BIOLOGICALCOGNITIVE

SOCIOCULTURAL

Levels of Analysis (LoA)

Biological LoAFocuses on physiology and geneticsGender differences via genetic makeup

XY and XX chromosomesGender differences from the impact of

hormones testosterone and estrogen

Cognitive LoA

Focuses on mental processes Memory Thinking Perception Attention

Gender differences via gender schema theory

Social cognitionGender stereotypes

Sociocultural LoA

Focuses on how environment and culture impact behavior and thinking

Impact of cultural definitions and roles for our mental representations of each gender

Gender differences explained through social learning theory Watching individuals of the same sex for

behavior cues

PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS

Biological Level of Analysis

Biological LoA: Physiology & Behavior

Biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology…relationship is bidirectional

Physiological factors that impact behavior: Brain processes Neurotransmitters Hormones Genes

Physiology does not work alone since environmental stimuli influence our behavior Stressful experiences Attractive person passing by Brain damage caused by trauma

Goal of IB PsychologyTaking a holistic approach to human behavior

Interactionist Approach: Both sides of nature (biology) vs. nurture (environment) argument.

Principles of Human Behavior (Biological LoA)

1. Behavior can be innate since it is genetically based

Evolution…key role in behavior2. Animal research can provide insight to

human behaviorMuch research done with animals

3. Biology correlates with behaviorLinks between specific biological factors

and specific behaviors

Reductionist Approach

Micro-level research; breaking down complex human behavior into simple parts.

Criticized for being over simplistic but allows us to gain detailed knowledge of human behavior

Important because it allows understanding of several factors that influence one behavior

Impact of Neurotransmitters on Behavior

Influences mood, memory, sexual arousal, and mental illness

Acetylcholine Muscle contraction, helps with development of memory in

hippocampusDopamine

Voluntary movement, learning, feelings of pleasureNorepinephrine (noradrenalin)

Arousal, alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system

Serotonin Sleep, arousal levels, emotion

Affect of Serotonin on Behavior

Tokyo University (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1999)Aim: How sensory deprivation affects the brainBuddhist monks deprived of food, water, no

communication, and exposure to cold weather48 hours, hallucinationsBlood samples before and right after

hallucinations (serotonin levels increased which activated the frontal cortex and hypothalamus)

Conclusion: Sensory deprivation released serotonin which altered monks experience.

Drugs

Stimulate the production of neurotransmitters

Block receptor sites if too much is produced

Technology and the Brain & Behavior

Technology gives researchers the ability to monitor and discover the “map” of the brain’s activity

Previously, case studies were used; usually situations that would be unethical to reproduce in the lab. Case studies of brain damaged patients

carried out over a long period of time (longitudinally) Phineas Gage, Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke

Allows for observation of short-term and long-term effects

Localization of Brain Function

The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions

When a behavior is localized in the brain, it is possible to trace the origin of the behavior to a specific part of the brain.

Does not explain ALL human behavior but is a major step forward in brain research

Robert Heath (1950s) James Old (1950s)

Electrically stimulated parts o f the brain in depressed patients=experienced pleasure

One patient (B-19) electrically stimulated himself 1,500 times in 3 hours

Experienced euphoria and elation and was eventually disconnected against his will

Rats would receive electrical stimulation to the nucleus accumbens when a lever was pressed

Crossed over electrified grids and preferred pleasure lever over food and water

Research on the role of the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center)

Brain Functions and Ethical Considerations

Electrical stimulation of the nucleus accumbens is based mainly on dopamine (desire) and serotonin (satiety and inhibition)

Via animal studies, all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and reduce serotonin. Cocaine and nicotine

Frequent use of drugs increase the amount of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Why drug addicts have an obsessive drive to seek more

drugs even though they know its not good for them

Spiders on Drugs

http://www.trinity.edu/jdunn/spiderdrugs.htm

Technology Invasive Techniques

Study the active brain EEG, PET, fMRI

More ethicalMay be misleading

Ablation (removing) & leisoning (scarring) techniques on animals

Harm cannot be reversed Ethical? Pain?

Technology vs. Invasive Techniques

Jig-Saw Activity Slides…

Biological LoA: Genetics & Behavior

Behavioral genetics: Understanding how both genetics and the environment play a role to individual variations in human behavior.

