lecture 13 gas compression and transport r0 - fitstaff.fit.ac.cy/eng.ap/fall2016/moe506/lecture 13...

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Consulting

Lecture 13

Gas Compression and Transport

© Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 1

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Consulting

Pipeline Characteristics


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ConsultingErosional Velocity

• Fluid is continuously flowing past the pipe wall.

• Above a certain velocity, the fluid wears, or

erodes, the pipeline.

• Similar to a high-pressure water hose.

• The velocity that erosion starts is the erosional

velocity.

• Normally operate below the erosional velocity.


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ConsultingEmpirical Erosional Velocity

Erosional velocity,

where V = Erosional velocity, ft/s

C = 100 for continuous liquid flow with

solids.

= 125 for intermittent flow

= 200 in corrosion resistant pipelines

ρ = Fluid density, lb/ft3.

=C

Vρ

© Copyright Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 4

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ConsultingTypes of Material

• Carbon steel;

• Duplex (stainless) steel;

• GRP (Glass reinforced plastic);

• Polyethylene (for water and low pressure gas

lines).


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ConsultingPipe Lining

• Applied internally;

• Used for corrosion prevention or to reduce

friction;

• Must be continuous for corrosion protection;

• Can be alloy, epoxy or rubber;

• Polyethylene used on gas mains.


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ConsultingPipe Coating

• Applied externally.

• For corrosion prevention.

• Thermal insulation.

• Weight coating.


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ConsultingExternal Coating

• Applied in factory;

• Joints coated in field;

• Damage protection

during installation;

• Protects pipe from

corrosion;

• Fusion Bonded Epoxy;

• 3 layer polyethylene.

Source: www.sakhalinenergy.com


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ConsultingHeat Tracing

• Used to reduce heat

loss from fluid;

• Often used to keep

viscous fluids warm;

• Expensive to install and

maintain;

• Heating medium

electricity, steam, hot

oil or heat transfer fluid.Source: www.tycothermal.com


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Consulting

Pressure Containment


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ConsultingDesign Issues

• Pipe stability:

– On seabed;

– Mud slides, slopes, earthquakes.

• Stress:

– Hydrostatic testing;

– Free span stress;

– Installation stress;

– Operating and testing;

– Expansion.© Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 11

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ConsultingFailure Modes

• Buckling

• Upheaval buckling;

• Erosion and corrosion;

• Fatigue;

• Collapse.


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ConsultingPressure Design

• Design to withstand the internal pressure in the

pipe.

• Withstand stress from installation process.

• Withstand external hydrostatic pressure.

• Allowance for corrosion.

• Allowance must also be made for dimensional

tolerance.


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ConsultingWall Thickness Calculation

Minimum wall thickness, tm mm.

tm = wall thickness, mm

P = Design pressure, kPa (g)

dO= Outside diameter, mm

S = Minimum yield strength, kPa

F = Construction type design factor

E = Longitudinal joint factor

T = Temperature derating

(Temperature < 120 °C, T =1.0)

tc = Corrosion allowance, mm

2

Om c

Pdt t

SFET= +


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ConsultingWall Thicknesses

• tm minimum wall thickness:

Wall required be code calculation to contain

the internal pressure.

• tc corrosion allowance:

Thickness above tm that could corrode and not

affect the operating pressure.

• Standard manufactured wall thickness.


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ConsultingExample Calculation (1)

• Design pressure: 30 barg, 3,000 kPa (g)

• Pipe outside diameter: 16”, 406.4 mm

• Minimum yield strength: 241,000 kPa

• Construction type design factor: 0.72

• Longitudinal joint factor: 1.0

• Temperature derating factor: 1.0

• Corrosion allowance: 3 mm


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ConsultingExample Calculation (2)

Minimum wall thickness, tm mm.

