lilly north 2010

8/8/2019 Lilly North 2010

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Follow Where the Research Leads Us: What Brain

Research can tell us about Students Learning

Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

Ferris State University

www.learnercenteredteaching.com


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Slides available for download at:

www.learnercenteredteaching.com

LILLY North Conference

Follow Where the Research Leads Us


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Presentation Outcomes

By the end of the presentation participants will:

1. have a better understanding of how fast theresearch into human learning is progressing.

2.have developed news ideas for applyingresearch findings to their courses.


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Brain Research and College Teaching

Connecting the dots for

educators


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Folklore vs. Science

In A Celebration of Neurons by

University of Oregon Education

Professor Robert Sylwester in 1995.

He said : the

information upon which

we make our teachingdecisions is much closer

to folklore than science.


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What was Then

Guido Sarducci Five Minute University


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http://www.ted.com/speakers/aditi_shankarda

ss.html

What is Now


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Brain Research

It is important to realize much of the research on

the brain as it relates to learning has been done

on animal models. The research that is done on

humans consist of the study of discrete tasks in

isolation.

This research can however, give us important

ideas about how to make learning more effective.

(Dr. Janet Zadina, Neuroscientist and Educator)


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What We Know about the Brain

What we know about the

brain comes from

biologist who study brain

tissue, experimentalpsychologist who study

behavior, cognitive

neuroscientist who study

how the first relates to

the second and

evolutionary biologist.

(Medina, 2008).


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Following the Research

Almost 40 years ago,Thomas Kuhn's seminalwork, The Structure ofScientific Revolutions,

described how societyresponds when there is asignificant shift in theprevailing paradigm.

Kuhn argued that such ashift is typically met withvehement denial andopposition.


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Brain Research and College Teaching

"If we ignore how the

student brain works, we

will risk student success

"Everything we do uses

our brain; let's learn more

about it and apply that

knowledge."

Leslie hart 1983." , Human Brain,

Human Learning


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The Human Brain

The human brain weighs three (3) pounds but

uses 20-25% of the bodies energy


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The Human Brain

The human brain has 100 billion neurons

(It does grow thousands of new cells daily)

www.enchantedlearning.com/.../gifs/Neuron.GIF


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The Human Brain

These 100 billion neurons

are capable of making40,000,000,000,000,000

(Forty quadrillion connections )

(James Ratey, Users Guide to the Brain, 2002)


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Learning is when Neurons Wire

Learning is a change

in the neuron-patterns of the

brain.(Ratey, 2002)

www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg


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Teachers Definition of Learning?

Learning is the ability to use information aftersignificant periods of disuse

and

it is the ability to use the information to solveproblems that arise in a context different (if onlyslightly) from the context in which the information

was originally taught.

(Robert Bjork, Memories andMetamemories, 1994)


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Basic Finding from Brain Research as it

Impacts Human Learning

It is the one who does

the work who does thelearning


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What has Research Discovered they

We Might Use?


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Brain Research and Learning

Can we make better-

informed decisions

about teaching based

on what we havelearned about the

brain?

The answer is clearly

YES


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Findings about Rest and Memory

The researchers found thatduring rest, the areas of thebrain were just as active asthey were when they were

learning the task

The greater the correlationbetween rest and learningthe greater the chance of

remembering the task inlater tests.

Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department ofPsychology and Center for Neural Science.


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Back to Back Classes

Should Students not

take Classes back to

back?

"Taking a coffee break

after class can actually

help you retain that

information you just

learned," Dr Lila Davachi


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The Brain and Learning

The human brain was

designed to solve

problems of survival in

outdoor, unstableenvironments while in

almost constant

motion.

( Dr. John Medina, Developmental Molecular

Biologist, University of Washington and Author

of Brain Rules)


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If educators had set

out to design a learning

environment that was

in complete oppositionto what the human

brain is good at they

would have designed

the schools of yesterdayand today.

(John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)


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GRID Cells

British scientists at the UniversityCollege London (UCL) announce thatthey were recently able to identifysome of the most elusive structuresin the human brain, namely the gridcells.