Rhesus macaque monkeys & humans 93% genes are shared, the 7% makes a large difference

Complexity of genetics:Inheritance contributes to behavior and

acts as a building block however, it is not probable that one specific gene is responsible for complex behaviors: Intelligence, criminal behavior, attachment, altruism

+ = DISORDER

The diathesis-stress modelThe model looks at the genetic/biologic vulnerability to a disorder/disease and the stress or traumatic environmental stimuli that may trigger a disorder (such as depression)  The diathesis-stress model uses the analogy of a "walking time bomb" to help explain why, for example, not 100% of identical twins both get depression. It also helps to explain why a large percent of people in traumatic situations (post 9/11, rape, etc.) never develop PTSD. The model further talks about a balance -- the greater the diathesis or predisposition, the less the stress required for the disorder to "appear" and visa versa. 

Biological / genetic predisposition

Stress(environment)

Last years notes on genetics and evolution… I hope you didn’t lose them!

If you did, in your hours of free time,

check these out on the wiki

Inheritance

Genes that are passed down from parents to their off-spring

Humans are composed of 24 pairs of chromosomes 20,000-25,000 genes

James Watson: Human Genome Project 1990-2003 Mapped human genes Regardless of this amazing accomplishment,

the role of specific genes are still unknown

Genetic Research

Based off of correlation studiesIndependent variable is not

manipulated, so no cause and effect can be determined.

Three types:Twin StudiesFamily StudiesAdoption Studies

Twin Studies

Identical: one egg split in two

Share 100% of genes Same sex

Fraternal: Formed from two separate eggs

Share 50% of genes just like any other siblings Same or different sex

Monozygotic (MZ) Dizygotic (DZ)

Used as basis for hypotheses since they show the different degrees of genetic relationship. In twin studies the correlation found is known as concordance.

Family Studies

More representative of the general population

Different degree of relatedness is compared with behavior to determine the impact of genes.

Child

Mother (50%)

Grandparent (25%)

Grandparent (25%)

Father (50%)

Adoption Studies

Used to determine how great of an impact environment plays in behavior since the child does not share any genes with foster parents.

Often criticized because of selective placement Agencies tend to find adoptive parents that are

similar to their biological parents which cause a difficulty in determining separating genetic inheritance from environment influences. This process is known as selective placement.

EvolutionAnother principle of the biological LoA is that

the environment presents obstacles & challenges for each individual.

In essence, those that adapt have a better chance of survival & having offspring which allows their genes to be passed down.

Theory of Natural Selection

Members of a species acquire adaptive behaviors to survive the ever-changing environment (those better suited for environment will breed and pass on characteristics)

http://youtu.be/Pt2gHpqfZNAAdaption: Species develop characteristics that

make it more competitive in its environmentCharles Darwin (Galapagos Island, finches, beaks)

On the Origin of Species (He didn’t yet know of the biological process through which traits are inherited)

Descent of Man

The Descent of Man findings

We humans share several behaviors with other animalsMate selectionLove of mother for offspringSelf-preservationSimilar facial expressions as apesSimilar feelings as animals

Monkeys vs. Humans

Tetsuro Matsuzawa (2007)Looked at spatial memory in young chimps Used 3 chimps that were taught to recognize

the numbers 1-9 on a computerHumans and chimps saw number flashed on a

touch screen monitor and then the numbers were covered with blank squares and then were asked to touch the squares in sequential order.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gf3_JrTEGW0

Findings

Humans had more errors and less accuracy as numbers were flashed and replaced by squares quicker As agriculture developed, spatial memory skills aren’t

as important for finding food Perhaps this skill was replaced by the ability to develop

languageChimps had astonishing memory; no difference

in their recall in relation to the amount of time that the numbers were replaced with squares. Adaption for survival skills such as remembering where

food and danger is located in the rain forest

Ethical Considerations

Because research in human genetics looks to identify certain genes involved in hereditary diseases there can be some negative outcomes: May pose risks to participates due to the

link between genetic heritage and people’s life

Information obtained may cause stress to participants family

If misused, information can be stigmatizing which could lead the inability to get a job or health insurance.

Once again, notes last year over confidentiality should be revisited

Aboriginal people may object to genetic studies

Eugenics and other forms of discrimination is the cause.

Consent and speaking to community leaders are a must for many aboriginal and ethnic groups.