2

Om c

Pdt t

SFET= +


3,000 406.43.0

2 241,000 0.72 1.0 1.0=

×+

× × × ×mt

6.51=mt mm

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ConsultingUse of Flanges

• Flanges used to

provide joint in the

line;

• Used to connect

valves, filters, pumps

and compressors;

• Can be a source of

leaks.Source: Richard J. Barnes


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ConsultingPipeline Flange Ratings

Maximum operating pressure at up to 200 °F

(93 °C).


Pressure

Units

150 lb 300 lb 600 lb 900 lb 1500

lb

2500

lb

MPa 1.79 4.66 9.31 13.97 23.28 38.79

Barg 17.9 46.6 93.1 139.7 232.8 387.9

Psig 260 675 1,350 2,025 3,375 5,625

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Consulting

Gas Pressure Drop


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ConsultingImportance of Pressure Drop

• High pressure drop leads to larger gas

compressors;

• Operating costs will be higher;

• Larger proportion of gas from pipeline could

be burnt as fuel.


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ConsultingCalculation Sequence

• Divide pipeline into sections.

• Calculate physical properties.

• Calculate overall pressure drop.

• Pressure drop must be calculated over short

sections because the gas density is not

constant.


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ConsultingPressure Drop Factors

• Gas properties.

• Pipeline diameter.

• Flowrate.

• Temperature.

• Velocity.

• Pressure.

• Internal roughness.


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ConsultingCompressibility Factor

• The compressibility factor, Z, is a

dimensionless number that represents a gas's

deviation from ideal gas behaviour.

• It can be estimated from other physical

properties.


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ConsultingNomenclature

Q Flowrate at base conditions, m3/day

Ts Standard temperature (288.9 °K)

Ps Standard pressure (101.56 kPa)

E Pipeline efficiency, use 1.0

d Pipe internal diameter, mm

ε Pipe roughness, mm

P1 Inlet pressure, kPa

P2 Outlet pressure, kPa

γ Gas specific gravity

L Pipeline length, m

T Average flowing temperature, °K

Z Compressibility factor


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ConsultingAGA Equation

• Used for turbulent flow.

0.52 2

2.51 210

3.70.018 4 logS

S m avg avg

T P PdQ E d

P L T Zε γ

− =

22

2 1 2

5

10

3086

3.74 logS

S

Q LTZP P

T dE d

P

γ

ε

= −


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ConsultingAGA Example (1)


Symbol Parameter Value

Q Flowrate at base conditions, m3/day 1,000,000

Ts Standard temperature 15.9 °C

Ps Standard pressure 101.56 kPa

E Pipeline efficiency 1.0

d Pipe internal diameter, mm 387.4

ε Pipe roughness, mm 0.004

P1 Inlet pressure, kPa (g) 4,000

γ Gas specific gravity 0.70

L Pipeline length, m 150,000

T Average flowing temperature, °C 30

Z Compressibility factor 0.93

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• Calculate the pipeline outlet pressure.

22

2 1 2

5

10

3086

3.74 logS

S

Q LTZP P

T dE d

P

γ

ε

= −

© Copyright Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 28

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22

2 1 2

5

10

3086

3.74 logS

S

Q LTZP P

T dE d

P

γ

ε

= −


22

2 2

5

10

3086 1,000,000 0.70 160,000 303 0.934,101.325

15.9 273 3.7 387.41.0 4 log 387.4

101.56 0.004

× × × × ×= −

+ × ×

P

P2 = 3,768 kPa or 3,667 kPa (g)

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Consulting

Design Safety


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ConsultingDesign Pressure

• Design pressure is maximum pressure to

which the pipeline should ever be subjected.

• Pipeline must be protected from pressures

above the design pressure.

• Design pressure is normally 110% of

maximum operating pressure.


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ConsultingDesign Temperature

• Design temperature is the maximum

temperature to which a pipeline should ever

be exposed.

• Limited by allowable stress of pipe material,

limit of coating material or limit to amount of

expansion or contraction.

• Ideally at least 25 °C above maximum

operating temperature.


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ConsultingAdditional Isolation Valves

• Also place isolation valves either side of river, railway and major road crossings.

• Isolation valves reduce inventory released in an emergency.

