BBA141

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS

MODULE

PART A: FOUNDATIONAL SKILLS

Developed by: F. Chilufya, February 2016 ©

COURSE CONTENT

PART A: FOUNDATIONAL SKILLSUNIT 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1.Basic Communication Process 11.2 Purpose of Communication Skills in Business & Professional Training 2

UNIT 2: LISTENING AND READING2.1 Listening2.2 Reading

UNIT 3: LANGUAGE 3.1 The wrong words 3.2 Emotive Language 3.3 Too many words 3.4 The Right words 3.5 Style and Tone 3.6 Sentence Structure 3.7 Paragraph Structure 3.8 Reference materials

UNIT 4: LIBRARY SKILLS: THE DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION SCHEME 54.1 Classifying in the DDC 54.2 Classifying a Particular Book 74.3 Book Labelling 74.4 Arrangement of Library Shelves 74.5 Finding Items on the Shelves 74.6 Library Catalogue 8

UNIT 5: REFERENCING 105.1 The Harvard Referencing System

105.1.1 Plagiarism105.1.2 Referencing Systems 105.1.3 The Harvard Style 10

5.2 In-Text Referencing 105.2.1 Author-Date-Page Style 105.2.2 Author part of Text 115.2.3 Consecutive Author Citation 115.2.4 Multiple Authors 125.2.5 Edited Works 125.2.6 Authors Cited Simultaneously 125.2.7 Simultaneous Works 125.2.8 Same Year Authorship 125.2.9 Corporate Authorship 135.2.10 Missing Authorship 135.2.11 Electronic Sources (Internet) 13

UNIT 6: WRITING REFERENCE/BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES 176.1 Book Entries 17

6.1.1 Name Entry 176.1.2 Full Entry 18

6.2 Other Publications 196.3 Electronic Sources 20

6.3.1 Webpage 216.3.2 Webpage/Website as Author 216.3.3 E-book 216.3.4 Online Journal 216.3.5 Online Encyclopaedia 21

6.4 Fine Points 226.4.1 Missing Information 22

2

6.4.2 Footnotes 226.4.3 Endnotes 226.4.4 Numbers 226.4.5 Common Abbreviations 226.4.6 Layout Numbering236.4.7 Punctuation Marks 23

UNIT 7: CRITICAL REASONING7.1 Reasoning Techniques

7.1.1 Deduction7.1.2 Induction(a) Empirical Generalization(b) Cause and Effect(c) Analogy(d) Lateral Thinking

7.2 Fallacies7.3 Planning

UNIT 8: ESSAY WRITING PRINCIPLES25

8.1 Foundation Building 268.1.1 Identify the issue/problem/matter 26

General overview of the main issue 26 Specific points of the issue 26

8.1.2 Identify Sources of information from topical materials 268.1.3 Collecting and organising information 26

Note taking 27 Scan/photocopy 27 Downloads 27 Reference building 27

8.2 Developing the Essay 278.2.1 Drafting a Structure 278.2.2 Constructing a cohesive introduction 288.2.3 Points building of paragraphs 288.2.4 Constructing a summative conclusion 298.2.5 Smart Reference/Bibliography 29

8.3 Essay Standard Presentation 298.3.1 Specifics 29

Margin dimensions 29 Font type 29 Font size 29 Line Spacing 29 Punctuations 29 Paraphrasing 30 Indention 30 Page Numbering 30

8.3.2 Preliminary Pages 31 Cover/Title page 31 Declaration 31 Table of Contents 31

8.3.3 Main Pages 31 Heading & Sub-headings 31 Footnotes 31 Figures & Tables 31 Reference/Bibliography 32 Appendix 32

PART B: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLSUNIT 9: INFORMATION FROM VISUAL SOURCES

Types of Visual Sources Information Value from Visual Sources Contracting Charts & Graphs and their Usages

UNIT 10: BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE Summarizing (Note-making) Business Documents

Formal Letters3

Job Documents: Job Descriptions, Resume/CVs and Application Letters Writing Circulars

MemosNoticesStatements Emails

UNIT 11: ADVERTISING AND PUBLICITY11.1 Types of Advertisements

11.1.1 Direct adverting11.1.2 Classified Advertisements11.1.3 Display Classified Advertisements11.1.4 Display Advertisements

11.2 Content and Style of Advertisements11.3 Direct Mail Advertising11.4 Radio and Television11.5 Press Releases11.6 Articles

UNIT 12: ORAL COMMUNICATION Telephone Interviews Presentation of Formal and Informal Speeches

UNIT 13: MEETINGS Meetings Procedure Meeting Documentation

UNIT 14: REPORTS Types of Reports

Short ReportScience ReportBusiness ReportsEngineering Reports Research Reports

Short Reports Business Reports

UNIT 15: RESEARCH REPORTS (PROPOSAL WRITING)15.1 The Research Matrix15.2 Research Format15.3 Components of a Research Report

UNIT 16: PRESENTATION SKILLS OF THESIS AND PROJECT REPORTS The Need and Use of Visual a Presentation Planning Visual (slide) Presentation Developing a Visual (slide) Presentation Delivering a Visual (slide) Presentation

AppendixAcknowledgements

4

5

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BASIC COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication can be understood better if we look at it as a process, i.e. as a series of actions in one task or action. Examples of processes around us include registering in a university, opening an account in a bank or travelling out of the country. In each of these tasks one performs a series of actions, one after the other. Similarly, in the communication act, a series of actions are involved. These include perceiving of the message, selection of media, and choice of decoder and the choice of the right time to send the message.

Elements of Communication

The communication process has six elements:1. Sender2. Receiver3. Message4. Method5. Aim6. Situation

These elements interact in a very complex manner. The way we communicate depends on how these influence each other. There is a cause and effect relationship. Two possible relationships are illustrated in Figure 1 below:

Figure 1

6

Sender The sender of the message is also known as the encoder. This is because he is the composer of the message. After perceiving the message, he muses, mediates over it or composes (encodes) it. He can be a writer (if he writes) or speaker (if he speaks). To be effective he must sharpen his writing skills, speaking skills and learns how to use non verbal symbols skilfully. The sender must also learn how to skilfully use the communication paraphernalia like laptop, flip chart, white boards, and projectors. For the receiver to pay attention to accept the message, the sender must be impeccable and credible.

MessageThe message to be communicated must have the following characteristics:

a) It must be palatable to the receiver - it must be at the level that the receiver can absorb or understand. It should neither be too complex or too easy.

b) The message must be relevant. The receiver will lose interest if we communicate irrelevant messages.

AimMessage must have an aim. Before sending the message, one thing must be clear. Ask yourself the following questions: why is this message being communicated? Is it to educate? To inform the receiver? To correct something? Or To persuade the receiver over something? Once this is clarified it will be easier to couch the message in the relevant genre, channel or method. When it comes to feedback, it’s easier to assess the effectiveness of your communication if your aim was clear in the first place.

MethodIt must be remembered that what is important is not just the message but also the modules operandi – the way you communicate it to your receiver. Different messages go with certain media or channels. The method or channel will also depend on the targeted audience.

ReceiverThe receiver of the message must be relevant or else the message will be wasted and ignored. The sender must know the following about the receiver:

a) Their education levelb) Their economical, cultural and social background.c) Their other bio data (age, sex, marital status)

The receiver must have the following receiving skillsa) Listening skillsb) Reading skillsc) Body or non verbal language interpretation skillsd) Summary skills e.g. note making and note taking skills

SituationA good sender of the message must know the right time or a situation for communicating the message. A good message sent at a wrong time can be lost or misunderstood.

1.2 PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN BUSINESS & PROFESSIONAL TRAINING

Communication dominates nearly 80% of people’s working hours. From the time we report for work, up to the moment we leave our work place we get involved in one aspect of communication or the other. Guffey (2002) asserts that succeeding in today’s world of work demands that we read, listen, speak and write effectively. Thomas Huckin and Leslie Olsen observe that if people cannot communicate to others what they are doing and convince others why such jobs are important, it is they and their excellent work that will be ignored. Murphy (1982) asserts that people in management spend 90% of their working day communicating – receiving and sending messages. He also observes that communication skills dominate the list of the criteria used in many companies when promoting company staff.

7

Adapted from Murphy 1980:7

What can be concluded from all the observations of these scholars in that a Business administrator has to study communication skills. While it is possible to obtain a degree with minimal communication with people, it is clear that we can accomplish very little by ourselves in an organization. For any bright ideas we may have, to be of benefit to others and to the organization we work for, those ideas must be presented understandably, articulately and effectively. There are several conflicting and competing ideas within our work place. We need to speak or write convincingly, persuasively and articulately

Research shows that when University graduates go in the industry without formal training in communication skills they regrettably learn they need several such skills. Box 2 cites examples of skills reflected in some field researches.

8

Box 1: REQUISITE FOR PROMOTING STAFF

Ability to sell good ideas to others

A person with career plans

Sound College or University training

Ability to make feasible decisions

A Self – confident person

Good appearance, grooming

Getting things done with and through others

Capacity for hard work (Harder worker)

Box 2: SELECTED CRITICAL SKILLS IN THE INDUSTRY

Making formal speeches to sophisticated audiences

Participation in committee meetings

Proper punctuation of documents

Summarizing sophisticated material

Writing different types of business letters, minutes, memos

Report writing e.g. progress reports, feasibility reports, Annual reports

Chairing meetings

Conducting researches

Adapting communication to different recipients

9

2. LISTENING AND READINGListening and reading is not a passive process through which the mind absorbs information as a sponge soaks up water. Listening and reading require positive effort.

2.1 LISTENING TECHNIQUES

1. Positive Interest

An active listener has the positive attitude that something of interest or value is likely to reward his/her attention to even the least promising topic.

2. Preparation

Any background knowledge or briefing will help you to be a better listener.

3. Silence

Eye contact, a physical stillness expressive of concentration, a posture and facial expression indicative of attention, will help the speaker to express himself more effectively, and consequently the listener will benefit. Silence is a positive part of the communication process.

4. Listening to the Message

You should recognise that it is the contents, not the packaging, that matter. Listen to what is being said and refuse to be distracted by the speaker’s voice, idiosyncrasies, or clumsy use of visual aids.

5. Allow the speaker to finish

We can probably think four times faster than we speak. Therefore, we can often guess the end of a sentence or remark. The best of intentions can tempt us to interrupt the speaker to express our approval or disagreement. Doing this means we are not hearing the speaker when we are planning our replies.