IntelligenceDuring the beginning of the 20th century,

governments and schools became very interested in one’s intellectual potential and the role genetics play in IQ

Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to help understand this concept better within the French educational system

Research has shown that poverty plays a major role in the development of a child’s intelligence

The Bell CurveBook published in 1994 by Harvard professor

Richard J. HerrnsteinThe debate about the role of genes and

environment have to do with ethnic difference in intelligence is not yet resolved

Media discussed the idea that there may be intergroup differences in intelligence, thus conferring the idea that the root of intelligence in debatable

The “g” factorArgued by Charles Spearman, there is a

general intelligence factor that is the basis of all intelligence

Rather than looking a specific educational subjects (history, math, etc.) Spearman’s intelligence test measures the following: Spatial ability Reasoning Divergent Thinking Verbal Fluency

Meta-analysis in Relation to IQ Tests

Bouchard & McGue (1981) used 111 studies of IQ correlations between siblings from research around the world

Found that the closer the kinship the higher correlation of IQ

Meta-analysis: statistical synthesis of the data from a set of comparable studies of

a problem that yields a quantitative summary of the pooled results

Minnesota Twin Study(Bouchard et al.) Longitudinal study, been

going on since 1979Most cross-cultural study to date

(participants from across the world)Compares MZAs (identical twins raised

apart) to MZTs (identical twins raised together)

Mean age of MZAs was 41 (start of study), until this study most research was done with adolescents

Twins completed 50 hours of testing and interviews

Findings

Same person tested twice

87%

Identical twins reared together

86%

Identical twins reared apart

76%

Fraternal twins reared together

55%

Biological siblings reared together

47%

Conclusions

70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetics inheritance, the other 30% is due to other factors

Much research has supported the MTSThe size and nature of the sample has made it

one of the most impressive study ever conducted

Criticisms of the MTSRelied on media cover for participantsEthical concerns about how twins were

reunitedNo adequate control to establish the

frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study

“Equal environment assumption” Cannot assume twins raised together experience the

exact same environment (different friends, teachers, exposure to stimuli, etc.)

Adoption Studies for Intelligence

Scarr & Weinberg (1977) and Horn et al. (1979)Researched parents that raised adopted and

natural childrenAny significant differences in IQ between the

adoptive and biological children would be attributed to genes

No significant difference in IQ correlations were found

Parents were wealthy, white, middle class and high IQs & adopted children were poor, lower-class backgrounds, and lower IQs

Environmental Role on IQ

Wahlstein (1997) found that intelligence has a lot to do with environment and genetics

Found that transferring an infant from a low SES to a home where parents had a high SES improved childhood IQ scores 12-16 points (about one standard deviation)

Enriched environment may raise IQ in children Strong interaction between genes and the

environment to produce intelligence level

Less Effort Hypothesis

Hainer et al. (1988) used PET scans to see how much energy was used in solving problems vs. data recall Helped decipher what intelligence is (based on

knowledge or ability to solve problems)Those with higher IQs had lower metabolic

rates when solving a reasoning problem in comparison to those with a low IQ No difference in data recall

Those with a higher IQ use less energy to think than those with lower IQs

IQs Change over Time

Plomin & Petrill (1997) found that correlations between parent and child IQs change over time Ages 4-6, 40% correlation Early adulthood, 60% correlation Older adults, 80% correlation

Our genetic disposition pushes us towards environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to increased heritability throughout life

SES seems to the most important environmental factors in IQ development

Flynn EffectJames R. Flynn noticed a rise in average scores on

intelligence tests in most parts of the world over the last century

Ulric Neisser (1997) The America Scientist, average mean scores are going up about 3 points every decade (increase is even higher in abstract reasoning) Better nutrition Improved schooling Different child-rearing practices Increase in technology in modern life Living a higher visual environment plays an important role in IQ

scoresDoes this prove a real increase in IQ or just better

understanding of intelligence and tests?

MENTAL PROCESSES

Cognitive Level of Analysis

Cognitive Psychology

Cognition (cognoscere) “to know”Ulric Neisser (1967)

“all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”

Includes the structure and function of the mind

How the human mind comes to know things about the world and how this knowledge is used

Cognitive neuroscience: Combines the knowledge about the brain and knowledge about cognitive processes.

Cognitive ProcessesCognitive Processes:

Perception Thinking Problem-Solving Memory Language Attention

Cognition is based on an individual’s mental representations of the world Words Images Concepts

Different experiences influence our mental representations

Principles of Cognitive Psychology

1.) Mental processes guide behavior Bottom-up Top-down Output (behavior)

2.) The mind can be studied scientifically Developing theories and using scientific

research methods3.) Cognitive processes are influenced by

social and cultural factors Schemas

Mental processes guide behavior (Principle 1)

The mind is a complex “machine” using hardware (brain) and software (mental images or representations)

Information input via bottom-up processing (from the senses)

Information is processed in the mind via top-down processing (pre-stored information/memory)

Output (behavior)

Cognitive Theories and Models in the Real World

Subtle relationships between how people think about themselves and how they behave

A person’s mindset is important to predicting his/her behavior

People have fixed ideas about other people (stereotyping) which can lead to discrimination

Are memories infallible?