• Also enable isolation of sections for repair or maintenance.

• Offshore isolation valve located subsea outside the drop zone, about 500 m from the facility.


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ConsultingIsolation Valve Criteria

• Valves must be able to operate against full

operating pressure.

• Valves can be remote, automatic or manual

operation.

• Selection of operation is dependent on fluid,

location and pipeline characteristics.


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ConsultingPipe Rupture or Emergency

• Loss of pressure can be caused by a leak due

to corrosion or mechanical damage.

• Loss of pressure should be detected

automatically.

• Pipeline shutdown and isolation should be

automatic.

• In an emergency the operator must be able to

shut down and isolate the pipeline remotely.


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ConsultingLeak Detection

• Automatic system for detecting leaks.

• Based on accurate measurement of fluid

entering and leaving section.

• Leaks can be very small.

• Trend and statistical analysis can improve

accuracy.


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Consulting

Onshore Pipelay


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ConsultingObstructions

• Road, rail or river;

• Ravines or cliffs;

• Seismically active areas

• Other pipelines;

• Underground utilities;

• Overhead utilities;

• Ground conditions.


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ConsultingSurvey Route

• Lays out the route of the

pipeline;

• Defines width of access

• Area classification;

• Soil types and gradients;

• Identify and locate

obstructions;

• Locate features.Source: www.naturalgas.org


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ConsultingDigging Trench

• Trench cut to bury

pipe about 1 m;

• Protects pipeline;

• Allows vehicles and

animals to cross;

• Provides some

thermal insulation.Source: Essochad.com


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ConsultingStringing Pipe

• The pipe sections are

welded and inspected

before lowering into the

trench;

• Welds are externally

coated for protection

from corrosion.

Source: Sakhalinenergy.com


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ConsultingNon-Destructive Testing

• Tests for welding defects;

• Types of testing:

– Radiographic (X-ray);

– Magnetic particle;

– Dye penetrant.


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ConsultingRadiographic Testing


Source: https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/RT1.jpg Source: http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/

Radiography/Graphics/RadiographInterp/Porosity.jpg

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ConsultingMagnetic Particle Testing


Source: https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/MT1.jpg

Source: http://i.ytimg.com/vi/qpgcD5k1494/maxresdefault.jpg

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ConsultingDye Penetrant Testing


Source: http://img.tjskl.org.cn/pic/z187cc82-200x200-1/

visible_dye_penetrant_inspection_materials.jpg

Source: https://www.asnt.org/~/media/Images/

About/IntroductionToNDT/fig7.ashx

Source: http://www.sentinelltd.co.nz/SiteAssets/ndt/defect.jpg

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ConsultingLowering into Trench

• After welding and

testing the pipe is

lowered into the

trench;

• The pipe is then

covered with backfill

material and is ready

for testing.Source: Sakhalinenergy.com


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ConsultingReinstatement

• The land is restored as

much as possible to its

original state;

• Pipe is normally 1 m

below surface;

• Can be used for

farming or grazing.Source: www.mcos.ie


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ConsultingAlternative to Burial

• Avoids upheaval in

permafrost areas;

• Used through swamp

areas and seismically

active areas;

• Allows animals to cross

under pipe;

• Bridges or

underpasses for traffic.

Source: www.doty.org


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ConsultingRiver Crossing

• Can be crossed by damming;

• By new or existing road or rail bridge.

Source: www.waterstructures.com

Source: www.nwf.org


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ConsultingDirectional Drilling

• Enables pipeline to be

installed under roads,

railways and rivers

without disturbance

• Requires acceptable soil

conditions - no rocks or

boulders;

• Tunnelling for rocky

conditions.

Source: www.arizonapipeline.com


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Consulting

Offshore Pipelay


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ConsultingMain Methods

• Lay methods:

– Pipelay barge;

– Reel lay;

– Towed lay.