6. Avoid Prejudice

Having a prior opinion about what is being said can close our minds to the speaker’s arguments. The fact that we disagree should really make us listen even harder. Could we be wrong? What are the flaws in his/her argument? Emotive words are a problem. A speaker may inadvertently use words that trigger emotions and arouse antagonism.

8. Integrity

A good listener is a person who can respect a confidence and help maintain the trust which is essential to communication.

10

2.1 READING TECHNIQUES

Reading more efficiently is not merely a matter of saving time by reading faster. This can lead to even less understanding or retention. First and foremost it is a matter of being able to vary your reading speed and adjust it to the purpose of your reading and the difficulty of the subject-matter.

1. Skimming Techniques

Skimming is glancing at speed over the printed words on a page. Words are not noted individually but an impression is gained. By this we note key words in the passage for which we come back and read slowly and carefully sections of this passage. Skimming thus helps:-

to preview to identify priorities – where to read more slowly to find a required piece of information to help memory, by immediate review of what we have just read

2. Anticipation

As we read, we should be aiming to understand the whole content by seeing the complete picture rather than the separate bits of the jig-saw puzzle. Since we think faster than we read, we can begin to anticipate what the main point of the passage is. This thus makes comprehension easier.

3. Organisation

Any piece of writing has a structure, the pattern into which the writer has organised his/her ideas. If we develop the ability to recognise the structure of what we are reading, we shall find our way more speedily through it, and we shall also understand it more easily.

4. A Method

When you have a book to read, make use of all the clues it offers before you actually begin to read it. Inspect the contents page, read the preface and check the subject index which gives you the idea of the relative importance of topics and help your skimming and anticipation. When you are reading, look for the internal skeleton, for synopses and summaries, for topic sentences in paragraphs, for headings and italics which may emphasise points.

Active reading requires A motive: ‘Why am I reading this?’ Conscious variation of the reading speed Identifying the whole meaning Relating the meaning to existing knowledge Anticipation Recognition of the structure

That is, PARTICIPATION

11

12

3. LANGUAGE

Correct and appropriate use of language in speech and writing is key to effective communication and understanding of intended meaning. In your tertiary studies, this a becomes crucial as your assignments and examinations submitted for marking are heavily dependent on how to communicate to ideas to get a good grade.

3.1 THE WRONG WORDS

(a) Jargon

‘Jargon is talk that is considered both ugly-sounding and hard to understand; applied especially to the sectional vocabulary of a science, art, class, sect, trade or profession, full of technical terms…the use of long words, circumlocution and other clumsiness’ H. W. Fowler

Special terminologiesThese develop within any group e.g. social workers –siblings (brothers/sisters). In a world of increasing specialization and technology, these technical vocabularies are not only defensible, they are necessary. Mathematicians, chemists, lawyers, systems analysts and accountants need the precision and brevity of their own ‘language’.

Long words, circumlocution, clumsinessToo many long words make it difficult to understand what we are reading or hearing. Circumlocution if well used is acceptable. However usually when inappropriately used, it creates confusion, for example, ‘We would advise that our policy does exclude as contingency consequent upon a condition which is receiving or awaiting treatment at the date of issue of the policy.’

Clumsiness is well illustrated in the following extract from a real letter:‘In response to your card regarding the above order and the non-delivery of one box 352 Typing Paper, we are writing to inform you that this met an out of stock situation and that delivery cannot be met until the end of February.’

(b) Clichés

Clichés are those expressions which, when newly coined, had caught the imagination and were adopted and overworked until they became threadbare, hackneyed and lost all force and vigour e.g. wind of change by Harold Macmillan on political changes in Africa in the 1960s.

(c) SlangSlang, like clichés, change with fashion. Good English is what is appropriate to the circumstance, and slang has its place in familiar chat. It is out of place in business communication.

(d) PompousPompous people seek to add weight (at the expense of losing the point) by using long words, and too many words. The truly great don’t need weighty language to add force to what they say.

13

(e) AmbiguityAmbiguity is a particularly offensive fault in business writing when content is so often so factual. Michael told Paul he had been promoted is an example of ambiguity caused by careless use of pronouns. Other kinds of ambiguity may have a second meaning which is contradictory e.g nothing acts faster than…

3.2 EMOTIVE LANGUAGE

It is very difficult to convey information, ideas, and especially opinions, without ‘colouring’ them with some feeling or emotion. This is often done unconsciously by the communicator. We can scarcely speak or write about any subject without betraying our own opinion or attitudes by our choice of words. It is not wrong to do this, but it may evoke an unfavourable reaction in other people and thus affect their acceptance or rejection of our communication.

3.3 TOO MANY WORDS

The habit of using too many words to convey a point is unnecessary. This is more so when too many words are used in a single sentence. Repeating a meaning by use of two different words is a common error called tautology. For example, ‘Peter made an outwards despatch of letters in the mail box.’ The words ‘outwards’ and ‘despatch’ mean the same.

3.4 THE RIGHT WORDS

Good writing entails:- Consideration of the reader. Readability must be balanced to that the reader can easily

understand what is said. Use simple words whenever appropriate. Look for shorter expressions. Use active verbs, not passive one, for example not -A meeting will be held by the Board

next week, but- The Board will meet next week. Use personal pronouns rather than the impersonal form. Be positive not negative Be flexible and keep an open mind.

3.5 STYLE AND TONE

StyleStyle is a combination of choice of words, symptom and structure of language and there are so many possible variations that we each develop a method of writing which can be as distinctive as our fingerprints.

ToneTone is defined as a particular quality, pitch, modulation or inflexion, decision and some feeling and emotion. Usually it will in effect underline or emphasise the meaning of the words being used. In written language the tone conveys the feelings of the communication.

3.6 SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Modern sentences average 20 words or less. Short sentences seem more alert and vital than long ones, but if all our sentences were short or simple we would bore our readers by repetitiveness. Varying our sentence structure makes what we say more interesting and alive. It also adds a

14

desirable elegance to our writing. Long or short sentences must contain only one idea, one main thought.

3.7 PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

As with sentences, so with paragraphs; the most import quality is unity. A paragraph should have only one theme. This subject can be stated or implied in an opening sentence and then expanded, qualified or illustrated in succeeding ones. Sometimes the so-called topic sentence comes at the end of a paragraph, to sum up what has gone before. Too many ideas thrown together in a paragraph confuse.

3.8 REFERENCE MATERIALS

Academic writing requires more referencing materials than a dictionary. This is discussed in a later section.

15

16

4. LIBRARY SKILLS: THE DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

The library at University of Lusaka uses the Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC) to arrange books and other library materials on the shelves so they may be easily retrieved. It is used in many libraries and allows items about the same subject to be shelved together and thus easy to find.

2.1 CLASSIFYING IN THE DDC

The Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC) is an hierarchical number system that organizes all human knowledge into ten main categories of library classification. It uses the decimal system of numbering. The ten main divisions numbered in sets of hundreds as listed below:

000 Computer Science, information and general works 100 Philosophy and psychology 200 Religion 300 Social sciences 400 Language 500 Science 600 Technology 700 Arts and recreation 800 Literature 900 History and geography

These main divisions are each sub-divided into ten (10) divisions. Below are some examples of the sub-division:

000 Computer Science, information and general works 001002003004005006007008009010

100 Philosophy and psychology 200 Religion 300 Social sciences 400 Language 500 Science

510 Mathematics 520 Astronomy 530 Physics 540 Chemistry 550 Earth sciences and geology

17

560 Fossils and prehistoric life 570 Biology 580 Plants (Botany) 590 Animals (Zoology)

Further, each of the ten (10) sub-divisions has ten (10) sub-sections of specific topics. Below is an example of the sub-sections under the sub-division:

500 Science 510 Mathematics 520 Astronomy 530 Physics

531 Classical mechanics 532 Fluid mechanics 533 Gas mechanics 534 Sound and related vibrations 535 Light and related radiation 536 Heat 537 Electricity and electronics 538 Magnetism 539 Modern physics

540 Chemistry 550 Earth sciences and geology 560 Fossils and prehistoric life 570 Biology 580 Plants (Botany) 590 Animals (Zoology)

Each of these topics may be further divided into more specific subject areas. A decimal point is used after the first three digits to separate the specific subjects - it also makes the numbers easier to read. You will see that as the subject becomes more specific, so does the numbering. For example:

534 Sound and related vibrations 534.1 Generation of sound 534.2 Transmission of sound 534.22 Transmission in solids 534.23 Transmission in liquids

One would expect with this multiple sub-divisions to have thousands of units to browse through. However, practically, there are only 99 of 100 divisions and 908 of 1000 sections in total, as some are no longer in use or have not been assigned.

2.2 CLASSIFYING A PARTICULAR BOOK

18

When an item arrives in the library it is assigned a DDC number, often called the “classmark” or “shelfmark”. Each of the numbers in this shelfmark has a meaning and is not assigned randomly.

For example, the book “The Royal doctors 1485-1714” by Elizabeth Furdell has been assigned the shelfmark 610.6952094205 FUR. These numerals indicate:

610 = Medical sciences 610.6 = Professions 610.69 = Medical personnel 610.695 = Specific kinds of medical personnel 610.6952 = Physicians 610.69520942 = Physicians in England and Wales 610.6952094205 = Physicians in England and Wales 1485-1603

Most items will also be assigned some letters at the end of the numerals, “FUR” in the above example. These are taken from the author’s surname (or the first word of the title).

2.3 BOOK LABELLING

The shelfmark will always have at least three numbers, followed by some letters. Recent classification also includes the year of publication. It is usually displayed on the spine of the item. Here is an example:

2.4 ARRANGEMENT OF LIBRARY SHELVES

Following the DCC, the library shelves are arranged in the ascending order of the system. The first sections will thus contain items of the order 000 with the sub-divisions (001, 002.3, 005.34, etc). The arrangement proceeds through to the order 900. Thus when you enter a library, scan the numbering and get to know the progression of the ordering as arranged in each particular library. If you are looking for a book on Accounting which falls under the Social Sciences, you will have to find the order of 300 first and then decline to the specific numbering.

2.5 FINDING ITEMS ON THE SHELVES

The DDC system places items about the same subject at the same number. This means that once you have identified the DDC number for the subject you are interested in, you can browse the shelves at that number as mentioned above. On each shelf the items are arranged in a numerical sequence from left to right by their DDC number. For example:

19

534.2CHI1997

Tran

smiss

ion

of

Soun

d

Shelfmark

361. 361. 362. 363.