These special formations are theones in charge of creating theinternal maps of our surroundingsthat we unconsciously use to getaround.

This is the first time such anannouncement is made, and, if itsconclusions are verified, it could beone of the greatest discoveries in thefield of brain sciences made in a longtime


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Neurogenesis

The human brain can and does grownew neurons. Many survive andbecome functional.

New neurons are highly correlatedwith memory, mood, and learning.

This process can be regulated by oureveryday behaviors.

Specifically, it can be enhanced byexercise, lower levels of stress, andgood nutrition.

(Gerd Kempermann, Laurenz Wiskott, and Fred Gage, "FunctionalSignificance of Adult Neurogenesis," Current Opinion in Neurobiology, April2004, pp. 186-91.


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Neuroscience has Become Main Stage

Biological Psychiatry,

The Journal ofNutritionalNeuroscience.

Sociology its the JournalSocial Neuroscience.

The Journals NutritionalNeuroscience and the

European Journal ofClinicalNutrition

Arts and Neuroscience


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Social Conditions and the Brain

Social conditions influence our brainin ways we didn't know before.

The discovery of mirror neurons byGiacomo suggests a vehicle for animitative reciprocity in our brain.

School behaviors are highly socialexperiences, which become encodedthrough our sense of reward,acceptance, pain, pleasure,coherence, affinity, and stress.

Students are more affected by it thanwe thought.


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Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to rewire

and remap itself by means of

neuroplasticity is profound.

Schools can influence thisprocess.

Neuroscientists Michael

Merzenich and Paula Tallal

verified that when the correctskill-building protocol is used,

educators can make positive and

significant changes in our brains

in a short time.


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Gene Expression

The old-school view was that eitherenvironment or genes decided theoutcomes for a student.

We now know that there's a thirdoption: gene expression.

This is the capacity of our genes torespond to chronic or acuteenvironmental input.

This new understanding highlights anew vehicle for change in ourstudents.

Neuroscientists Bruce Lipton and Ernest Rossi


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Dendrite Growth

With in 20 minutes of

being exposed to new

learning the dendrites

in the brain begin togrow new cellular

material.

(Cognitive Neuroscientist Janet Zadina, 2010)


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Use it or Lose it

When new material is

not practiced the new

dendrite tissue is

reabsorbed to conserveresources.

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Learning Activates the Brains

Reward Pathways

Real life, meaningful,

and authentic learning

activates the reward

pathways in the brain

It is this pathway that

keeps us alive

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Reading in the Brain

Cause of Dyslexia

For 100 years believed

to be a problem with

the visual processing

parts of the brain.

Cause of Dyslexia

2009 French

Neuroscientist Stanislas

Dehaene proved it is a

problem with the

auditory processing

parts of the brain


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Memory and Similar Patterns

People are more likely toremember information if thepattern of activity in theirbrain is roughly the same witheach review,

The findings, published onlineSept. 9, 2010 in the journalScience, challenge the long-held belief that humansremember more effectivelywhen they review informationin varying


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How Practice Makes Perfect

The question is how practice makesperfect, If you precisely reactivatethe same pattern each time, then youare going to remember better.

Xue cautioned that the study doesnot disprove the effect of variablecontexts in enhancing memory.

Restudy under similar context mightnot always lead to patternreinstatement, and at the same time,

variable contexts might enhancepattern reinstatement..

(Gui Xue,USC)


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We Use all our Senses

The traditional belief amongneuroscientists has been that thefive senses operate largely asindependent systems.

However, mounting data suggestinteractions between vision,hearing, smell, touch and tasteare the rule, rather than theexception, when it comes to howthe human brain processessensory information and thusperceives things.

Aaron Seitz Journal Current Biology, 2006


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Smell and Learning

Proust Effect is the

unusual ability of

smell to enhance

recall

Best results when

smells are congruent

with the situationBrain Rules, p.212


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Multitasking Slows Learning

It is not possible to

multitask when it

comes to activitiesthat require the

brains attention


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Sleep and Memory

. "Periods of slow-wave sleep are very long

and produce a recall and probably

amplification of memory traces. Ensuing

episodes of REM sleep, which are very short,

trigger the expression of genes to store what

was processed during slow-wave sleep."