• Vessel types:

– Semisubmersible;

– Shipshape;

– Shallow draft barge.Source: www.imca-int.com

Pipelay Methods


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ConsultingPipelay Barge

• Used for long, large

diameter lines;

• In shallow water

positioned by anchors;

• In deep water

positioned by dynamic

positioning.Source: www.ormenlange.com

Pipelay Barge


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ConsultingS-Lay

• Majority of vessels

use S-Lay;

• Can be used in any

depth of water;

• Has been used to lay

20” line in 1,650 m

water depth;

• Lay rate 6 - 7 km/day.Source: www.sintef.no

S-Lay Barge


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ConsultingJ-Lay

• Used in deeper water

than S-Lay;

• Pipe near vertical;

• Lower lay stresses;

• Less pipe in

suspension;

• Slower lay rate.Source: www.sintef.no

J-Lay Barge


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ConsultingReel Lay

• 16” maximum

diameter;

• Heavy wall pipe

required;

• Disadvantage is

stress and strain to

bend and straighten.Source: www.offshore-technology.com

Reel Lay


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ConsultingPipe Bundle

• Fabricate onshore;

• Pulled out to sea as

fabricated;

• Complex bundles can

be built;

• Oil lines can be

insulated and heated;

• Economic for small

multiple lines.

Oil lines

Insulation

Power

cable

Control

umbilicalInjection

water

Injection

chemical

Concrete

weight

coating

Pipe Bundle


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ConsultingTowed Lay

Tug towing bundle

Chain to maintain depth

Pipe bundleFloat

Sea surface

Sea bed


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Consulting

Pigging


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ConsultingPigging

• Pigging is the insertion of a device into a

pipeline and displacing it along the full length

of the pipeline to clean, separate or inspect

the line.


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ConsultingReasons for Pigging

• To clean the line of debris or wax.

• To distribute a protective chemical.

• To separate different products.

• To displace one fluid with another.

• To inspect the pipeline internally.

• Inspect pipewall thickness or ovality.


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ConsultingTypes of Pigs

• Foam or cup pigs to

remove soft deposits.

• Brush pigs for more

severe cleaning.

• Scraper pigs to

remove wax.

• Also removes debris

and water pockets.Source: Pipeline Engineering and Apache Pipeline Products


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ConsultingInspecting the Pipeline

• A gauge pig detects

out of roundness.

• An “intelligent” pig

measures wall

thickness and detects

corrosion.

Source: US Dept of Energy


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ConsultingPig Launcher

Pig trapTrap valveBarred tee

Pig Kicker valve

Trap

closure

Main valve

Ground level


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ConsultingPig Receiver

Pig trapTrap valveBarred tee

PigDiverter valve

Trap

closure

Main valve

Ground level


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ConsultingPig Trap Design

• Locate at each end of pipeline or section.

• Used for inserting and receiving pigs and

spheres.

• Design to take largest (intelligent) pig.

• Include devices for safe operation.

• Pig traps have been the source of a number of

accidents.


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Consulting

Pipeline Protection


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ConsultingInternal Corrosion Protection

• Regular fluid quality monitoring.

• Add corrosion inhibitor for protection.

• Avoid letting water accumulate.

• Maintain flow to avoid stagnant areas.

• Consider regular pigging.

• Installation of corrosion coupons.

• Avoid dead-legs in pipeline.

• Perform baseline survey.


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ConsultingExternal Corrosion Protection

• Regularly inspect right of way.

• Correctly applied external pipe wrap applied at

construction.

• Cathodic protection.

• Fusion bonded epoxy coating (FBE).

• 3 layer polyethylene pipe wrap.


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ConsultingCorrosion Mechanism

• Corrosion cell current leaves at anode returns at

cathode.

• Soil conducts current externally.

• Pipe corroded at anode.

Anode Site Cathode Site

Electrolyte

Electrons

Pit Corrosion

Steel Pipe

Corrosion Current Corrosion Current

e e

+-


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ConsultingGalvanic Anode System

• Mainly used offshore;

• Pipe is connected to

magnesium anodes at

60 - 100 m intervals;

• Magnesium corrodes

in preference to steel;

• Anodes sized to last

the life of the pipeline.