Where several items have an identical DDC number, the letters are used to further arrange them. For example,

2.6 LIBRARY CATALOGUE

Catalogue - If you are looking for a specific item you should check the library catalogue and make a note of the full shelfmark (numbers and letters) and any words that appear before the shelfmark. The majority of library materials are shelved together but there are several separate sequences that are kept in different areas, but which are all indicated on the Library catalogue. Look out for sequences such as Oversize, Local Collection, Short Loan, Music Scores, Quick Reference, Subject Floor and Quick Reference.

Journals - Journals are also shelved in a separate section. The same DDC numbers are used, but the catalogue shows these items with a shelfmark that is preceded by a “J” (for Journal), and which only has one letter (initial of title) after the numbers. For example, the journal “Nursing Standard” has the shelfmark J 610.73 N.

20

361. 361. 362. 363.

361.13HIG

364.14

NOR

364.14

REV

364.14

THO

21

5. REFERENCING

3.1 THE HARVARD REFERENCING SYSTEM

3.1.1 Plagiarism

In the academic cycles, knowledge is shared. Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge from whom a particular piece of information has been obtained or “borrowed”. If one does not acknowledge the source of information and simply pass it on as his or her own piece of work, this is a crime in the academic world called plagiarism. To plagiarism is passing someone’s work as your own. At a university or collage, an assignment that contains plagiarised material is not passed. Further action such as being excluded from studies can be taken as well. Plagiarism is a very serious offense because it defeats the very purpose of acquisition of knowledge through learning new skills. Equally it robs the owner of the material of their efforts in it.

3.1.2 Referencing Systems

The academic world has developed standardized ways in which information from other works can be used and acknowledged. There are several systems that have evolved including the Oxford Referencing System and the Harvard Referencing System. Majority of local universities have adopted the Harvard Referencing System. The section thus outline the main aspects of referencing that you must always use in the writing of your academic paper be it class assignments or research papers. It is a system you must internalize and always use. Extra marks are given for god referencing. Poor referencing disadvantages your paper as the marker fails to identify your own work from the cited sources.

3.1.3 The Harvard Style

The Harvard Referencing System uses the AUTHOR-DATE style which reduces repetition in referencing and bibliography. The referencing is IN-TEXT and not in the footnote and has sufficient information, i.e. author name and year of publication, to find easily the full details in the alphabetically arranged bibliography at the end of a paper. The basic rationale of this method is the giving of minimum information in the text, which would lead to the quick consultation of the bibliography for other details. The bibliographical entry is arranged so that the name (now including initials) and date (year) appear first.1

3.2 IN-TEXT REFERENCING2

3.2.1 Author-Date-Page Style

Referencing in the text give the author’s or authors’ surname(s) and the year of publication in parenthesis (or ‘round brackets’), adding a page reference if necessary after a colon. The full stop comes at the end of the closed bracket and not before. No space is left between the date, the colon and the page reference, nor between the parentheses and the information they contain. The title of the book, chapter or article is not included here. For example:

1 The Harvard referencing system has evolved with variations. You will encounter several variations in the system when you cross check it online. For example, the use of commas instead of full stops to separate dates and names and the use of round brackets to enclose dates. The style adopted in this module is basic and should be used as a starting foundation to understand complex referencing as you proceed in your academic and professional career.

2Adapted from the Handbook of St Joseph’s Theological Institute 2010, Pietermaritzburg

22

Business in a changing world has brought in players that were previously unknown as can be evidenced in African cities (Mulaisho 2001:43).Mulaisho Author’s name2001 Year of publication43 Page number

The development in the health sector has brought about great relief to previously disadvantages people in poorer communities (Williams and Hicthcliff 1994:24-37).Williams and Hicthcliff Authors’ name1994 Year of publication24-37 Page numbers range

Note only the author’s surname is used; initials are omitted. If two or more authors you have cited have the same surname and publish in the same year, then you would use their initial(s) to distinguish them. For example:

The heart of a person searches for meaning every moment (Mubitha P. 2012:34). We still cannot get a full comprehension of life unless it is explained to us (Mubitha S. 2012:87).

Ensure that the IN-TEXT reference refers to a unique entry in the bibliography.

3.2.2 Author part of Text

If the author’s name is part of the sentence, only the DATE, followed by the PAGE reference if required, is given in brackets. This information is provided directly after the author’s surname and before punctuation marks. For example:

This conclusion was equally reached by Peterson (1987) in his research for the institute.

Maclean (2014:53) further states that ‘there can be no point in withdrawing from the coalition at this time’.

Mwanakatwe (1968:132) urged for the introduction of education reforms that will include the cultural vestiges of the people since ‘we cannot ignore the historical heritage of our forefathers…’

Note that, in the second example, the full stop is placed after the closing quotation mark and not before.

3.2.3 Consecutive Author Citation

If the same source is cited several times consecutively in the same paragraph, the full citation must be given the first time. Thereafter only the page numbers need to be mentioned, preceded by a colon (without a space). The placement of the page reference then goes at the end of the relevant phrase or at the end of the sentence, even if the author’s name is repeated. For example:

23

Mwanakatwe (1968:132) urged for the introduction of education reforms that will include the cultural vestiges of the people since ‘we cannot ignore the historical heritage of our forefather’ who have lead the nation to be ‘born with an energetic pride in its people’ (:154). Nevertheless, modern forms of development cannot be ignored since ‘human society is dynamic and bound to change over time’ (:178).

Note that this applies within the same paragraph. If the next paragraph continues the same discussion, the full reference must be given the first time.

3.2.4 Multiple Authors

If the responsibility of the book or the journal article is shared between more than three persons, use the first name only, followed by “et al.”. This is short for et alia, Latin for “and others”. For example:

(Bridgett et al. 2013:8)(Lwandamina et al. 1987:16)(Chifwanikeni et al. 2012:51)

3.2.5 Edited Works

If a book is published under the responsibility of an editor, without reference to individual authors, use the name of the editor as you would do for an author. If the edited book, while giving the editor’s name(s), also gives the names of the individual authors of the papers or chapters, then the citation is to the author of the paper / chapter you are citing. (NB. The bibliographical entry must correspond).

3.2.6 Authors Cited Simultaneously

When different authors are cited simultaneously, their names are separated by semicolon within the same set of brackets. While no spaces are left between the date, the colon, the pages and the semi-colon, a space is left between the semi-colon and the following author. For example:

(Matheson 1984:186; Benson and Gatwell 1991:12; Makumelo et al. 1996:6)

3.2.7 Simultaneous Works

When the reader is referred simultaneously to several works by the same authors which appeared at different dates, the author’s name is given in brackets, followed by the publication dates which are separated by commas. The comma follows the date, while a space is allowed between the comma and the following date. For example:

(Barry 2001, 2003, 2012, 2014)(Lubinda 1997, 2012, 2015, 2016)(MacDonald 1985, 1993, 1998)

When page numbers are given, the references are separated by semi-colons and the name may be repeated. For example:

(Barry 2001:23, 2003:142, 2012:64, 2014:97)or

24

(Barry 2001:23, Barry 2003:142, Barry et al. 2012:64, Barry 2014:97)

Notice the need for the repetition of the author’s name in the later.

3.2.8 Same Year Authorship

When two or more works by the same author which appeared in the same year are referred to, the author’s name is given in brackets, followed by the publication date and a small case letter (a,b,c and so on). These letters will be reflected in the bibliography. For example:

(Hendricks 1967a:213)(Hendricks 1967b:24)(Hendricks 1967c:149)

3.2.9 Corporate Authorship

When a corporate body is responsible for a work, the name of the body serves as the author’s name. For example:

(World Health Organization 2011:17-19)(Electoral Commission of Zambia 1997:253)(Zambia Episcopal Conference 2015:75)

3.2.10 Missing Author

When no author (or editor, or compiler or other) can be ascertained, the title of the book (in italics) serves as the author’s name in the text. The title may be shortened, especially if it is to be frequently used, provided that there is no ambiguity as to which entry the shortened name refers in the bibliography. For example:

(The Catechism of the Catholic Church 1983:372)(Mathematical Logic 1991:25-31)Travels in Europe (1984:27) highlights the potential use of sea

weed for the development of modern medicines.

3.2.11 Electronic Sources (Internet)

Before we observe how in-text citation is done, let us point out the main components of an internet material. Below are examples of two organizations’ internet posting, Professional Insurance and Zambia Institute of Chartered Accountants (ZICTA). We should distinguish two aspects, namely a website and a webpage.

WebsiteWhen you enter an address in the URL (Uniform Resource Locator), usually beginning with www., a website will appear. This is the entire display on the screen as displayed below. The website has sub-divisions or sections that can be seen. These are mainly in form of links. At the upper most of the website is an unchanging strip that is called a Cascaded Style Sheet. It displays the name of the website and remains ‘constant’ throughout browsing of the website. Though it is permanently on the screen, a cascaded style sheet it is usually animated (visual movement of the content). In the figures below, the website address in the URL is www.picz.co.zm (for professional Insurance) and www.zica.co.zm (for ZICA).

25

WebpageThe links that usually appear below the cascaded style sheet leads you to Webpages. Typical websites will have a roll of webpages with the Home page being the default (the one you find already open). In our example of the website for professional Insurance, the webpages are Home, About Us, Products, Claims, FAQ, Jobs, News and Contact Us. The example of ZICA indicates that under each main webpage heading are sub-pages. For example, the webpage Education has sub-pages of Education Programmes, Education Services and Examinations.

Citation

For electronic sources, the in-text references adhere to the format of NAME-YEAR-PAGE as already observed for other printed materials.

NAMEWhen the author of the website or page, or of an electronic book or electronic article is given, use the author’s name as usual. Authentic sites for academic research will give an author’s name, some expert who takes responsibility for the material. For example:

The in-text reference to the article “Poverty in Rural Africa” by Margret Musokotwane in the online Journal The Business Trends would simply be:

(Musokotwane 2007)

If no author is given, then the corporate author (the sponsoring organization) and webpage is used. For example:

26

(Professional Insurance, Products 2015)(Zambia Institute of Charted Accountants, Education 2016)

NB. Ensure the details tally in the bibliography with this reference.

YEARThis is definitely given for electronic books and journal articles, and sometimes for online encyclopaedic entries. If there is no such date, look for the date the document was last updated or modified. Otherwise use the copyright © date of the website, which is often is small print at the bottom of the homepage. If there is absolutely no date given, and your browser does not help to find the last date modified, then use the date accessed. Date accessed is the date on which you have referred to (or accessed) the page

PAGE NUMBERElectronic books and journal articles most often have page numbers corresponding to the printed versions. In fact most often these resources are simply pfd (portable document format) files (or a similar format) of the printed version, and citation is exactly the same as for the printed version, except the bibliographical entry would, in most cases, also include the electronic details. If the electronic source is a downloaded pdf file, use the page numbers included. Most webpages, however do not have page numbers. In such cases your in-text reference would simply omit it as in the examples given above for Professional Insurance and ZICA.