Sidarta Ribeiro, Duke University, 2004


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Sleep and Memory

The MRI scans are showing us that brain regionsshift dramatically during sleep,

"When you're asleep, it seems as though you areshifting memory to more efficient storage regionswithin the brain. Consequently, when youawaken, memory tasks can be performed bothmore quickly and accurately and with less stress

and anxiety."

Matthew Walker, PhD, director of BIDMC's Sleep and Neuroimaging Laboratoryand Assistant Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School,


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192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

Cramming


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Vision Trumps All

10.Vision trumps all other senses


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Progress is Vital

A feeling of making

progress is what allows

humans to deal with

tasks, especially taskswe dont necessarily

like to do.

(Dr. James Zull, 2002)


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Brain Based Education

The engagement of

strategies based on

principles derived from

an understanding of thebrain.

Knowing why one

strategy is used instead

of another.


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Brain Based Education

How reputable is brain-basededucation?

Harvard University now has both

master's and doctoral degrees init.

Our mission is to build amovement in which cognitive

science and neuroscience areintegrated with education so thatwe train people to make thatintegration both in research andin practice


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We actually are justbeginning to understandthe incredible complexityof the human brain.

However, there 12 thingswe do know about howthe brain processes

information and these aresignificant to yourstudents learning. (Dr. JohnMedina)


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Twelve Things We Know for sure about

the Human Brain

1. Exercise

significantly

enhances brainfunction


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Exercise and Learning

Exercise is the single

most important thing a

person can do to

improve their learning.

(John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The

Revolutionary New Science of

Exercise and the Brain)


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Exercise influences

learning directly, at

the cellular level,

improving the brains

potential to log in

and process newinformation.

Ratey, p35


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Newest Findings

Exercise increases

production of

neurotransmitters that help:1.Focus and attention

2.Motivation

3. Patience

4. Mood (more optimistic)

(Ratey, 2008)


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Exerciseenough to

sweat and 4-5 times a

week improves:

1. All brain systems

2. Executive functioning

3. Creativity

4. Learning

(Ratey, 2008)


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Exercise and BDNF

(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )

Exercise produces BDNF

( Miracle Grow for the Brain)

(Ratey, 2008)


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BDNF

Improves brain health

Enhances the wiring of

neurons

Is a stress inoculator

Makes the brain cells

more resilient


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Exercise and BDNF

The more intense

and complex the

exercise the moreBDNF that is

made.


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BDNF and Synapses

BDNF gives synapses

the tools they need to:

Take in

Process

Associate

Remember

Put in context

Information


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BDNF and Exercise

In particular BDNF seems to be important for

long term memories (John Ratey, 2008)


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Long Lasting Benefits

Morning aerobics will

cause improve brain

performance for 6-7

hoursconcentration,attention, focus as well

as learning

(John Ratey, 2008)


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Exercise Reduces Bad Behavior

Exercise produces theneuro-chemicals that aidthe brain in self control

Studies show dramaticdeclines (66%) insuspensions anddiscipline referrals in

public schools involved intest studies

(Ratey,p.14)


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Exercise and Brain Pathologies

Exercise reducessignificantly thepotential for the brainto succumb to certainpathologies

1. Alzheimers 50%

2. Dementia 60% 3. Depression 70%(Dr. John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)


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The Brain is Social

2. Survival is accomplished

by working with other

brains

Groups of brains

almost always

outperform a single

brain


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The Brain is Social

Group work has

tremendous potential

to aid understanding

and learningif thegroups understand their

roles and what they are

trying to accomplish


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Brains are Wired Differently

3. All brains are

wired differently

Our experiences

make us different


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Brains are Wired Differently

It is these differences

that can make working

together in teams andgroups such a powerful

learning experience


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Attention and Learning

4. The brain can

only pay

attention to onething at a time


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Multi-tasking

Multi-tasking violates everything we know about howmemory works

There is objective scientific evidence that multi-tasking

impairs learning.