The reconstructive nature of memory We do not store exact copies of

experiences; we outline events which are filled out with information when it is recalled

The brain can fabricate illusions which seem so realistic we believe they are true

False Memory: We cannot distinguish between what we

have experienced and what we have heard about an event

Perception

Interpretation and organization of information from the senses to produce some meaningful experience of the world

Perception of an ambiguous object or event is influenced by: Context Frequency How recent

What we think we objectively experience may in fact be a result of the brain’s interpretation of that object or event

The Mind Can Be Studied Scientifically (Principle 2)

New findings can adjust original theories/models or they can also be rejected if empirical evidence no longer supports it

Psychologists study cognition in laboratory settings as well as daily context Previously, the experimental was assumed to be the

most scientific method In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser suggested that cognition

cannot be isolated from our everyday experiences Experimental tasks did not always resemble what

people did in their daily lives

Studying the Mind

Traditionally, controlled experiments were favored Controlled variables

Experimental research might suffer from artificialityData is used to support/refute cognitive modelsToday more methods are used:Case studies

Incredible memory patients Brain damaged patients (Localization functions)

Imaging technology Which areas of the brain are active when making decisions,

how cognitive processes can be disruptive by brain damage (amnesia or Alzheimer patients)

Cognitive Processes are Influenced by Social & Cultural Factors (Principle 3)

Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema (mental representation of knowledge)

Interested in cultural schemas and how they impact remembering

Discovered that people have difficulties remembering a story from another culture and they adjusted the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas

Memory in not a tape recorder and we remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to us, thus memory is subject to distortions

Mental Representations & Memory

How we store images and ideas in memoryWe use mental representations to think, make

plans, imagine, & daydreamSelf-representation: How you perceive who

you are and how you lookMental representations are organized in

categories which are stored in your memoryManipulating mental representations allows

us to think about situations & predict possible outcomes Make plans, calculate risks, create

Schemas and Schema Theory

Schemas describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed

Schema theory: Cognitive theory about information processing

Suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing because we humans are active processors of information

We interpret and integrate information to make sense of experiences even if we are unaware of it

When information is missing we fill in the blanks based on existing schemas or inventing information leading to mistakes (distortions)

Cognitive Schemas

Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world

Pre-stored mental representationsAllows us to have expectations of what will

happen Imagination allows us to picture characters in book

book > movieWhat we already know affects the way we

interpret events and store knowledge in our memory

Points to Remember About Cognitive Schemas

Organize information about the world with fixed and variable slots; if slot is unspecified it is filled in by a “default value” (best guess)

Can be related to form systemsActive recognition devices (pattern

recognition)Help predict future events based on the pastRepresent general knowledge rather than

definitions

Schema Theory & Memory Processes

Schema processing can affect memory at all stages

Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful memory

Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost

Retrieval: Using stored informationENCOD

INGPut into Memory

STORAGE

Maintain in

Memory

RETRIEVAL

Recover from

Memory

Evaluation of Schema Theory (Support)

Research supports the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory

Useful in understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories, & make inferences

Contributed to understanding of memory distortions as well as social cognition

Social psychologists use social schemas to help explain stereotyping and prejudice

Evaluation of Schema Theory (Limitations)

It is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired and how they actually influence cognitive processes

Cohen (1993) said that the concept of schemas is too vague to be useful yet researchers use it to explain cognitive processing

Daniel Gilbert argues that the brain is a “wonderful magician but a lousy scientist” by looking for meaningful patterns but does not check for accuracy

Multi-Store Model

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) created the most influential information processing model thus far

Based off of two assumptions:1.) Memory consists of a number of separate

stores/types The memory stores are seen as components that

operate in conjunction with permanent memory through processes

2.) Memory processes are sequential; one must happen before another

Memory Storage Processes

Attention: Pay attention to sensory input in order to

remember itCoding:

Give material a form that enables you to remember it

Rehearsal: Keeping material active in memory via

repetition until it can be stored

Steps of the Multi-store Model

1. Sensory memory: information from the world Stays here only for seconds and only a small portion

will transfer to STM Modality specific: related to different senses (hearing

& vision)2. Short-term memory (STM) store:

7 item limit for a duration of 6-12 seconds Quickly lost if not given attention

3. Rehearsal is necessary for long-term memory

Long-term Memory (LTM)

Storehouse of informationSince we do not know how much info

can be stored, LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and for an indefinite duration

Material is not exact (outline) and memory can be distorted due to schemas “filling in gaps”

Working Memory Model

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) based their model off of the multi-store model