DO NOT include the URL in the in-text reference. This goes in the bibliography.

Internet based material may only be available for a short time and so it is advisable to keep a personal copy as evidence that the information existed.

27

28

6. WRITING REFERENCE/BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRIES

A bibliography is a list of ALL works consulted while doing research for an assignment or research paper, even if a particular book is not included in the final draft. This gives the reader an idea of the scope of the writer’s research. In other words, it is a list of sources on the topic. On the other hand, a REFERENCE is a list of ONLY works that you have actually used and included in your in-text citations. A reference is usually shorter than a bibliography. For your assignments, use the term ‘Reference’ unless you have included sources that are not cited in-text, then the term ‘bibliography’ may be used.

The reference/bibliography is listed alphabetically, beginning on a new page after the conclusion of the main document.

4.1 BOOK ENTRIES

4.1.1. Name Entry

(a) Write the surname first, followed by a comma and the initials of the author. Do not put a full stop after each initial, but each initial is followed by a space (Omit titles of persons such as Mr., Dr., Prof., etc and also those that are appended at the end of their names such as MD, PhD, SJ, OFM, etc.). Example:

Mushota, S BWoocott, P HKaunda, D K

(b) When there are two or three authors, give the surname of the first, followed by a comma and the author’s initials, then the surname of the second followed by a comma and initials. Use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. Example:

(2 authors) Banda, D K & Mushota, B(3 authors) Gilbert, B W, Daniels, G H & Guttman, K

(c) When there are more than three authors, list the first author, then “et al.” (Latin for “and others”). Example:

Mwananshiku, J et al.Sheridan, T D et al.Trump, H E et al.

(d) If a book is compiled by an editor, put (ed) after his/her initials. If there are two or three editors, put (eds) after the final name. Example:

(1 editor) Haltberg, D H (ed)(2 editors) Macleans B & Kerry P N (eds)(3 editors) Mubitha, S F, Lwaisha, K & Salondo, G N (eds)

29

(e) Repeating an author: Use a line in the bibliography to indicate that there is more than one reference to the same author. Example:

Lungu, D E 1985. Management in Modern Zambia. Lusaka: Longman.________ 1997. Policy Change in Zambia Economy. Lusaka. Longman.

MacDonald, A T 2005. Law in a Changing World. New York: Oribs.____________ 2013. Culture and Law Dichotomy. London: Oxford.____________ 2015. Democracies and Laws. Sydney: Thornton.

(f) When no author is given, the book is listed by its title. Example:

Travels in Europe. 1987. London: Geoffrey Chapman.Wildlife Conservation in East Africa. 2001. Nairobi: Paulist.Computer Technology Processes. 1998. Paris. DuPont.

4.1.2 Full Entry

(a) The date of publication follows the author’s name, then a full stop. Example:

Mushota, S B 1984.Woocott, P H 2009.Kaunda, D K 1996.

(b) Titles and Subtitles of books are given in italics. A FULL STOP is placed after the title. If there are subtitles, the title is followed by a colon. Titles and subtitles of books are given exactly as they appear on the book. Do not underline the titles. Example:

Mubitha, B K 1997. Cultures of the Baroste People.Kaunda, D K 1965. Zambia Shall Be Free.Bordman, D 2013. Management and Economics: Macro Analysis.

(c) The city of publication and publisher conclude the reference. Separate them with a colon and space. Example:

Fretzman, D 1988. Wildlife Conservation in East Africa. 2001. Nairobi: Paulist.MacDonald, A T 2005. Law in a Changing World. New York: Oribs.Haman, W H 1983. Principles of Economic Growth. New Delhi: Loure.

(d) Specific page references in a book can be noted after the title of the book if required. Page numbers should not be in italics. Example:

Mubanga, R K 2008. Power Generation in the Zambian Economy, 29-67. Lusaka: Insaka.Mubitha, B K 1997. Cultures of the Baroste People, 71-93. Lusaka: Insaka.MacDonald, A T 2005. Law in a Changing World, 54-103. New York: Oribs.

30

(e) Titles of Series should be placed at the end of the bibliographical reference (in brackets) and should not be in italics. Example:

Brentwood, E M 2013. Report Writing in a Changing World. Atlanta: Scholars Press. (Management Series).Peters, A 2011. Currency Growth. Paris: DuPoint. (Economics Series).Acebe, C 1959. Things Fall Apart. Oxford: Longman. (African Writers Series).

(e) Works published by the same author in the same year: When referring to several works published by the same author in the same year, distinguish the works in the bibliography by adding the suffixes a, b, c, etc. after the year. This letter must also appear in the in-text reference. Example:

Gilmore, W A 1997a. Marketing in the 21st Century. Glasgow: Harmman. __________ 1997b. Strategies in an Evolving Market. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.__________ 1997c. Marketing and Changing Trends. New York: Harmman.

In-Text

(Gilmore 1997a:24)(Gilmore 1997b:157)(Gilmore 1997c:84-91)

4.2 OTHER PUBLICATIONS

(a) Articles in Journals: All is done as for books with the following exceptions:

i) The title of the article, in normal font, follows the date. A FULL STOP is at the end of the titles. Only the first word and other proper words are capitalized.

ii) The title of the journal in which the article appears should be in italics.iii) The volume number is then given in Arabic numbers [1, 2, 3…] even if the journal uses

Roman Numerals [I, II, III…]. If each issue of the volume starts from page 1 then you may add the month or issue number after the volume number in round brackets. This is followed by a COMMA and the PAGE reference.

iv) The city of publication and publisher are OMITTED. Example:

Kasandra, B 2013. Convertible Currencies in the Zambian economy. Accountancy 14 (August), 4-15.

Mackenzie, H 1997. Leadership in a mixed Environment. Management Today 40 (6), 217-231.

(b) Articles in Edited Books: The title of the article, in normal font, is followed by a comma and then the word “in” is placed before the book reference. The title of the book, in italics, is followed by a comma and then the page numbers of the article followed by a full stop, then the city and publisher as usual. Example:

Mwale, P 1987. Marketing in a Liberalized Economy, in Mabumba, W (ed). The Business Environment Today, 112-137. Lusaka: Longman.

31

(c) Articles in Dictionaries or EncyclopaediasWhen quoting from a dictionary use the author of the article, then “sv” [=sub verbo, Latin for under the entry], then the title of the article, in single inverted commas, then the title of the reference work, in italics. Example:

Smith, B A 1993. sv ‘Ancient Egypt’ in Lucas, B M, Hermann, F & Daniels, T H (eds). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Oxford: University Press.

(d) Magazines & Newspapers: Magazine and newspaper references can follow these examples:

Times of Zambia 18 Feb 2015. Man jailed for murder, p5.Post 23 Jun 2012. Chingola Daul Carriage coming. p18.Mushota, D 2001. Rural Lwangwa to get a new Road. Daily Mail 13 October, p21

(e) Thesis Reference: A thesis reference is given by writing the author’s name, date, title of the thesis, abbreviation of the degree, then the university, and finally the place, unless it is obvious from the name of the university, (University of Lusaka). Example:

Chilufya, F M 2015. Enquiry into the Attribution of Phonetic Skills as an Enabler of Initial Written and Oral Communication Proficiency among Grade 1 And 2 Learners: The Case of Selected Schools in Lusaka and Chinsali Districts. MCD Thesis, University of Zambia, Lusaka.

(f) UNILUS Lecture Notes: Reference to lecture notes takes two forms depending on whether you are citing notes handed out by the lecturer or the notes you had taken in class. In the former use the title of the compiled hand-outs, indicating that it is unpublished; for the latter use the title of the module, indicating that it is your lecture notes. In both cases the author is the lecturer. Example:

Mulusa, V 2016. Resources for Strategic Management. Lusaka: UNILUS. (unpublished lecture notes.)Mulusa, V 2016. Strategic Management. Lusaka: UNILUS. (My lecture notes.)

4.3 ELECTRONIC SOURCES

The general format for the bibliographical entry is as follows (adapted from Cooke 2007):1. Name2. Year3. Title (in italics if the only title, or normal font if part of an electronic journal, or other

electronic document or website if this is not used as the name).4. The word “Online” in square brackets followed by comma if edition is available otherwise

by full stop, i.e. [Online]. It is advisable to specify the type of medium here e.g. [Online journal] or [Online encyclopaedia] or [Online image] or [Online webpage] or [Online book]. For offline resources give the medium, and format if applicable, in square brackets, e.g. [CD-ROM] or [Videocassette: VHS], etc.

5. Edition if available (for example, update 2 or version 4.1) followed by full stop.6. Place of publication (if known), followed by colon.7. Publisher (if known), followed by full stop.

32

8. The words “Available from” follow the colon, then the URL in chevrons (angle brackets < >) followed by full stop. (Make sure the URL is NOT underlined nor in blue)

9. For online sources, the word “Accessed” and the date you viewed the web page – in square brackets followed by a full stop.

Examples:

4.3.1 Webpage

Agarwal, B 1983. ‘Diffusion of Innovations: Some Analytical Issues and the Case of Wood-burning Stoves’ in World Development Vol. II, No.4, pp. 359-376. [Online article], Available from: <www.binaagarwal.com/downloads/apapers/diffusion_of_rural_innovations.pdf> [Accessed on 20 May 2013].

Aliber, M 2002. Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development. Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town. [Online webpage], Available from: <www.harc.ac.za/publishing>. [Accessed on 28 May 2013].

4.3.2 Webpage/Website as Author

Professional Insurance Zambia 2016. Products: Marine Cargo. [Online webpage], Available from <http://www.picz.co.zm/products/> [Accessed 2 February 2016].

Zambia Institute of Chartered Accountants 2016. Education Services: Accreditation of Tuition Providers. [Online webpage], Available from <http://www.zica.co.zm/?page_id=1684>. Accessed 9 February 2016].

The South African Red Cross Society 2016. [Online Homepage], Available from <http://www.redcross.org.za/ >. [Accessed 7 February 20106].

4.3.3 E-book

Kung, H 2007. The Beginning of All Things: Science and Religion. [Online Book], Cambridge: Eerdmans Publishing. Available from <http://books.google.com/books?id=c5dOEKFMXfoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Kung:+The+beginning+of+all+things:+science+and+religion#PPP1,M1. [Accessed 7 December 2008].