Current flowing

through seawater

Insulated wire connecting

cathode to anode

Surface of sea

Magnesium ANODE

Higher potential than steel

Steel CATHODE

protected by anode


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ConsultingPipeline Sacrificial Anodes

• Anodes strapped to

pipe;

• Current generated

monitored to check

performance and

detect high currents


Source: http://www.stoprust.com/img/18pic3.jpg

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ConsultingPlatform Sacrificial Anodes

• Anodes also used on

offshore steel jackets;

• Anode is made of

aluminium,

magnesium or an

alloy;

• Anodes inspected

regularly and replaced

when consumed.


Source: http://www.hera.org.nz/images/

structural_systems/Anodes-on-jacket.jpg

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ConsultingImpressed Current System

• Electrical power

source opposes

corrosion cell.

• Anode bed and

equipment spaced

every 15 to 30 km.

• Anode corrodes

preferentially.Current flowing

through moist soil

Surface of earth

Cast iron ANODE

Dissipates impressed current

Battery, solar cell

or DC source


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Consulting

Compressor Stations


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ConsultingGas Compressors

• Several types.

• Most common

pipeline compressor

is the centrifugal

compressor.

Source: www.rolls-royce.com


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ConsultingGas Turbine Drive

• Uses aero-derivative

or industrial gas

turbines.

• Typical power 4 - 52

MW. Source: www.rolls-royce.com


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ConsultingGas Compressor Power

• Four stages in calculation:

– Calculate mass flow rate in kg/hr;

– Calculate head (pressure) developed by

compressor;

– Calculate power required for compression;

– Calculate total power including losses.


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ConsultingMass Flowrate

• Flow often specified in million Sm3/hr

• Conversion to mass flow:

Where:

w = Mass flow, kg/hr Q = Volume flow, Sm3/hr

M = Molecular weight R = Gas constant, 8.314


.

QMw

2 842R=

Energoil

ConsultingPressure Head

• Pressure head is given by:

Where:

HIS = Head, N.m/kg Z = Compressibility

R = Gas constant, 8.314 T = Inlet temperature, °K

P1 = Inlet pressure, kPa (abs) P2 = Outlet pressure, kPa (abs)

M = Molecular weight k = Isentropic exponent, Cp/Cv

-

-( - ) /

k 1

k2

IS

1

ZRT PH 1

M k 1 k P

=


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ConsultingGas Power

• Gas power, actual compression power is

given by:

Where:

GP = Gas power, kW w = Mass flow, kg/hr

HIS = Head, N.m/Kg ηIS = Isentropic efficiency

,IS

p

IS

wHG

3 600η=


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ConsultingTotal Power

• Total power includes losses due to seals and

bearings.

• Mechanical losses can be estimated from:

Losses = 0.75 * GP0.4

• To calculate the brake power:

BP = GP + mechanical losses


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ConsultingDischarge Temperature

• Temperature rise due to work done on gas and

inefficiency.

• Discharge temperature is given by:

( - / )

η

− = +

k 1 k

2

1

2 1is

P1

PT T 1


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ConsultingDischarge Temperature Limit

• Maximum discharge temperature normally

limited to 180 °C.

• Above this temperature normal lubricants break

down.

• Special materials required if operating at higher

temperature.


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ConsultingCompressor Power Example (1)


Symbol Parameter Value

Q Volumetric flowrate, Sm3/hr 50,000

M Molecular weight 17.3

P1 Inlet pressure, kPa (g) 500

P2 Outlet pressure, kPa (g) 2,000

T Inlet temperature, °C 35

Z Compressibility 0.87

k Isentropic exponent 1.26

η Isentropic efficiency 0.71

Energoil


• Mass flowrate:

w = 36,609 kg/hr


.

QMw

2 842R=

, .

. .