Challenged the idea that STM is a single store

STM includes several components Central executive

Episodic buffer Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad

Central Executive

Controlling system which monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components (slave systems)

Most important part of the working memory model

Limited capacity and is modality free (can process any sensory information)

Attentional control is the most important job of the central executive

Attentional Control

Happens in two ways:1.) Automatic level:

Based on habit and controlled automatically by stimuli in the environment

Includes routine procedures2.) Supervisory level:

Deals with emergencies or creates new strategies when old ones are no longer sufficient

Reactions

Episodic Buffer

Consciously trying to remember detailsActs as a temporary and passive display store

until the information is needed (similar to a TV screen)

Processing of the information takes place in other parts of the system

Here’s your picture

Phonological Loop

Divided into 2 components1.) Articulatory control system:

Inner voice which holds information in verbal form Remembering a telephone number and repeating it Holds words until you are ready to speak

2.) Phonological store: Inner ear which holds speech-based material in phonological

form Memory only lasts 1.5-2 seconds if it is not refreshed by the

articulatory system Receives info. directly from sensory memory in the form of

auditory material and from LTM in the form of verbal information and the articulatory control system

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Inner eyeDeals with visual and spatial information

from the sensory memory or LTM

Evidence of Working Memory

Most contemporary research accepts the idea of working memory

Experiments using dual-task techniques/interference tasks support the model Participants were asked to carry out a cognitive task

that used most of the capacity of their working memory Telling a story to a person while also trying to learn a list

of numbers If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one

or both are impaired, it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in the STM

Working Memory Model Multi-store Model

More satisfactory explanation of storage and processing than the STM component of the multi-store model

Include active storage and processing which helps understand all sorts of cognitive tasks (reading comprehension and mental math)

Explains the idea of multi-tasking (performing different cognitive tasks at the same time without disruption)

Assumes that mental processes are passive

Working Memory Model vs. Multi-store Model

Working Memory in Children

Pickering & Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children

Found that there is an improvement in performance in working memory capacity from the age of 5 until about 15

Working memory during childhood varies widely across individuals of the same age

Provides evidence that problems with working memory is associated with problems in academic performance

Problems with the phonological loop have been linked to math and reading abilities

Visual and Spatial Memory Linked to Math Skills

Holmes et al. (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacity and math attainment in relation to age

Samples: Ages 7-8 and 9-10Studied age differences in relationship

between visual and spatial memory and the range of math skills

Findings: Math performance could be predicted based off of the performance on the visual patterns test

SOCIOCULTURAL Level of Analysis

Principles of Sociocultural LoA

1. Since humans are social animals, we have the basic need to “belong”

2. Culture influences behavior3. Since humans are social animals, we have a

social self Not only do we have an individual identity,

but also a collective/social identity4. People’s views of the world are resistant to

change (ideological immunity)

Research: Sociocultural LoA

Goal: To see how people interact with each otherUsually it doesn’t make much sense to use

experiments Majority is in qualitative methods

Want to study the behavior of “participants” in realistic ways

Naturalistic, “as it really is”; in environments in which the behavior is likely to occur Participant observation Interviews Focus groups

Thoughts Worth Mentioning About Research

In the past, laboratory experiments were used because they were considered the most scientific way of collecting data

Although modern techniques are more “real” they are descriptive data therefore they cannot explain cause-and-effect (causation) relationships

Participant observation is most common to “see the world through the eyes of the people being studied.”

Covert Overt Researcher does not inform

participants that they are being observed

Deceit is used to gain “trust” of members of the group

Intentions are not disclosed and behaviors are recorded without obtaining informed consent

Can’t take notes which causes researcher to rely on memory leading to distortion of data

Interviews can’t be used for fear of being discovered Example: Leon Festinger et al’s When Prophecy

Fails (1956)

Participants know they are being observed

Gain trust of the group being observed

Can use interviews to gather more information Example: O’Reilly

(2000)

Participant Observation

Attribution Theory

Fritz Heider The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (1958)

Attribution: How people interpret and explain casual relationships in the social world

We have a desire to understand why things happen

By observing behaviors we try to make inferences about intentions and responsibility

Actor-observer effect: Making attributions about behavior depending on whether they are performing it themselves or observing someone else doing it

Answering that “WHY” Question

Discussing own behaviorBlaming the situationAnalyzing the person’s

action with regards to the situation he/she is in

Ex: Late work/missing assignments= genuine issue such as a family/personal issue

Observing someone else’s behavior

Blaming the personA person’s behavior is

influenced by internal characteristics

Ex: Late work/missing assignments= Lazy & irresponsible and never finishes work on time

Situational Dispositional

Fundamental Attribution Error Self-serving Bias

(SSB)