4.3.4 Online Journal

Lincoln, A 2007. From Writing to Reception: Reflections on Commentating on the Fourth Gospel. Journal for the Study of the New Testament, March, 353-372. [Online Journal], Available from <http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9hAN=24566884&site=ehost-live>. [Accessed 6 December 2008].

4.3.5 Online Encyclopaedia

Thornton, S 2006. Deontological Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Online encyclopaedia], 2008 Edition, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Available from <http://kant.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/popper/>. [Accessed 8 October 2008].

33

4.4 FINE POINTS

4.4.1 Missing Information

1. If no author is given, write the article or book title first without an author.2. If no date is given, write ‘s a’ (sine anno, Latin for ‘no date’) in place of date.3. If no place is given, write ‘s l’ (sine loco, Latin for ‘no place’) in place of the location.4. If no publisher is given, write ‘s n’ (sine nomine, Latin for without name’) in place of the

publisher.

4.4.2 Footnotes

Footnotes are used for the following purposes:1. To explain or expand on a statement in the text.2. To clarify a statement in more detail by adding extra information, especially when

including this extra information in the main text would break the flow of the text or make it difficult to read.

3. To refer the reader to other relevant views, information, or writers on the subject.4. To include an original text, e.g. Latin, Greek, German, or its translation.5. To explain a particular reference technique used.

Example of a footnote:

Nevertheless, central to this communication process, Rogers states, is the newness of the messages (implicitly the innovation) being communicated. This newness implies some uncertainty over the innovation.1 He sees information as a means of reducing this uncertainty and suggests that the technology in the innovation embodies this necessary information2 (Rogers 1995:28).

1 For Rogers, uncertainty becomes the basis of any new technology to experience late adoption. People are sceptical of anything uncertain.2 This ‘necessary’ information has been a source of debate by scholars.

4.4.3 Endnotes

Endnotes serve the same purpose as footnotes but they are less user friendly since, being placed at the end of the chapter or book, the reader has to frequently break the flow of reading by continuously paging back and forth to consult the endnotes.

4.4.4 Numbers

Numbers from one to ten are written out in WORDS. Thereafter Arabic numerals are used, e.g., 11, 12, 13, 14………..

4.4.5 Common Abbreviations

Consider the common abbreviations used in publications and everyday use. For example:Books of the Bible have a Chapter:Verse format e.g. (Gen 3:13) , (Dt 11:24), (Mk6:14), (1 Cor 11:10)

34

4.4.6 Layout Numbering

Outline numbering should be done thus:

First Order 1 2 3 4……..

Second Order 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4……

Third Order 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4…..

Fourth Order 1.1.1.1 1.1.1.2 1.1.1.3 1.1.1.4…….

The next level of numbering is:a) b) c) Thus: 1.1.1.1a) 1.1.1.1b)

This is followed by the next level of numbering:i) ii) iii) Thus: 1.1.1.1a) i) 1.1.1.1.b) ii)

4.4.7 Punctuation Marks

1. Punctuation marks within an original quotation should be placed inside the inverted commas at the end of the sentence. Example:

MacDonald (1987:23) supported the idea of an ‘enabling environment for economic growth’.

2. If the punctuation is not of the original quotation, it should be placed outside of the inverted commas. Example:

With the emerging market in Zambia, are the ‘boundaries of fair trade by multinationals spilling over’?

3. Quotations within quotations be set apart with double inverted commas at the beginning and end, thus:

Tutu (1987:34) stated that ‘the freedom of an African “rests on the back of his sweat” in the quest for enduring emancipation.’

4. Abbreviations are used without full stops unless specifically stated otherwise. Do not use abbreviations within a running text. Rather, write out the entire word(s). Example:

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has issued a global alert concerning an outbreak of Ebola in West Africa. Speaking at the United Nations (UN) headquarters last evening, head of the organisation retaliated the need for general hygiene in public places.

Do not write - WHO has issued a global alert…. Speaking at the UN headquarters…..

Do not punctuate acronyms e.g. W.H.O or U.N.

35

36

7. CRITICAL REASONINGEffective thought, reasoning, analysis and planning are essential for successful communication. As a university student, you will have high volumes of written work to submit as assessments both in assignment form and examinations. Current statistics indicate that the majority of students present sloppy half-thought out works and is far below expected standards. The primary intention of such students is to “clear” the course and move on to completion of their study programme. In effect, they keep repeating courses which become costly for them and most important gain very little skills for application in the job industry. This section presents skills necessary for a student to produce quality well thought out (logical) written work be it an assignment, an examination or a dissertation.

7.1 REASONING TECHNIQUES

7.1.1 Deduction

Deductive (or analytical) reasoning (logic) is a method of vertical thinking. It is a form of reasoning which moves in precise steps from a generalisation to a particular case.

Analytical reasoning always starts with a statement called a Premise and end with a Conclusion. This process is called a syllogism.

For example:-

(a) All computers can calculate (premise)(b) This machine is a computer(c) This machine can calculate (conclusion)

For (c) to be a valid conclusion, statements (a) and (b) must be true. For instance, if the premise is stated:

All computers can walk,

The conclusion would have been:

This machine can walk, which is obviously false.

37

X

PARTICULAR

Generalisation

X

A syllogism can also be used to disprove a statement, for example:

No computers can walkThis animal can walkThis animal is not a computer

It is very easy to reason incorrectly when changing from the positive to the negative. For instance, the following two statements may be true:

All citizens of this country pay taxes.Foreigners are not citizens of this country.

But:All foreigners pay no taxes in this country

may be false. If the reside in this country, they may be liable for tax.

We also cannot convert:

All computers are keyboard machines.

to: All keyboard machines are computers.

This seems very obvious, yet such wrong reasoning is surprisingly common, particularly in argument where it is easy to think that a proposition that makes a true statement on a subject is also true when reversed.

It can, however be argued that, as

All typewriters are keyboard machines.

then:SOME keyboard machines are typewriters.

A long line of reasoning can be conducted using the deductive process. To carry out a long process of thought using this method is laborious but can be productive. However, it can also be a straitjacket which prevents us from applying other kinds of reasoning, such as arguing from experience, having a flash of inspiration, or deliberately stepping aside to look at the problem from a different angle.

7.1.2 Induction

Inductive thinking is the process by which we reason from experience, arranging and classifying new information according to its relationship with what we already know. Sometimes we put it into a class or generalisation, sometimes look forward from causes to possible effects, and sometimes make comparisons or analogies.

Conclusions reached by the inductive process will have a high degree of probability but will never have the same kind of certainty as the conclusions arrived at by deduction. Inductive reasoning is sometimes called empirical, because it is based on observation and experience, not on theory.

(a) Empirical Generalization

Generalisation means classifying things according to an accepted collection of data. For instance, the statement typewriters have QWERTY keyboards arise from the knowledge that there is a standard keyboard layout on all typewriters (that we know of) which has, as the top bank of letters on the left-hand side, the letters Q W E R T and Y.

38

Such a statement can be made with considerable confidence. It cannot be proved to be totally true unless every typewriter is the world has been checked and found to conform, in which case the statement would be based on analytical not inductive reasoning.

To apply this to your own work you need to ask questions such as the following:

Is this a reasonable inference judged against existing knowledge?Has the investigation covered a sufficiently wide area?Is this particular circumstance/object typical of the general class?

If these questions cannot be answered in the affirmative, then it is easy to fall into a very common error of reasoning. It is rash to generalise from isolated or special occurrences and equally wrong argument can arise from ignorance or prejudice. Statements such as:All people from the country of ….are thieves.Is clearly more likely to be untrue rather than true. Facts must never be twisted to fit in with a theory and you must be able to produce evidence to support your argument.

(b) Cause and Effect

Often when we know that events generally follow a certain path we wish to know why, or we wish to assess what may be a future effect of present action, to make forecasts. Although effect always follows cause and cause always precedes effect, a connection between a particular cause and a particular effect cannot be assumed because of the existence of a time space. A child failing to see after biting into a banana on a train the immediately enters a dark tunnel does not means biting into the banana caused the effect of not seeing. We have to find out what other causes might have existed to result in that effect.

(c) Analogy

Analogies and comparisons can be very useful in making arguments or explanations more intelligible. But what happens when we go further and base our reasoning on, and draw conclusions from, the resemblances which the analogy suggests? It may be a very unsafe process. Analogies can never be used to establish a logical conclusion. Even if we can show twenty similarities between a typewriter and a computer, they obviously have many more dissimilarities than they have things in common. Flase analogy is at the root of much specious reasoning. It should only be used to illustrate points made or, perhaps, to indicate possible conclusions.

(d) Lateral Thinking

Literal thinking is a phenomenon of chance which Aristotle described as an intuitive and unconscious thought process – the imaginative leap which has accompanied so many great scientific discoveries. Literal thinking can also follow a series of progressive steps rather like the process of analytical logic, but the steps will merely follow in a time sequence, not as a deductive series. They might include improvisation, experiment, new suggestions. Literal thinking can be used very effectively in group-solving sessions, carrying out value analysis, planning sales and promotion campaigns and devising better procedures and methods of working.

7.2 FALLACIES

A fallacy is an error in reasoning. A fallacy sounds like good reasoning but one must scrutinize it to notice the error in the reasoning. A fallacy tends to persuade even though it is faulty. Common fallacies include the following:

39

(a) Distraction Fallacies

Slippery slope argumentA slippery slope argument entails reasoning in a chain with conditionals (if so, the something else) where at least one of the if-then premise is false or doubtful so that the conclusion does not follow. A slippery slope argument leads one from seemingly unimportant and obviously true premises to calamitous and exaggerated consequences in the conclusion. With a slippery slope argument our attention is distracted by the thought of how terrible the situation is that threatens us, according to the argument. We do not check whether all the steps down the slippery slope are connected because our attention is distracted away from the weak premise right to the bottom of the slope. The format of a slippery slope argument is the following:Obviously true A leads to B.

B leads to C.C leads to D.D leads to completely unacceptable E.

The thought is that if we accept that A leads to B then we are on a slippery slope to E.

Straw man argumentThe name ‘straw man’ refers to a scarecrow which is supposed to frighten off crows or other birds, but is in itself very feeble (weak). The straw man fallacy consists of making your own position appear to be strong by making the opposing position appear to be outrageous, or weaker than it actually is. What distracts us in the straw man argument is the absurdity of the opposing view. The way to identify a straw man argument is to look for two premises in the argument that are false:1. the premise that inaccurately presents the opponent’s view;The implicit premise that you must either support this untenable or unacceptable position or that you must support the view taken by the arguer.Notice that in this kind of fallacious reasoning no other alternatives are offered.It is typical of the straw man fallacy that the arguer knocks down an opponent’s argument by misrepresenting the opponent’s view and creates a false dilemma of imposing a choice between either the opponent’s weakened position or the arguer’s preferred alternative.