The imaging data indicated that the memory task and thedistraction stimuli engage different parts of the brain andthat these regions probably compete with each other.

(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memorysystems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)


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Multitasking

Our brain works hard to foolus into thinking it can domore than one thing at atime. It cant.

When trying to do twothings at once, the braintemporarily shuts down onetask while trying to do theother.

(3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. )


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Memory

5 +6.

Memory

Repetition over timeand elaboration are

necessary for

memory formationand recall


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Listen to the Music

Do you know the lyrics to

songs that you did not try to

learn and do not want to

know the lyrics to?

YES


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Practice over Time

Practice, Use ,

Repetition, Review,

Reflection or any other

way we engage withnew learning over time

is a major key to its

recall


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Memories are Reconstructed

The more senses usedin learning and inpracticing what has

been learned( seeing, hearing,touch, taste andsmell) the more

pathways are availablefor reconstruction

(recall)


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Elaborations are the Key

For better or worse, our recollections are largely at the

mercy of our elaborations (Daniel Schacter author of the Seven Sinsof Memory)

l b i i h d


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Elaboration is the Second

Major Key to Recall

Step One. Accuracy

Step Two: Reflection

Step Three: Review

Step Four: Mapping

Step Five: Recoding


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Accuracy


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Reflection

Reflection expands connections,

understanding and insights.

Women

earn only

81% of

what men

earn

Is this true

incompanies

headed by

womenI knew this

was true in

other

countries

but the

U.S

I wonder if

there are

inequities in

pay for men

of color


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Keys to Review

Daily is Best


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Concept Mapping and Review

A concept map simply represents visually (easiestthing for the brain to learn, Zull, 2002)the important concepts

and ideas being studied and how they relate to one another.

www.universityhighschool.org/webquest/Element...


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Practice Includes Recoding

Recoding is the simple

process of translating

the new knowledge into

your own words.

Examples include

paraphrasing,

summarizing andannotating


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Why Students Forget

Review helps to limit the 3 Sins of Memory that

commonly occur among students.

1. Blocking information stored but cant be

accessed (Schacter, 2001)

2. Misattribution attributing a memory to the

wrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)

3. Transience memory lost over time 65% of a

lecture is lost in the first hour (Schacter, 2001)


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Keeping Memories

The best way to minimize memory decay is to useelaborative rehearsal strategies

V

isualizing Singing

Writing

Semantic Mapping

Drawing Pictures Symbolizing

Mnemonics.


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Emotions and Memory

Research shows

learners recall

information that is

emotional more easilythan information that is

factual or neutral in

nature. (Zull, 2002)

Theimagepartwithrelationship IDrId2wasnotfound in thefile.

Theimage

partwithrelationship IDrId3wasnotfound in thefile.


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Which of the following slides

would be easier to recall after

two weeks?


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Slide One

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/...


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Slide Two

www.operationsudan.org/images/darfur_child_st...


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Emotion and Memory

Emotional arousal organizes and coordinates

brain activity (Bloom, Beal & Kupfer 2003)

When the amygdala detects emotions, it

essentially boosts activity in the areas of thebrain that form memories (S. Hamann & Emony, UN.)


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Questions

1. How can we teach to promote long term

recall?

2. What kinds of assessments would promote

long term recall?

3. What kinds of assignments would promote

long term recall?


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Sleep

7. Sleep

The brain

needs sleep to

processinformation


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Stress

8. Stress

Stress

diminishes/

harms brainfunction


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Multiple Senses

9. The brain works

best when

multiple senses

are involved

Theimagepart with relationship ID rId2wasnotfound in thefile.


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20 Ounces of Coke

74 grams of sugar or 2.7 oz


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A Burger King Whopper

47 grams of fat


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Using all Our Senses to Learn

Those in multisensory

environments always do

better than those in

unisensory environments

They have more recall with

better resolution that lasts

longer, evident even 20

years later.