Overestimating the role of dispositional factors and underestimating the role of situational factors in an individual’s behavior

When people take credit for their success, attributing them to dispositional factors and dissociate themselves from their failures, attributing them to situational factors

Errors in Attributions

A Deeper look into Fundamental Attribution Error

Reasons why this error is common: Reason #1:

People tend to view themselves as adaptable, flexible, and ever-changing

We don’t like to view ourselves as that “type” of person but when we look at others we don’t have enough information about them to make a rash decision about them so we attribute their behavior to disposition (that’s just who they are)

Looking at our own behavior we believe we would have acted differently under different circumstances

Western Culture Influence

Reason #2: Placing blame is part of Western culture So is people being held accountable for their

action Evil actions are more acceptable when

blamed on evil than to refer to environmental factors as explanations

The judicial system is looking for a satisfactory motive in order to convict someone of murder

Basics of Lee et al. (1977)Aim: Will student participants make the fundamental

attribution error even when they knew actors were playing a role Roles: Host, contestant, audience

Findings: Role was not attributed to the person’s situation and attributed the person’s performance to dispositional factors (intelligence)

Concerns: Sample (student participants)1. Professors seen as authorities2. Not representative of greater population

Conclusion: People with social power usually initiate and control conversations; makes them seem knowledgeable and ideas are not challenged

Reasons why we use the self-serving bias:

#1: Serves as protection (Greenberg et al., 1982): Attribute success to dispositional factors boosts our self-

esteem Attribute failures to situational factors protect our self-esteem

#2: Cognitive factors play a role (Miller & Ross, 1975): Expect to succeed and do skills and ability Expect to succeed and fail bad luck/external factors Expect to fail and do well external factors/good luck Expect to fail and we do dispositional factors

Exception to the above rules: Severely depressed individuals make more dispositional attributions thus blaming themselves for feeling miserable

Cultural Differences in SSB

Modesty Bias: Explaining failures in terms of lacking abilityKashima and Triandis (1986):

Show slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries Americans attributed success to ability Japanese attributed failures to their lack of ability

Chandler et al. (1990) Also observed modesty bias in Japanese students

Watkins & Regmi (1990) Same held true for Nepalese students

Bond, Leung, & Wan (1982) Chinese students that showed modesty bias rather than SSB were more

popular with peers Kashima & Triandis argue this is due to collective societies which derive

self-esteem from group identity as opposed to individual accomplishments

Social Identity Theory

Social Identity Theory (Henri Tajfel): Assumes that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem, based on either personal identity or various social identities

Promotes self-esteem through achievement & affiliation with successful groups

Indicates the importance of social belongingBased off of social categorization: Putting people into

groups In-group (us) Out-group (them)

Causes prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, in-group favoritism, and conformity to in-group norms

Studies for Social Identity Theory

Cianldini et al. (1976) Football supporters supporting teams after victories

Tajfel (1978) “establishment of positive distinctiveness”

Tajfel et al. (1971) Kandusky vs. Klee

Limitations of the Social Identity Theory

#1: Describes but does not predict human behavior

#2 : Using it in isolation is reductionist which doesn’t allow for consideration of how the environment interacts with the “self” Cultural expectations, rewards as motivators, and

societal constraints (poverty) may play more of role in behavior that one’s own sense of in-group identity

Social Representations

Social representations (Moscovici, 1973): The share beliefs and explanations held by society in which we live or the group in which we belong

They are the foundation of social cognition which help us make sense of the world and master is; they also allow communication to take place among members of a community by providing social codes for social exchange and naming a classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history

Social Representations=Cultural Schemas

A group may have its own representation of success, beauty, or intelligence

Adler (1990) Meaning of “share” Russian mother’s explanation of sharing children

playing together with a toy at the same time American mother’s explanation of sharing children

taking turns to play with the same toy

Howarth (2002)

Social representations of Brixton and their impact they have on the identity of adolescents females

Those not living in Brixton had negative representation of Brixton

Those who lived there saw Brixton as “a diverse, creative, and vibrant” community These ideas impacted the girls in their friend choice, sports

teams, relations with police, and their employment opportunities Illustrates the impact of social representations as the basis of

stereotypes (negative and positive) and how they contribute to social identity

StereotypingStereotype: A social perception of an

individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes Generalization of a group and then attributed to

everyone in that group A form of social categorization that affects the

behavior of those that hold the stereotype, and those labeled by the stereotype

A result of schema processing Can be negative of positive

Stereotype Threat Occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged

or threatened stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype

Steele & Aronson (1995) Method & Aim: Experiment to see the effect of stereotype threat on

performance Sample: African American and European American students Procedure: 30 minute verbal test w/ difficult multiple-choice questions.