Begging the questionThe fallacy of begging the question consists of circular reasoning, whereby the arguer assumes the truth of what he or she is trying to prove. The conclusion in this kind of argument follows from the premise in the trivial sense that it only re-states the premise in different words. Because of the re-stating this kind of argument is called circular reasoning. At the end of a valid or sound argument you will know more than you did at the beginning. However, when you commit the fallacy of begging the question, your audience knows nothing more than they did when they started.

EquivocationWords can mean different things in different contexts. The fallacy of equivocation occurs when a word or expression shifts meaning from one premise to another. In other words, when a word is used first in one sense in one part of an argument and then in a different sense in another part of the same argument, the fallacy of equivocation is committed.

Complex questionThe fallacy of many questions (the complete Question) is in the form of a question in which two or more questions are combined. The trick is to roll two or more questions into one question and then to demand a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.

Faulty analogyAnalogy is the name we give to the process of reasoning from one set of circumstance or characteristics to another set which is, or seems similar. The aim of the analogy is to explain a concept from one category by comparing it to another concept from a different category. However, argument by analysis only succeeds when the analysis is suitable to the case. If the analogy drawn is unsuitable, the argument commits the error of faulty analogy.

40

A false analogy happens when a comparison is drawn between two different things, and there are no relevant similarities between them. The strength of an analogy depends on the number of similarities between two cases or concepts as well as the relevance of the similarities, then the analogy cannot be said to be good or bad –rather, it is a false analogy.

(b) Emotion Fallacies

Emotional Fallacies draw their persuasiveness from an illegitimate appeal to emotion because they confuse emotion with reason. Emotion fallacies are fallacies that provide a motive for belief rather than supporting reasons.

Ad hominem argumentsAd hominem arguments confuse emotion with reason. They concentrate on the character, beliefs, circumstances or interests of the arguer, instead of dealing with the reason for accepting a particular conclusion.

This fallacy occurs when, instead of tackling the issue at hand, someone makes a personal attack on the character or circumstances of the person who is advancing a claim, in an attempt to discredit her. An argumentum ad hominem can work in two ways:(a) First, it can be a personal attack that makes claims about the individual’s character, such as characteristics that are almost impossible to change – age, height, weight, disability, gender, race, and class, level of education or sexual orientation.(b) Second, an argumentum ad hominem can be a personal attack based on the individual’s circumstances, such as religious, political or social affiliation.

Another common form of argumentum ad hominem is to deny the claims of an opponent by pointing to the interests of the person who is making the claim.

False appeal to authorityThe fallacy of false appeal to authority occurs when an authority or a famous person is cited (rather than citing solid evidence to confirm or refute the claim) in order to get the conclusion accepted. What is important to note in all the cases of false appeal to authority is that the ‘authority’ or the ‘expert’ quoted is not an expert in the field under discussion.

Appeal to forceThis fallacy occurs in argumentation when someone uses force, or coercion, to induce the acceptance of a conclusion. The appeal to force includes verbal harassment, sexual harassment, bribery, blackmail, ‘pulling rank’, and the treat of violence to ‘persuade’ someone to a position of accepting a conclusion. We should be aware of the fallacy of appeal to force and on the lookout for cases where the arguer exploits emotion and fear in an attempt to persuade us to a position that is contrary to what we believe in.

Appeal to popular opinionThe fallacy of argumentum ad populum (appeal to the masses) occurs when there is an attempt to persuade an audience based on popular feeling, mass sentiment or enthusiasm, or patriotism, rather than offering relevant evidence or good reasons for accepting the conclusion. Like the fallacy of appeal to force, the fallacy of appeal to popular opinion confuses emotion with reason.

(c) Structural Fallacies

Structural fallacies appear to be sound because of a counterfeit resemblance to a valid argument form or structure.

Affirming the consequentA conditional statement has the following form: ‘If P then Q’, and where P and Q stand for statements. For instance, ‘If it rains then the football match will be cancelled’ is a conditional statement (P = it rains; Q = the football match will be cancelled). The fallacy of affirming the consequent is committed when the consequent in a conditional statement is

41

affirmed and the antecedent is taken to be true on these grounds. The consequent in a conditional statement is statement Q and the antecedent is statement P.Example: If the economy is healthy, then unemployment is low.Unemployment is low. So the economy is healthy.

Denying the antecedentIn a conditional statement, it is a fallacy to deny the antecedent and to suppose that this is ground for denying the consequent. Example: If she were a philosophy student then she would know that Plato was Greek.She is not a philosophy student: therefore she does not know that Plato was Greek. Obviously someone might know about the national origins of Plato even though she is not a philosophy student. The fallacy of denying the antecedent occurs when someone argues that because the antecedent doesn’t happen, then the consequent cannot happen.

7.3 PLANNING

Equipped with critical reasoning, one needs to apply it in good communication. This is done through the process of planning expected in written work. Planning applies to letters, meeting documents, advertisements, reports, etc. as a university student; you will be doing a lot of writing which must ALL be well planned using critical reasoning. Do not just put pen to paper (or computer to paper nowadays) without making a full logical plan of your writing. For mathematical and scientific writings and calculations, the same is applicable. In the next section, we shall focus on planning essay writing and at the end of the course on research report writing. Both must be logically planned.

42

43

8. ESSAY WRITING PRINCIPLES

Outline:

5.1 Foundation Building5.1.1 Identify the issue/problem/matter

General overview of the main issue Specific points of the issue

5.1.2 Identify Sources of information from topical materials5.1.3 Collecting and organising information

Note taking Scan/photocopy Downloads Reference building

5.2 Developing the Essay5.2.1 Drafting a Structure5.2.2 Constructing a cohesive introduction5.2.3 Points building of paragraphs5.2.4 Constructing a summative conclusion5.2.5 Smart Reference/Bibliography

5.3 Essay Standard Presentation5.3.1 Specifics

Margin dimensions Font type Font size Line Spacing Punctuations Paraphrasing Indention Page Numbering

5.3.2 Preliminary Pages Cover/Title page Table of Contents Declaration

5.3.3 Main Pages Heading & Sub-headings Footnotes Figures & Tables Reference/Bibliography

5.1 FOUNDATION BUILDING

44

5.1.1 Identify the Issue/Problem/Matter

When presented with the task of writing an essay as an assignment, you must be very clear about what is being required. In other words, you must identify exactly what the issue/problem/matter is in order to present the solution or material response to it. This has a two staged processes:

General overview of the main issue

After reading through the task, identify the general overview of the issue/problem/matter. For example:

The macroeconomic environment in Zambia has been challenged by the weakening of the kwacha to the US dollar in the recent past. This has affected the cash flow in major capital projects being undertaken by the government. Cost saving mechanisms has been adopted in the operations of government which as adversely affected the progression of capital projects such as infrastructure development. Make an analysis of the recent trends in the strength of the kwacha against major convertible currencies explaining how the weakness of the kwacha has affected the road sector and import industries.

The task has a general subject of the effects of a weak kwacha on infrastructure development and trade. You cannot easily develop an essay with such a broad and general theme. There is need now to identify specifics of the task.

Specific points of the issue

The last sentence of the task outlines the specific points being sort out.Make an analysis of the recent trends in the strength of the kwacha against major convertible currencies explaining how the weakness of the kwacha has affected the road sector and import industries.

The specific points are:a. (Analysis of) strength of kwachab. Its effects on road constructionc. Its effect on import

It is these specific points you must find information on. As specific as the points are, so will the information you must find. Information on the strength of the currency cannot be the same as expenditure levels in the Bank of Zambia similar though they may sound. Equally information on export is not the same as information on imports.

5.1.2 Identify Sources of Information from Topical Materials

After you have identified the specific points of the task, you must source for places where information on these points can be found. Generally you would find the information in your lecture notes and handouts, text books, journals and online sources.

a. Lecture notes/handouts b. Text Booksc. Journalsd. Online source (Google Scholar, e-books, etc.)

5.1.3 Collecting and Organising Information45

With the sources identified, there comes the process of selecting the relevant information for each specific point. This is a crucial stage. If what you select from the sources is weak to support your essay, your essay will equally be weak. Therefore as you select the information, ask yourself how relevant the point is to your task. Remember that not ALL information about a specific point is relevant or required for your essay. You must leave room in the essay for your own expounding (explaining). The follow will help you collect and organise your information:

Note takingJot down the key points separately from the major sources identifying where such points will be placed in your essay.

Scan/photocopyBecause modern technology has made things easy, scan/photocopy the relevant pages from the textbooks/journal for ease reference and highlighting exactly what you want to use from the pages. This is most helpful as it reduces the volume of books/journals you have to move around with. It also makes referencing to the notes much easier.

DownloadsCreate a folder for the task on your laptop and when you make downloads, put them in it. PDF files are usually the best documents for this task as they are portable and easy to read.

Reference buildingThis is a source of confusion for most students. Keeping track of the sources you are using is very crucial because if left for last, you will realise you cannot trace exactly where a certain piece of information was obtained. Therefore, keep a separate sheet of paper were you will be noting both how the in-text entry will be done e.g. (Sichula 2011:21-34) and the full reference/bibliographical entry e.g. Sichula E. M 2011. Management in the Industrial World. Lusaka: Insaka Press. At the end of your essay writing, you will find it easy to write up your reference/bibliography without losing track of information sources.

5.2 DEVELOPING THE ESSAY

5.2.1 Drafting a Structure

Even with very good problem identification and most relevant information identified, the essay will be a collection of disjointed points if it lacks a coercive structure. At high school level, composition writing does not have the crucial element of external sources to support your writing. This is a new dimension and a very key element in tertiary writing.