(John Medina, Brain Rules)


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Multimedia Exposure and Learning

Cognitive Psychologist

Richard Mayer

1. students learn betterfrom words and

pictures than from

words alone


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Temporal Congruity Principle

Students learn better

when words andpictures are presented

simultaneously rather

then successively


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Spatial Congruity Principle

Students learn better

when words andpictures are near to

each other on the page

rather than far from

each other.


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Coherence Principle

Students learn betterwhen extraneous

material is excluded


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Modality Principle Students learn better from animation and narration

than from animation and screen text


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Vision Trumps All

The more visual the

input becomes the

more likely it is to be

recognized and recalled

This is called the

Pictorial Superiority

Effect

+ = 4


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Vision Trumps All

Text and oral

presentations are not

just less efficient than

pictures for retaininginformation they are

way less efficient

(Brain Rules p.234)

ll


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Vision Trumps All

Oral information has arecall of about 10%after 72 hours

Add a picture and therecall increases to 65%

(Brain Rules, P.234)

ll


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Vision Trumps All

Humans pay a lot of attention to the size

of things and to things in motion.


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Q i


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Questions

How can we teach to our students senses?

What kinds of assignments would engage our

students senses?

Mens and Womens Brains are


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Men s and Women s Brains are

Different

11. There are

differences in the brains

of men and women

Th B i D i d L


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The Brain was Designed to Learn

12. The brain was meant to explore and learn

Th B i N d


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The Brains Needs

The brain needs to

function effectively:

1. Exercise

2. Sleep 3. Oxygen

4. Hydration

5. Food (glucose)

B i H lth


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Brain Health

Daily multiple vitamin

Daily fish oil capsule

Reduce or end caffeine

use

B i H lth


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Brain Health

Reduce (to very low

levels )or eliminate

alcohol intake

Learn to meditate

Drink adequate

amounts of water daily

B i H lth


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Brain Health

Eat a healthy diet

Get at least 8 hours of

sleep each night

Exercise daily --aerobic

is best

B i H lth


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Brain Health

Dont put your brain in

harms way

Avoid toxic chemicals-Ifusing them use in well

ventilated areas

(Making a Good Brain Great, Daniel

Amen)

Patterns and Learning


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Which of the following

slides is easier toremember and WHY?


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SLIDE ONE

`4915802979

Slide Two


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Slide Two

(491) 580-2979

Slide One


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Slide One

NRAFBINBCUSAMTV

Slide Two


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Slide Two

NRA NBC FBI USA MTV

Which is easier?


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Which is easier?

Counting backwards from 100

OR

Reciting the alphabet backwards


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Patterns that Aid Learning--


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Mapping

www.noticebored.com/assets/images/NB_inductio...www.eyezberg.com/.../bline_charts.png

Reading a textbook


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Reading a textbook

90% of the time the 1st sentence

of a paragraph is the Main Idea of

the paragraph

Reading Patterns


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Reading Patterns

Lists

Sequences

Definitions

Cause and Effect

Similarity and

Difference

Spatial Order


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Information Learned in a Complete


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Pattern

When information is learned as part of a whole (a complete

pattern) it becomes easier to recall.

Zulls Natural

Learning Cycle

Example-- Baseball


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Example-- Baseball

Who are the two

players that play infront of the Right

Fielder?



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However, if all a person did was memorize the names

in order 1-9 trouble!!!

Questions


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Questions

1. What are the most common patterns found

in your course content?

2. What patterns of presenting information to

students have you found to be most effective?

3. Are there information patterns you find

students struggle to recognize or understand?

References


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References

Bjork, R. A. (1994) Memory and Metamemory consideration in the training of human beings. In J.Metcalfe & A. Shimamura

(Eds) Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing pp. 185-205. Cambridge, MA MIT Press.Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The

classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I. Cognitive Domain (pp. 201-207). New York: McKay.

Caine, Renate; Caine, Geoffrey.Education on The Edge of Possibility. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development, 1997.