×=

×50 000 17 3

w2 842 8 314

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• Pressure head is:-

-( - ) /

=

k 1

k2

IS1

ZRT PH 1

M k 1 k P


. -

.. . ( ) , .-

. ( . - ) / . .

× × + + = × +

1 26 1

1 26

IS

0 87 8 314 35 273 2 000 101 325H 1

17 3 1 26 1 1 26 500 101 325

. . /=ISH 183 834 N m kg

Energoil


• Gas power is:

,IS

p

IS

wHG

3 600η=


, .

. ,

×=

×p

36 608 183 834G

0 71 3 600

,=pG 2 633 kW

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• Total power is:

BP = GP + 0.75 x GP0.4

BP = 2,633 + 0.75 x 2,6330.4

BP = 2,650 kW


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ConsultingDischarge Temperature

• Discharge temperature is:

T2 = 436 °K, 163 °C

( - / ) .

., .

.

.η

− − = + = × +

k 1 k 262 1 26

1

2 1is

P 2 101 3251 1P 601 325T T 1 308 1

0 71


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Consulting

Oil and Gas Storage


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Consulting

Oil Storage


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ConsultingFixed Roof Tanks

• Often used for product

storage.

• Rain cannot contaminate

product.

• Can be kept under slight

positive pressure.

• Air can be drawn in.

• Tank can be purged.

Source: www. ngm-group.ru/eng/fixed_roof_tanks_2


Source: www. http://furnacefabrica.com/images/tankages/big/big_tank01.jpg

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ConsultingFloating Roof Tanks

• Mainly used for storing

crude oil.

• Roof floats on the crude.

• Large tanks can store

1million barrels.

• Rain and snow can

accumulate on the roof.

• Water can be drained

off.

Source: http://techvita2.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/efr-tank.jpg


Source: http://asrcgulfstatesconstructors.com/files/

2010/12/BM-MM-648-Completed-Tank.jpg

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Consulting

Gas Storage


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ConsultingCompressed Natural Gas

• Stored in cylinders at

pressures up to 200 barg;

• Cylinders are relatively

heavy to withstand the high

pressure;

• Can hold 200 times their

own volume of gas;

• Used to ship gas and as

fuel for vehicles.

Source: www.cumminswestport.com


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ConsultingUnderground Storage

• Salt domes can be

washed out to form

storage.

• Gas pumped in during

low demand periods.

• Gas produced during

high demand periods.

• Gas may need treating

before distribution.© Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 97

Dry gas for

distribution

Dehydrator

Compressor

Feed gas for

storage

Salt deposit

Impervious strata

Salt cavern

leached out

Ground level

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ConsultingLiquefied Natural Gas

• Stored at atmospheric

pressure and -162 °C;

• Tanks can hold 600

times their own volume;

• Low temperatures

require special insulation

and construction;

• LNG shipped to all over

the world.

Source: www.shell-usgp.com


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ConsultingLNG Storage Tanks

• Four types of LNG

tank:

– Single containment;

– Double containment;

– Full containment;

– Membrane.

• Standard tank size is

now 160,000 m3.

Source: www.dom.com

25 March 2010 © Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 99

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ConsultingDouble Containment Tanks

Source: lngcleanenergy.com


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ConsultingLPG Storage (1)

• LPG is a mixture of

propane and butane;

• Vapour pressure

between 1 and 6

barg;

• Stored as liquid;

• Vessel shape:

• Cylindrical

• Sphere.© Dr. Richard J Barnes 2015 Slide 101

Source: http://www.bombayharbor.com/

tradeLeadImage/0236841001183456892/Buy_Oil_Storage_Tank.jpg

Energoil

ConsultingLPG Storage (2)

• Spheres used for

large volumes;

• May be used with

refrigerated tank for

very large volumes;

• Sphere gives nearly

ideal shape for

pressure vessel.Source: www.schoolscience.co.uk


12/5/2016

52

Energoil

Consulting

End of

Presentation


lecture 13 gas compression and transport r0 - fitstaff.fit.ac.cy/eng.ap/fall2016/moe506/lecture 13...

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