Look at the task again and note how the instructor wants the information to flow. Let us use our earlier example:

Make an analysis of the recent trends in the strength of the kwacha against major convertible currencies explaining how the weakness of the kwacha has affected the road sector and import industries.a. (Analysis of) strength of kwachab. Its effects on road constructionc. Its effect on Import

The structure will follow the trend in the task. For example it would be as follows:

46

Introduction Strength of Kwacha

Performance of kwacha in recent past Global economic indicators from 2015 Impact of global economy on the kwacha Loss of export earnings and impact on kwacha Attempts by Bank of Zambia to stabilize the kwacha

Effects of Kwacha weakness on:-(a) Road Construction

Escalating cost of bitumen Escalating cost of fuel for plant machinery Limited cash flow from government treasury Presidential directive for suspension of road projects

(b) Import industry Major imports of Zambia Benefits of imports into Zambia Escalating import costs Reduction in production activities dependant on imports Reduction in services and products

Conclusion

5.2.2 Constructing a Cohesive Introduction

An introduction is key in informing the reader what your essay contains. It must therefore contain the key outline points of the essay. A pertinent citation will even make your introduction sound intelligible and professional. It will show the reader that you have read widely and understand the subject matter. From our example, your introduction will pin point the aspect of kwacha being weak, the effect it has had on the road construction sector and the negative impact it has had on importation of essential commodities in the country. From the built structure, you will be able to select a point you can use to expand on the subject e.g. for road construction, you may highlight the presidential directive. The introduction should be substantive and stand on its own such that reading it will give the reader a complete picture of the essay.

5.2.3 Points Building of Paragraphs

Paragraphs If you have developed a good structure and collected good and adequate information from the various sources, building paragraphs of the main body becomes easy. You will simply be expanding on the listed points in the structure. Each major point may be a paragraph containing one or two points. Don’t make long paragraphs. From our example, you can develop three paragraphs from the points of a weak kwacha and four from the road construction points. Each sub-point may even be a paragraph depending on the amount of information you have. Sometimes you may discover one point has so much information that you break it in two or even three paragraphs.

Academic language

47

Use academic language when developing your points. Avoid first person, slang, colloquial, triviality, emotion, etc.

CitationsThese act like anchors for your essay. Do not simply copy and paste (especially from online sources). Use citations properly as discussed above. The test to see that the bulk of the work (at least 80%) are your own words, colour code them e.g. citations in red and your own words in blue. Note which colour dominates your essay!!!

5.2.4 Constructing a Summative Conclusion

Conclusion does not mean the last paragraph or just to say in a sentence or two that this is the end of the essay. A conclusion is as important as the introduction. The conclusion also gives a cohesive summary of the essay. You must now point out how each key point has finally been viewed after analysis in the main body. Here you can also give your personal views or recommendations on the key points. The conclusions should not necessarily have citations unless it is very pertinent to a point you are putting forward since the conclusion should be your own expounding on the task as you have worked through it.

5.2.5 Smart Reference/Bibliography

If you had jotted down your references as you browsed through your information sources, developing a reference/bibliography will not be a difficult thing. You will simply compile this information into a reference/bibliography as a sample below will show. Ensure it is alphabetically arranged. A good academic work should have no less than ten listed references. A list with three to five references indicates skewed work. It lacks solid foundation of arguing the points.

5.3 ESSAY STANDARD PRESENTATION

Each university has standard practice on specifics required for academic essay writing. The ones provided here are used in most universities. Variation will be noted from individual lecturers considering that each had experienced a unique standard practice.

5.3.1 Specifics

Margin dimensionsThese shall be 2.5cm on ALL four sides of an A4 white paper. For a research paper that is eventually bound into a hard copy, the left margin is increased to 4cm to allow for the binding.

Font typeThe standard font type is Times New Roman.

Font sizeFont size is 12 or 11.5

Line SpacingSpacing is 1.5. Avoid ‘Spaced before and after paragraph.’ Highlight your work and unselect these commands.

Punctuations Use the single quotation marks ‘ ’ for direct quotation e.g. MacDonald (1987:23) supported the idea of an ‘enabling environment for economic growth’. However, a quote within a quote would now use the double quotation marks “ ” for example, Tutu (1987:34) stated that ‘the freedom of an African “rests on the back of his sweat” in the quest for enduring emancipation.’ The words rests on the back of his sweat are a quotation that Tutu borrowed from somewhere and is found in his actual quote as well.

48

ParaphrasingThe information you encounter from sources must not always be put directly as they are into your essay. Doing this, does not show creatively and understanding of the subject matter. You must thus paraphrase what is in the source i.e. rewriting the information in your own words but still maintaining the same meaning. Even when you paraphrase, indicate the reference. For example:

This is an excerpt from a paper on child labour in Ndola.

Streets of Ndola are usually crowded with different people especially the Central Business District [CBD]. Most of these consist of children who are either sent to sell and beg or have run away from their homes. The latter are known as street kids but the research had concentrated on the ones engaged in various forms of work as sent by guardians/parents or themselves. Ndola city used to be a very vibrant town during the UNIP era with a lot of industries where people could get employed regardless of their qualifications. The availability of jobs meant that poverty levels were almost negligible and the free education policy crowned it all.

Can be paraphrased like this:

According to Sefelino (2015:2), the Central Business District of Ndola city is faced with a challenge of children who engage in survival tactics. This has been caused by the collapse of a vibrant economy of the city which was its legacy in the past.

Indention Generally direct citations from sources are small to highlight a point. Sometimes however a longer citation may be used. In this case you must not imbed it in the paragraph as a continuous writing but drop the entire quotation and indent it on both sides. Three features to note are, the non use of quotation marks, the use of a smaller font size from the size you are using for the main text (i.e. from size 12 to size 11 or 10.5) in the indented quotation and single line spacing. For example:

The eradication of extreme poverty and hunger by the year 2015 is first of the eight United Nations

Millennium Development Goals. This is highlighted in the first millennium development goal

which partly states:

We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them are currently subjected. We are committed to making the right to development a reality for everyone and to freeing the entire human race from want. We resolve therefore to create an environment – at the national and global levels alike – which is conducive to development and to the elimination of poverty (UN Millennium Development Goal No. 1) (Curtain, R 2002).

Page NumberingAvoid page numbering that is ‘flowery’. A plain number at the bottom centre of the page is adequate. The cover page must not show a page number. The other preliminary pages (table of contents and declaration) must have Roman numeral numbering i.e. ii and iii.

49

Remember cover page is i. The page that has the introduction will then begin with Arabic numeral 1 and onwards.

5.3.2 Preliminary Pages

Cover/Title pageFollow the sample provided in the appendix as a cover page for your academic essays. Academic papers do not permit ‘decorations’ and exaggerated emphasis on words (bolds). The writing should be ordinary as indicated. The following information must be stated:

1. University logo must be in dimensions of about 2.30 ±cm height x 5.70±cm length in a centred position 2.5cm from the top margin.

2. Name of the SCHOOL in Arial font size 14 bolded and centred.

3. The STUDENT’S NAME (Arial font size 12 ff.)4. The student’s COMPUTER NUMBER5. Name of PROGRAMME6. Mode of STUDY7. The CODE and name of COURSE8. Name of LECTURER9. The due DATE10. TASK (assignment) description in full (in Times New

Roman – single space font size 12)

DeclarationDue to escalating levels of plagiarism, academic institutions require that students sign a declaration for each written work that makes an assurance of the authenticity of your work. It can be used in a disciplinary hearing when it is discovered that your work is guilty of plagiarism. Refer to the sample in the appendix.

Table of ContentsA table of content should be informative. It must show the sub-headings and the correct numbering levels (orders)(refer to section on referencing). Page numbers of where the headings are is key. You may develop your table of content manually or automatically. The table of content immediately follows the declaration. Refer to appendix for a sample of the table of content.

5.3.3 Main Pages

Heading & Sub-headingsHeadings and sub-heading direct the follow of your points. If they are used, ensure that they are properly numbered according to the ordering explained in the referencing section. Sometimes however, your lecturer may prefer a free flow essay without a break in headings. In this case, you have an added task in your writing to show how the points are flowing and building from one stage to the next. Paragraphing helps handling this. Each paragraph you start will connect from the previous and point to the next.

FootnotesAs previously allude to, footnotes are there to explain further a point which if put in the main body would distort the flow of information. Do not use the footnote for referencing in the Harvard system. Your footnotes may be consecutively numbered throughout the paper or may be numbered for each page.

50

Table 7.3: Summary – Attribution of Phonetics as Imperative Reading Skills Overall Performance

Figure 7.3: Summary – Attribution of Phonetics as Imperative Reading Skills Overall Performance

Figures & TablesOnce you use tables or figures (charts, images, maps, pictures, etc), ensure they are not unnecessarily large. They must be adequate to be visible. If a table cannot fit in portrait format, make the page landscape in the same document using the page break in page layout tab. For labelling of tables and figures, tables have labels at the top while for figures, the labels are placed at the bottom for example:

Sampled Grade

Above Average

Average

Below Average

Total Nil

Grade 1 35.5% 4.0% 60.5% 100% 25.3%Grade 2 22.3% 4.6% 73.1% 100% 36.3%Grade 7 28.5% 7.8% 63.7% 100% 39.7%Grade 12 35.6% 16.3% 48.1% 100% 14.3%

51

Above Average Average Below 100

908070605040302010

0

Grade 1

Grade 2

Grade 7

Grade 12

Reference/BibliographyThe reference/bibliography starts on a fresh page after the conclusion. It must be alphabetically arranged. It may be divided into the type of sources consulted though this is preferably done for long papers such as research dissertations. However the advantage of doing this is the ease in referencing especially with the dawn of online resources. The sub divisions may be Books, Journals, Electronic Sources, etc. The reason we say electronic source rather than online sources is because you could have consulted offline sources such as CDs, DVDs, video cassettes, etc. which are ‘offline’. Refer to examples of bibliographies in the appendix.

AppendixIf there are supporting materials that could not have sat well in the main body of the essay such as tables, charts, maps, lists, etc., they are featured in the last pages called the appendix (pl. appendices). A crucial aspect to consider is that you must not forget to make reference to the relevant material in the appendix in the main body of the essay. Materials in the appendix which have no in-text reference is a waste.

APPENDIX

52

53

School Of Business, Economics & Management

NAME Kasandra Lwaisha Lupando

COMPUTER NUMBER AFIN1234567

PROGRAMME Bachelor of Accountancy

MODE OF STUDY Part Time

COURSE BBA140 Business Environment

LECTURER Mr Victor Mulusa

DATE 15 March 2016

Assignment 1:

For a business enterprise to survive, it must take seriously the economic environment in which it operates. Key factors should be considered by managers of a business in their strategic planning for growth. Outline the factors that are pertinent in an economic environment for an enterprise that deals in the production of edible oils in Zambia.

DECLARATION

1. I ………… (NAME OF STUDENT)……… know that plagiarism is to use another’s

work and present it as my own, and that this is a criminal offence.

2. Each significant contribution to and quotation in this essay from the work(s) of other

people has been attributed and has been cited as such.

3. This assignment is my own work.

4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of

passing it off as their own work.