Damasio, A. R. (1994).Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY,Grosset/Putnam

Diamond, Marion. (1988).Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Brain.New York,NY: Free Press.

Damasio AR: Fundamental Feelings. Nature 413:781, 2001.

.D. O. Hebb,1949 monograph, The Organization of Behavior

Dweck, Carol. Mindset The New Psychology of Success, 2006 random House, NY

References


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References

Medina, John, Brain Rules, Pear Press, 2008

Sylwester, R. A Celebration of Neurons An Educators Guide to the Human Brain, ASCD:1995

Sprenger, M. Learning and Memory The Brain in Action by, ASCD, 1999

.How People Learn by National Research Council editor John Bransford, National Research Council, 2000

Goldberg, E. The Executive Brain Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind ,Oxford University Press: 2001

Ratey, J. MD. Spark: The New Science of Exercise and the Brain, 2008, Little Brown

Ratey, J. MD :A Users Guide to the Brain, Pantheon Books: New York, 2001

Zull, James. The Art of Changing the Brain.2002, Stylus: Virginia

Weimer, Maryellen. Learner-Centered Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 2002

Sousa, David. How the Brain Learns(Corwin Press, Inc., 1998),

Long-Lasting Novelty-Induced Neuronal Reverberation during Slow-Wave Sleep in Multiple Forebrain AreasSidarta Ribeiro,Damien Gervasoni, Ernesto S.Soares, Yi Zhou, Shih-Chieh Lin, Janaina Pantoja, Michael Lavine, Miguel A. L. Nicolelis , 2004

(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)

3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. Isolation of a Central Bottleneck of Information Processing with Time-Resolved fMRI. Neuron.52 (6): 1109-1120


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The End


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1. John T. Bruer, "Education and the Brain: A Bridge Too Far," Educational Researcher, November 1997, pp. 1-13; idem, "In Search of . . . Brain-BasedEducation," Phi Delta Kappan, May 1999, pp. 648-57; and idem, "Points ofView: On the Implications of Neuroscience Research for Science Teachingand Learning: Are There Any?," CBE Life Science Education, vol. 5, 2006, pp. 445-61.

2. Bruer, "In Search of," p. 655.

3. Leslie A. Hart, Human Brain,Human Learning (New York: Longman, 1983). 4. Howard Gardner, Frames ofMind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Renata N. Caine and Geoffrey Caine,Making

Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain (Alexandria,Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991); David A. Sousa, Howthe Brain Learns, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin, 2005); and Eric Jensen, Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd ed. (Alexandria, Va.: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2005).

5. Conor Liston, "An Interview with Antonio R. Damasio," The Harvard Brain, Spring 2001, p. 2, emphasis added.

6. Gerd Kempermann, Laurenz Wiskott, and Fred Gage, "Functional Significance of Adult Neurogenesis,"Current Opinion in Neurobiology, April 2004,pp. 186-91.

7. Marco Iacoboni et al., "Grasping the Intentions of Others with One's Own Mirror Neuron System," PLoS Biology, 22 February 2005, available athttp://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030079. 8. Michael Kilgard and Michael Merzenich, "Cortical Map Reorganization Enabled by Nucleus Basalis Activity," Science, vol. 279, 1998, pp. 1714-18;

Henry W. Mahncke et al., "Memory Enhancement in Healthy Older Adults Using a Brain Plasticity-Based Training Program: A Randomized, ControlledStudy," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, 15 August 2006, pp. 12523-28; and Elise Temple et al., "Neural Deficits in Children withDyslexia Ameliorated by Behavioral Remediation: Evidence from Functional MRI," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, 4 March 2003,pp. 2860-65.

9. Bruce McEwen and John Wingfield, "The Concept of Allostasis in Biology and Biomedicine,"Hormone Behavior, January 2003, pp. 2-15. 10. Bruce Lipton, The Biology of Belief(Santa Rosa, Calif.: Mountain of Love Publishing, 2005); and Ernest Rossi, The Psychobiology of Gene Expression

(New York: Norton, 2002).

