learning through experiments

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Learning through Experiments

The Role of Experiments in Science Education

Sciences

Before discussing the role of experiments in science education we find it advisable toconsider the experimental nature of science(s) and how scientists study nature empiricallyor experimentally.

The role of experiments in scientific research can be derived from the epistemologicalnature of science and this discussion has long historical roots. Already the famousmedieval philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon wrote: I wish now to review theprinciples of wisdom from the point of view of experimental science, because withoutexperiment it is impossible to know anything thoroughly. Another major advance in thehistory of experimental sciences was due to Galileo Galilei (1564 1642), an Italianscientist who formulated the basic law of falling bodies, which he verified by carefulexperiments. Altogether, there is a centuries old tradition of scientific enquiry which hasdeveloped a well-established scientific method followed by all serious scientists. Hereexperiments are in crucial role: we may say that the criterion of truth in science lies withthe nature itself and the answers to our questions we get through carefully plannedexperiments. However, one has to note that different sciences have here rather distinctiveprofiles. The exact sciences, like physics and chemistry, use experimental forms of thescientific method. These sciences are based on experiments gathering numerical data fromwhich researchers derive relationships and make conclusions. The more descriptivesciences, like biological sciences zoology and anthropology, have mainly used a form of themethod that involves gathering of information by visual observation or interviewing.

However, even here the present trend is towards more experimentation. What is commonin the inquiry process of all sciences is the making of hypotheses to explain observations,the gathering of data, and the drawing of conclusions that confirm or deny the originalhypothesis on the basis of these data. The difference is in what is considered as data, andhow data are gathered and processed. Furthermore, in exploratory research there is astrong emphasis in ideation and creative problem solving, which are not usuallyregistered as parts of the scientific enquiry process. On the other hand, in severalbranches of experimental sciences the construction of experimental setups may take yearsand highlight the true nature of sciences. Another important feature of modern scientificresearch is that it is team work often with large heterogeneous teams of experts in variousspecialties. Parallel to experimental research is the development of theory. Theory means

a network of carefully defined concepts and their relations. The advancement of sciencesis through the interplay within the circle from experiments to theory through inductiveresearch and from theory to experiments through deductive research. One may alsoobserve the interaction of sciences and applied technological research (see Figure 1).


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Figure 1. The advancement of science through interaction of experimental and theoreticalresearch. e.g. mod. Lavonen 1996, s. 35 / Bunge, 1983

Data in exact sciences are numbers, which can be visualised by plotting them on graphsand disclosing systematic trends by curve fitting. In this way equations can be derived andused for making predictions (hypotheses), which again can be experimented byexperiments. Data, for an anthropologist, could be a recorded interview on observednatural phenomena. Information obtained by interviewing can be compared to otherrelated data. Here is the distinction between the exact sciences using measurements to

obtain numerical data and calculate results with estimated accuracy and systematicevaluation of error possibilities, versus empirical sciences which use observations,experiences, descriptions thereof, and inferences thereupon to arrive at results. Exactsciences are often considered as basic sciences meaning that the core knowledge and theirexperimental method of information acquisition are more and more used in other sciencesand in technology. On the other hand, experimental sciences are very much dependent ontechnological advances in the development of experimental systems.

Experiments in Science Education

There is already a tradition of empirical research even in the field of science educationalthough it is far younger than in natural sciences. There is no well-established generaltheory in the education comparable to what is available in natural sciences and theorganising of empirical research is often very difficult with most limited resources anddiffuse setups. However, we may start our discussion with the reference to the cyberneticmodel of teaching and learning presented at another module designed by ours available athttp://cc-crie.dte.ua.pt/moodle/mod/resource/view.php?id=9299 .
http://cc-crie.dte.ua.pt/moodle/mod/resource/view.php?id=9299http://cc-crie.dte.ua.pt/moodle/mod/resource/view.php?id=9299


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Figure 2. The cybernetic model of teaching is used to visualize the teaching-studying-

learning process (cf. Millar, 2004).

In the first place, we may not expect that the most important goal of the experiments inscience education would be learning of factual information. On the other hand, there aresome issues, which are most naturally approached by experimenting, like the general goalof understanding the epistemological nature of sciences referred to above. Thus thestarting point of our analysis of the role of experiments may be the goals and expectedoutcomes of learning. Meisalo, Ertuuli and Capaccio (1990) gave a concise theoreticalanalysis of the aims and goals of science education as observed especially in the context ofexperimental work. They identified four relevant categories:- Practical skills- General work habits- Observation of laboratory safety- Quality of experimental results.

