it is going to

rain. It looks like it is going to rain

(informal) She talked to him as if he were a

child. He acted as though he had never

met her.

22. Purpose

in order to (чтобы, для того чтобы)in order that( чтобы, для того чтобы)so that (так что, для того чтобы)in case (в случае если, а то вдруг, а то как бы не)

In order to is used to express purpose, it answers the question «Why?». It is followed by a verb.So that also expresses purpose. It has the same meaning as in order to. So that is often used instead of in order to when the idea of ability is being expressed. Can is used in the adverb clause for a present/future meaning. So that I can buy = in order to be able to buy. Could is used after so that in past sentences. In order that = so thatin case + present tense = because this may happen/ because this will happenin case + past tense = because this might happen /because this would happen

He came here in order to study English.

I turned off the TV in order to enable my roommate to study in peace and quiet.

I turned off the TV so (that) my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

I’m going to cash a check so that I can buy my textbooks.

I cashed a check so that I could buy my textbooks.

I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

I don’t let him climb trees in case he tears his trousers.

I carry a spare wheel in case I have a puncture.

I always kept candles in the house in case there was a power cut.

23. Effect / Result

such/so... that(такой что)

such ....that = so.... thatsuch + adjective + noun + thatso + adjective/adverb + thatso...that is used with many, few, much, and little.

It was such nice weather that we went to the zoo.

The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.

It was such good coffee that I had another cup.

It was such a foggy day that we couldn’t see the road.

The coffee was so hot that I can’t drink it.

I’m so hungry that I could eat a horse.

She speaks so fast that I can’t understand her.

She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam.

24. Therefore and consequently mean « as a Al didn’t study. Therefore, he

failed the test.

consequently (следовательно, поэтому)therefore (поэтому)so (поэтому, таким образом)

result» . They connect the ideas between two sentences. They have several positions and are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.So ( meaning therefore, as a result ) connects two sentences. So has only one possible position: between the two sentences.

Al didn’t study. Consequently, he failed the test.

=..... He, therefore, failed the test. =....He failed the test, therefore. Al didn’t study, so he failed the test.

25. Time.

when (когда)

When = at that time When I arrived, he was talking on the phone.

When was in Chicago, I visited the museums.

When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him.

26.

while (в то время как, пока) as ( в то время как, когда, по мере того как)

While / as = during that timeWe use as when two things happen at the same time.

While I was studying, the phone rang.

While I was walking home, it began to rain.

As I was walking home, it began to rain.

George arrived as Sue left.

27.

after (после того как)before (прежде чем)

A present tense, not a future tense is used in time-clause.After and before are commonly used in the following expressions:shortly after/ before; a short time after/ before;a little while after / before;not long after / before;soon after

After she graduates, she will get a job.

After she (had) graduated, she got a job.

I will leave before he comes. I (had) left before he came.

28.

as soon as (как только)once (когда-то, однажды, как только)

as soon as / once = when one event happens, another event happens soon afterward.

As soon as it stops raining, we will leave.

Once it stops raining, we will leave.

by the time ( к тому времени)

by the time = one event is completed before another event ( usually Past Perfect or Future Perfect)

By the time he arrived, we had already left.

By the time he comes, we will have already left.

since ( с тех пор как) since = from that time to the present. Ever since adds emphasis. The Present Perfect is used in the main clause.

I haven’t seen him since he left this morning.

I’ve known her ever since I was a child.

until/till (до тех пор пока)

until / till = to that time and then no longer. Till is used more in speaking than in writing; it is generally not used in formal English.

We stayed there until we finished our work.

We stayed there till we finished our work.

As long as / so long as( пока, до тех пор пока)

as long as / so long as = during all that time , from beginning to end

I will never speak to him again as long as I live.

I will never speak to him again so long as I live.

29.whenever = every time that something happens. Whenever is used:

Whenever I see her, I say hello. Every time I see her, I say hello. Whenever I smiled, he smiled back.

whenever(когда бы ни, всякий раз когда)every time ( каждый раз)

as a conjunction (connecting two clauses);

as an adverbevery time = whenever something happens ; when one thing happens, something else always happens.