Two groups were used, each with both types of pariticipants “Genuine test of their verbal abilities” (AA scored lower than EA) “A laboratory task that was used to study how certain problems are generally solved

“(AA were higher than AA in first group and their scores matched the EA) Additional studies: Women (math) and lower social class Conclusions: Stereotype threat can impact members of any social of

cultural group Helps explain why some racial & social groups believe that they are

more/less intelligent than others; harms performance of these groups

Spotlight Anxiety

According to Steele (1997), stereotype threat leads to spotlight anxiety (emotional distress and pressure that undermines performance)

Leads to underperformance which naturally limits educational prospects

Spencer et al. (1997):Gave students that are strong in math a difficult math

testPredicted women would do worse and they did (due to

stereotype that women are not as skilled in math)When same concept was demonstrated with literature

skills both groups performed equally well

Formation of Stereotypes

Social categorizationCampbell (1967) argues there are 2 key sources:

1.) Personal experiences 2.) Gatekeepers (media, parents, other members of our

cultureArgues that stereotypes have a basis in some

realityGrain of truth hypothesis: an experience with

an individual from a group will then be generalized to the group Criticized due to errors in attribution

Illusory Correlation

Hamilton & Gifford (1976):People forming false associations between memberships

of a social group and specific behaviors women’s abilities in math

Cause people to overestimate a link between two variables

Come in many forms and culturally-based prejudice about social groups can to some extent be classified as illusory correlations

An example of cognitive bias: a person’s tendency to make errors in judgment based on cognitive factors

Attribution errors are a examples of cognitive bias

Confirmation Bias

People tend to seek out or remember information that supports relationships (caused by illusory correlation)

Overlook information that contradicts what they already believe

Makes stereotypical thinking resistant to changeSnyder & Swann (1978):Sample: Female college studentsProcedure: Meet introvert or extrovert. Asked to prepare

questions to ask the person they were about to meetConclusion: Questions confirmed their

perceptions/stereotypes of introverts/extroverts Introverts: “What do you dislike about parties?” or “Are

there times you wish you were more outgoing?” Extroverts: “What do you do to liven up a party?”

In-group’s Influence on Stereotypes

Social Desirability Effect

Social and Cultural Norms

Norm: Set of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave Regulate behavior within the group Deviants are punished, marginalized,

stigmatized Can be seen as a positive if creative and

affective change takes place in society Leads to conformity since we are social

animals that need to belong

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

Assumes that humans learn behaviors through observational learning (learning by watching models and imitating their behavior)

Indirect (not intentionally trying to impact behavior) or direct models (teachers)

Factors of Learning

Attention Paying attention to model

Retention Observer remembers behavior that was observed

Motor reproduction Observer is able to replicate the behavior

Motivation Observer wants to demonstrate behavior/what they

learned

Factors of Motivation

Consistency: Imitation is more likely if model has consistent behaviors

Identification with the model: If models are similar to observer (age or gender) than

replication of behaviors are more likelyRewards/punishment

Vicarious reinforcement (we can learn from observing and we don’t have to experience consequences ourselves) takes place by watching people around us---in reality and movies; observational learning

Liking the model: Warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated as

opposed to cold, uncaring models Yarrow et al. (1970)

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)

Explanation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCo33v3Fwc4

Video footage with Bandura’s explanation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YclZBhn40hU

BBC video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8

Social Learning Theory in Real Life

Does watching violence on television cause people to become violent?

Studies are consistent in proving that watching aggression shows children how to be aggressive in new ways and also draw conclusions about whether being aggressive to others will bring rewards or punishment

Huesmann & Eron (1986):15 year longitudinal study found a positive correlation

between the number of hours of violence watched on TV and the level of aggression demonstrated when being a teenager

8 year olds that watched TV violence were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults

Not all Television is Bad!Evidence supports shows like Sesame Street teaches

positive behaviors and academic & social skills such as sharing, empathy, and academic curiosity

Soap operas/radio dramas use the Sabido method/social learning theory in order to effect change in society

We can learn from role models, especially people we can identify with Unwanted teen pregnancies, reduce the spread of HIV, promote

literacy, and empower women in developing countries Researchers found exposure to Tanzania’s Twende na Wakati

(Let’s Go with the Times) showed an increase in safe sex, women’s status, and family planning (1993-1996)