11. Temple et al. (learning to read); HweeLing Lee et al., "Anatomical Traces ofVocabulary Acquisition in the Adolescent Brain,"Journal ofNeuroscience, 31 January 2007, pp. 1184-89 (learning vocabulary); Bogdon Draganski et al., "Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Brain StructureChanges During Extensive Learning,"Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 26, 2006, pp. 6314-17 (studying for tests); and Christien Gaser and Gottfried

Schlaug, "Brain Structures Differ Between Musicians and Non-Musicians,"Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 23, 2003, pp. 9240-45 (learning to play amusical instrument).

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12. Panaqiotis G. Simos et al., "Dyslexia-Specific Brain Activation Profile Becomes Normal Following Successful Remedial Training," Neurology, April2002, pp. 1203-13.

13. Nancy Brener, John O. G. Billy, and William R. Grady, "Assessment of Factors Affecting the Validity of Self-Reported Health-Risk Behavior AmongAdolescents: Evidence from the Scientific Literature,"Journal ofAdolescentHealth, vol. 33, 2003, pp. 436-57.

14. Henriette van Praag et al., "Running Enhances Neurogenesis, Learning and Long-Term Potentiation in Mice," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, vol. 96, 1999, pp. 13427-31; and Ana C. Pereira et al., "An InVivo Correlate of Exercise-Induced Neurogenesis in the AdultDentate Gyrus," Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences, vol. 104, 2007, pp. 5638-43.

15. Grace S. Griesbach et al., "Voluntary Exercise Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Upregulation and Recovery ofFunction," Neuroscience, vol. 125, 2006, pp. 129-39.

16. Tracey J. Shors et al., "Neurogenesis in the Adult Is Involved in the Formation of Trace Memories," Nature, vol. 410, 2001, pp. 372-76; and YasujiKitabatake et al., "Adult Neurogenesis and Hippocampal Memory Function: New Cells, More Plasticity, New Memories?,"NeurosurgeryClinics NorthAmerica, January 2007, pp. 105-13.

17. L. Sanji Nandam et al., "5-ht(7), Neurogenesis and Antidepressants: A Promising Therapeutic Axis for Treating Depression,"C

linical Experiments inPharmacology and Physiology, May-June 2007, pp. 546-51.

18. Gitanjali Saluja et al., "Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adolescents," Archives of Pediatric andAdolescentMedicine, August 2004, pp. 760-65.

19. Astrid Bjornebekk et al., "The Antidepressant Effect of Running Is Associated with Increased Hippocampal Cell Proliferation," International Journalof Neuropsychopharmacology, September 2005, pp. 357-68.

20. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970).

21. Bruer, "In Search of."

22. Ibid., p. 657. 23. Chunliu Zhan and Marlene R. Miller, "Excess Length of Stay, Charges, and Mortality Attributable to Medical Injuries During Hospitalization,"

Journal of the AmericanMedicalAssociation, October 2003, pp. 1868-74.

24. Bruer, "In Search of."

25. Bruer, "Points ofView: On the Implications of Neuroscience," p. 104. 26. Temple et al., op. cit.

27. Michael Posner and Mary Klevjord Rothbart, Educating the Human Brain (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2006); SallyShaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia (New York: Random House, 2004); and Helen Nevills and Pat Wolfe, Building the Reading Brain (Thousand Oaks, Calif.:Corwin, 2005).

28. Julia Hanna, "Mind, Brain, & Education: Linking Biology, Neuroscience, & Educational Practice,"Harvard Graduate School of Education News, 1June 2005, available at www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/mbe06012005.html

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It is a Comprehensive Blend

Antonio Damasio, head of the department of neurology atthe University of Iowa Medical Center

"The relation between brain systems and complex cognitionand behavior, can only be explained satisfactorily by acomprehensive blend of theories and facts related to all thelevels of organization of the nervous system, frommolecules, and cells and circuits, to large-scale systems andphysical and social environments. . . .

We must beware of explanations that rely on data from onesingle level, whatever the level may be."

lilly north 2010

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