Whenever have I been cruel to you? Whenever I hear that song , I think

of you. We can’t keep calling the doctor

every time you get a headache. My neck hurts every time I move.

the first time (в первый раз)the last time (в последний раз)the next time ( в следующий раз)

The first time / the last time / the next time refer to a particular occasion.

The first time I went to New York, I went to an opera.

I saw two plays the last time I went to New York.

The last time we met you promised to join me on a trip to Beijing.

The next time I go to New York, I’m going to see a ballet.

30. Place

where (где, куда) wherever ( где бы ни, куда бы ни ),

Where can be used: as a relative adverb (introducing a

relative clause); as a conjunction (connecting two

clauses)Wherever can be used as a conjunction (connecting two clauses)

I know a place where you can hide. I’ve hidden the money where no

one will find it. She was followed by press

photographers wherever she went.

31. Exception

except (for) (за исключением, если бы не, если не считать)apart from (помимо, кроме, не считая)

Except is used for introducing the only thing , person, or fact that is not included in your main sentence; it is like saying without, or minus.Apart from is used: except for someone or something. in addition to someone/something

We haven’t told anyone except Leslie’s dad.

I like all musical instruments except the violin.

I don’t know much about the man, except that he’s a fool.

Everything was perfect except for the weather.

I hardly know anyone in the village apart from William and you.

Apart from the violin, he plays the piano and the flute. (=besides the violin......)

I like all musical instruments apart from the violin. (=.........except the violin)

32. Relatives

who (кто, который) whom (кому , кого) whose( чей, которого) which (который, какой, что) that (что, который)

who/whom/whose/which/that are used to introduce relative clauses. They are called relative pronouns or relatives.

for people: who/that/whom/whosefor animals/things:which/that/whose

She’s the woman (who/ whom /that) I saw on TV last night.

That’s the dog whose owner was arrested.

That’s the shop whose windows were smashed.

This is the house (which/that) we live in.

His wife, who is French, speaks three languages.

33. Listing points/Events

to begin with / to start with (во первых, прежде всего, начать с того что....) first / firstly / first of all (прежде всего) to continue (продолжая...) then (затем, тогда)

to begin with - is used for introducing the first thing in a list of things you are going to say.first / firstly / first of all introduce the first item in a list or sequence. The next item is normally introduced by then or secondly.

«Why were you annoyed?» - «Well, to begin with, I hadn’t even invited her».

First, open all the windows. Then turn off the gas and, if necessary , call an ambulance.

First(ly) , we need somewhere to live. Second(ly), we need to find work. And third(ly)........

34. Summarising

in conclusion ( в заключении)to conclude ( в заключении)finally/ lastly(в конце концов, в конечном счете)in summary (подводя итог, в итоге)to sum up (подводя итог)on the whole ( в общем, в целом)all in all (в общем, полностью, целиком)altogether ( в общем, вполне)in short (кратко, вкратце)

To introduce a concluding statement, use in conclusion, by way of conclusion, or to conclude. Finally/lastly are used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce the last point in a speech, reply, essay, etc.In summary is used at the end of a talk or piece of writing for introducing a short statement that gives only basic information.Sum up = to give a summary of somethingOn the whole is used for talking about the general situation.All in all is used for showing that you are considering every aspect of something.Altogether / in short are used for introducing a summary of what you have just said.

In conclusion, I’d like to say that everybody should be able to work if they want to.

To conclude, I’d like to say that everybody should read the book.

Finally, I’d like to consider the economic arguments.

Lastly, I’d like to thank you all for coming and wish you a safe journey home.

In summary, nobody knows where the disease originated.

I’ll sum up briefly and then we’ll take questions.

It was a pretty good conference on the whole.

All in all, I think it has been a very successful conference.

The weather was great and the people were friendly- altogether a perfect trip.

Inflation is down, spending is up. In short, the economy is in good shape.