Signature ……………………………… Date ……………………………

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Sample 1)

0.0 Introduction 1

1.0 Strength of Kwacha 11.1 Performance of kwacha in recent past 21.2 Global economic indicators from 2015 31.3 Impact of global economy on the kwacha 31.4 Loss of export earnings and impact on kwacha 41.5 Attempts by Bank of Zambia to stabilize the kwacha 4

2.0 Effects of a weak Kwacha 52.1 Road Construction 5

2.1.1 Escalating cost of bitumen 62.1.2 Escalating cost of fuel for plant machinery 62.1.3 Limited cash flow from government treasury 62.1.4 Presidential directive for suspension of road projects 7

2.2 Import industry 72.2.1 Major imports of Zambia 82.2.2 Benefits of imports into Zambia 82.2.3 Escalating import costs 92.2.4 Reduction in production activities dependant on imports 92.2.5 Reduction in services and products 10

3.0 Conclusion 10

References/ Bibliography 11Appendix 12

iii

AUTOMATICALLY GENERATED TABLE OF CONTENTS

The automatically generated table of content presents with characteristic dotted lines to indicate the page numbers. It also cannot not be easily edited in a manual form other than returning to the auto tools.

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Sample 2)

1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 1

2.1 Strength of Kwacha……………………………………………………………..12.1 Performance of kwacha in recent past …………………………………….. 22.2 Global economic indicators from 2015 …………………………………… 32.3 Impact of global economy on the kwacha ………………………………… 32.4 Loss of export earnings and impact on kwacha ……………………………42.5 Attempts by Bank of Zambia to stabilize the kwacha ……………………. 4

3.0 Effects of a weak Kwacha …………………………………………………….. 53.1 Road Construction ………………………………………………………… 5

3.1.1 Escalating cost of bitumen ………………………………………….. 63.1.2 Escalating cost of fuel for plant machinery ………………………… 63.1.3 Limited cash flow from government treasury ………………………. 63.1.4 Presidential directive for suspension of road projects ………………. 7

3.2 Import industry ……………………………………………………………. 73.2.1 Major imports of Zambia …………………………………………… 83.2.2 Benefits of imports into Zambia ……………………………………. 83.2.3 Escalating import costs ……………………………………………... 93.2.4 Reduction in production activities dependant on imports ……………93.2.5 Reduction in services and products …………………………………10

4.0 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………10

References/ Bibliography …………………………………………………………11Appendix ………………………………………………………………………….12

iv

AUTOMATICALLY GENERATED TABLE OF CONTENTS

The automatically generated table of content presents with characteristic dotted lines to indicate the page numbers. It also cannot not be easily edited in a manual form other than returning to the auto tools.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

2.1 STRENGTH OF KWACHA

2.1 Performance of Kwacha in Recent Past

2.2 Global Economic Indicators from 2015

2.3 Impact of Global Economy on the Kwacha

2.4 Loss of Export Earnings and Impact on Kwacha

2.5 Attempts by Bank of Zambia to Stabilize the Kwacha

3.0 EFFECTS OF A WEAK KWACHA

3.1 Road Construction

3.1.1 Escalating Cost of Bitumen

3.1.2 Escalating Cost of Fuel for Plant Machinery

SAMPLE OF DECLINATION OF HEADINGS & NUMBERING

Note how the main headings stand out from the sub-heading. The Third Order headings can be in italics to show their lesser declination. Do not leave unnecessary spaces between headings or text bodies. The work must look continuous and smart. Note also that this page has the Arabic numeral 1 for the start of the body of the essay.

2. IDENTIFYING HUMAN POVERTY

2.1 A General Description of the term Poverty

Like the term ‘love,’ poverty is a term which is highly ambiguous and can thus distort discussion on

any developmental issue. In this segment, we shall present the basic and general understanding of

poverty which shall later help us narrow to specific dimensions of describing poverty. Etymologically,

the word poverty is derived from two sources i.e. the old Franco word poverté and the Latin paupertās

(from the word ‘pauper’ which means poor) (Skeat, W 2005).The Collins Dictionary defines poverty

(noun) as ‘the state of being very poor – destitution, pennilessness, want’ this being derived from the

adjective, poor, defined as impoverished, penniless, privation. Laird (1990) classifies the term poverty

into two broad categories namely [want of earthly goods] destitution, indigence, pauperism,

insufficiency, deficiency, meagreness, depletion and [want of any desirable thing] shortage,

inadequacy, scarcity. Laird relates poverty to lack which he describes as a want, to require, have need

of. The Collins Dictionary elaborates on the term lack that as a noun, ‘if there is a lack of something, it

is not present when or where it is needed and as a verb, if something is lacking, it is not present when

or where it is needed.’ From these definitions, we can deduce that poverty in any way described has to

do with an absence of a real need.

Developing a contextual description of poverty, the Business Dictionary defines it as a ‘condition

where people's basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter are not being met.’ This dictionary further

presents two general categories of poverty namely absolute poverty where there is destitution i.e.

people having inadequate resources for minimum level of physical existence, and relative poverty

which ‘occurs when people do not enjoy a certain minimum level of living standards as determined by

a government (and enjoyed by the bulk of the population).’ The dynamics of these two categories of

poverty is that the understanding of absolute poverty is consistent globally and possible to eradicate

while relative poverty is an increasing reality globally and possibly may never be eradicated.

2.2 Theories Explaining the Cause of Poverty

Though the phenomenon of poverty manifests in numerous ways, social scientists have broadly

identified two dominant theories as a possible causes of human poverty. These theories focus on either

blaming the victim of poverty or a system that causes the victim of poverty to be ensnared in such a

cycle.

2

SAMPLE OF ESSAY BODY PRESENTATION

The dimensions of the four margins are 2.5cm and the body text is JUSTIFIED. This presents the work to appear solid and neat. The line spacing is 1.5 with font size of 12 and Times New Roman type. Note the heading and numbering declinations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Sample 1)

Books

Abercrombie, D 1964. Studies in Phonetics and Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Albright, D & Bailey, K M 1991. Focus on the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Budge, E.A. W 1971. Egyptian Language: Easy Lessons in Egyptian Hieroglyphics. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Dubin, F & Olshtain, E 1986.Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mody, B 1991.Designing Messages for Development Communication: An audience Participation-Based Approach. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.

Robinson, W P 1971. ‘Social Factors and Language Development in Primary School Children’ in Huxley, R & Ingram, E (eds).Language Acquisition: Models and Methods. London: Academic Press.

Tambulukani, G 2012. Does Teaching Reading in a Familiar Language Force a breakthrough to Literacy? Lusaka: The University of Zambia.

Thomas, P 2008. ‘Communication and the Persistence of Poverty: The Need for a Return to Basics’ in Servaes, J 2008. Communication for Development and Social Change. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.

Electronic Sources

Dodge, Y & Marriott H C 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms. New York: Oxford University Press. [Online dictionary], Available from: <www.oxforduniversitypress.org/dictionary>. [Accessed 15 August 2013].

Linehan, S 2006. Language of Instruction and the Quality of Basic Education in Zambia: A paper for UNESCO. [Online article], Available from: <www.portal.unesco.org/...Zambia/Linehan>. [Accessed 27 November 2012].

Mefolopulos, P 2008: Development Communication Sourcebook: Broadening the Boundaries of Communication. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ World Bank, Washington DC. [Online e-book], Available from: <www.worldbank.org/…/DevelopmentCommSourcebook.pdf>. [Accessed 15 August 2012].

Zambia Economist 201. Rural Poverty in Zambia. [Online Journal]. Available from <http://www.zambian-economist.com/2011/08/rural-poverty-in-zambia.html>. [Accessed 30 August 2012].

3

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Sample 2)

Books

Abercrombie, D 1964. Studies in Phonetics and Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Albright, D & Bailey, K M 1991. Focus on the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Budge, E.A. W 1971. Egyptian Language: Easy Lessons in Egyptian Hieroglyphics. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Dubin, F & Olshtain, E 1986.Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mody, B 1991.Designing Messages for Development Communication: An audience Participation-Based Approach. New Delhi: SAGE Publications.

Robinson, W P 1971. ‘Social Factors and Language Development in Primary School Children’ in Huxley, R & Ingram, E (eds).Language Acquisition: Models and Methods. London: Academic Press.

Tambulukani, G 2012. Does Teaching Reading in a Familiar Language Force abreakthrough to Literacy? Lusaka: The University of Zambia.

Thomas, P 2008. ‘Communication and the Persistence of Poverty: The Need for a Return to Basics’ in Servaes, J 2008. Communication for Development and Social Change. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.

Electronic Sources

Dodge, Y & Marriott H C 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms. New York: Oxford University Press. [Online dictionary], Available from: <www.oxforduniversitypress.org/dictionary>. [Accessed 15 August 2013].

Linehan, S 2006. Language of Instruction and the Quality of Basic Education in Zambia: A paper for UNESCO. [Online article], Available from: <www.portal.unesco.org/...Zambia/Linehan>. [Accessed 27 November 2012].

Mefolopulos, P 2008: Development Communication Sourcebook: Broadening the Boundaries of Communication. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ World Bank, Washington DC. [Online e-book], Available from: <www.worldbank.org/…/DevelopmentCommSourcebook.pdf>. [Accessed 15 August 2012].

Zambia Economist 201. Rural Poverty in Zambia. [Online Journal]. Available from: <http://www.zambian-economist.com/2011/08/rural-poverty-in-zambia.html>. [Accessed 30 August 2012].

4

LIST OF RECOMMENDED READINGS

1. Asha, K 1995. Effective Communication. New Delhi: Juta.

2. Figgins, R 1984. Business Communication Basics. New York: Houghton.

3. Hybels, S 1986. Communicates Effectively. New York: Orbis.

4. Kolin, P 2002. Successful Writing at Work. New York: Houghton Miffin.

5. Kreitner, R 1995. Management. Toronto: Houghton Miffin.

6. Murphy, H 1980. Effective Business Communications. New York: Houghton Miffin.

7. Rosethal, L 1986. Academic Reading and Study skills for International Students. Toronto: McGraw-Hill.

8. Woolcot, L A & Unwin, W R 1984. Mastering Business Communication. London: Palgrave.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements for the preparation of this first part of the module includes University of Lusaka Library staff for valuable input on the library section of the module. Sources consulted for this section include information from Webpages. Acknowledgement on the introductory part includes Edward Nkonde’s 2008 lecture notes on Business Communication Skills. He also supplied a list of recommended books for the module. On the referencing section, acknowledgement is given to the authors of St Joseph’s Theological Institute (Pietermaritzburg, South Africa) handbook of 2010 from which much of this section has been adapted. Much gratitude is rendered to them.

© F. Chilufya 2016

5