Evaluation of Social Learning Theory

Helps explain: Why behaviors are passed down in a family or within

cultures Why children can acquire behaviors through trial-and-error

learningCriticism: Though a behavior is acquired it is not

always demonstrated (behaviors may lie dormant) Because of this, it is hard to say if the behavior is a 100%

result of observing the modelThe theory doesn’t explain why some people

never develop the behavior even though they are exposed to it

Social Learning TheorySocial Cognitive Theory & Self-Efficacy Theory

Both are based on social learning theory but the focus is on beliefs and how they influence behavior

An important elaboration of social learning theory to explain why people are motivated not by the role models but also by their own beliefs and previous experiences

Social Influence: Compliance

Robert Cialdini (leading researcher in the psychology of persuasion)

The result of direct pressure to respond to a request even though the direct pressure may not always be apparent to the individual

Compliance techniques: ways in which individuals are influence to comply with the demands or desires of others

Advertising and marketing Sales tactics are always examined on the basis of what

would most likely persuade consumers to buy specific products

Factors that Influence Compliance

1.) Authority: Compliance with people of authority; famous people wearing basketball shoes

2.) Commitment: Agreement through behavior or by statements, they are more likely to comply with similar requests

3.) Liking: People comply with people they like4.) Reciprocity: The need to “return a favor” 5.) Scarcity: Opportunities are more favorable when

they are less readily available; “last chance” & “limited time” sales

6.) Social proof: View behaviors as correct if they see others performing it

Reciprocity

One of the most widespread and basic norms in human culture

Creates confidence among people in what is given to another is not lost but a sign of a future obligation that enables development of various types of relationships and exchanges

We learn this in childhoodFeelings o guilt plays a key roleCompanies offer free gifts, free travel, free hotel

rooms, etc.Lynn & McCall (1998): Mint with bill, tip increases

Door-in-the-face Technique

1st request (turned down) leads to smaller 2nd request

2nd request is accepted because they believe the request was lowered to accommodate them

Cialdini et al. (1975):1st group: Chaperone juvenile delinquents on a

day trip to the zoo: 83% refused to volunteer2nd group:

1st request: work as counselors for 2 weeks for 2 years: 0% 2nd request: Chaperone juvenile delinquents on a day trip

to the zoo: 50% agreed

How to Avoid Manipulation in Daily Life

Scenario: Salesperson lowers the price of a product because the costumer thinks it is too expensive:

Make a compromise Don’t reject totally what is being offered by others but

accept initial favors in good faith and in some cases be prepared to view them as tricks

If it is a trick don’t feel the need to respond with a favor unless you really want to

Commitment

Being consistent with previous behaviorPeople make a decision to take a stand and

they will encounter personal and interpersonal pressures to behave consistently with the commitment (even is appears illogical to an outsider)

Kurt Lewin (1951): Claims this behavior is motivated by goal gradients

Foot-in-the-door Technique

Dickerson et al. (1992)University students conserving water; Santa

Cruz, CA1.) Sign a poster: “Take shorter showers. If I

can do it, so can you!”2.) Take survey that made them think about

the amount of water they usedShower time decreased by 3.5 minutesConsideration: They signed the poster because

they were already committed to the cause

Low-balling

Ciadelni et al. (1974)Sample: 1st year psychology students1st group: Volunteer to be part of study on

cognition at 7 a.m. (24% participation)2nd group: Same favor, but told no time. 56%

agreed, then told the time and also could back out, no one did On the day of the meeting, 95% of the students (of the

56% that agreed) showed up

Hazing

Common amongst sports teams & fraternities Old School Video Clip

Many universities stopped the practice but it still exists due to deaths Extreme temperatures Drinking themselves into comas Digging their own graves

Similar to initiation rites seen in other cultures: African societies have initiation rites (rites of passage) to

indicate their entrance into adulthood Boot camp: teach recruits how to do their job but also

overcoming difficulty and humiliation

Thought Process of Enduring Hazing

1.) Person chooses to join the group, recognizing initiation is involved

2.) Rationalization that it is “worth it”3.) Upon completion there is a sense of

accomplishmentYoung (1963):

54 tribal cultures Those with the most extreme ceremonies had the

strongest group solidarity

Is Hazing Necessary?

Aronson & Mills (1959):Aim: Will enduring trouble or pain to join a group cause

them to value the group more vs. those that do notSample: Female college studentsProcedure: Join a sex discussion group

Embarrassing initiation and no initiation Attend a meeting (made up of confederates; acting bored and

uninterested) Conclusions:

Initiation Found the meeting extremely valuable No initiation “worthless and uninteresting”

Gerard & Mathewson (1966) follow-up study: Women received electrical shocks during initiation found their group

interesting, intelligent, and desirable

Social Influence: Conformity