We modify here the list of more detailed objectives (and expected learning outcomes) theypresented as the result of their further analysis to include more openly e.g. the skillsneeded with modern computer technologies:

A. Practical skills :

1. To be able to design an experimental setup or modify if needed the given one for theresearch plan.2. To show relevant manipulative skills including handling of laboratory equipment (andcomputer technology when working in a microcomputer-based laboratory) whenimplementing the plan

3. To evaluate the functionality of the apparatus and appreciate its precision4. To obtain experimental/observation data within the expected range and in reasonabletime5. To be able to perform a controlled experiment/observations6. To perform pilot and control experiments when advisable.

B. General work habits


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7. To work effectively and maintain constant attention8. To be ready and willing to team work: set goals/objectives together with other students,plan experiments, to agree on tasks and the allocation of tasks and to give feedback andscaffolding

9. To have initiative and readiness for ideation and creative problem solving10. To take responsibility and to be able to work independently, when needed11. To be willing to help in general running of the laboratory12. To be motivated and have perseverance in reaching for the set goals

C. Observation of laboratory safety

13. To work safely, to follow safety instructions14 To perform the experiments neatly and correctly15. To observe the safety of peers.16. To suggest improvements to safety instructions, when needed

D. Quality of experimental results.

17. To understand the meaning of the results and to interpret the data in the light oftheory18. To understand and report the meaningfulness, accuracy and reliability of the results19. To search for additional information in literature/Internet and compare own researchoutcomes with those of previous research.20. To report the experiment, the results and interpretations with numerical tables,graphical visualizations etc. considering also relevant technological and otherapplications.

Experiments in school practice

In school practice the experimental nature of sciences appears most commonly in threedistinctive forms: 1) Teacher-led demonstrations, 2) student practical work individuallyor in pairs, and 3) more extensive projects in larger teams. Experimental work is possiblewith proper equipment even in a standard school classroom, but specially equipped schoollaboratories or excursions and visits to open nature, museums, and industries etc. offerfar wider possibilities. In this context, the general goals of school education may be mostrelevant, but their relation to everyday school practice is far from obvious. For instance,the Finnish school curricula emphasise the scaffolding of student learning as well as the

positive development of the whole student personality. There are several items in theabove list of goals, which can be interpreted as promoting these general goals, but oftenother reasons like the evaluation system in schools emphasising almost solely cognitiveaspects, or the heavy workload of teachers mean minimising the number of teachinghours allocated for experimental work. There have been several initiatives already for along time to develop new methods of evaluation of experimental work, but further effortsare obviously needed.


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It is also possible, like during the early years in the history of the Finnish comprehensiveschool, that even if the school curriculum emphasised the role of practical work, theavailable learning materials might be of cookbook type promoting mechanicalperforming of work according to simple recipes. Thus pupils learn to read and follow

instructions, do measurements etc., but they do not learn scientific thinking. Therefore, itis important to find other approaches, e.g. to formulate meaningful assignments for studyof natural phenomena. Experiments should be for the students not only training ofmotoric skills e.g. in making connections in electrical circuits, but also promoting higherorder thinking. In this respect teacher-led demonstration and student practical work areof equal value, but if we consider the positive development of the whole personality of astudent, his/her active role and interaction with peers are most important.

The role of experiments in school science can be derived from the general principle ofscience education that the ultimate source of information should be nature. Observations,measurements, experiments and experimental research are used as sources of basic

information when formulating and implementing concepts, quantities, theoretical models,and applications. This may include solely autonomous action, but also observing andanalysing teacher demonstrations, participating in group work during study visits,manipulating simulations, studying with audio-visual aids, listening to experiencedscientists, etc. So there are numerous variations of learning methods in the area ofexperimental approach in science. Experiments may yield either quantitative orqualitative information and their role can be rather wide but sometimes also tightlyfocussed. The teacher may want to show a phenomenon by an experiment either foridentifying it or for demonstrating its interesting features, dentifying or measuringrelated quantities, defining concepts and finding natural laws, etc. The numerous possiblegoals have been analysed above in the introductory paragraphs. The most essential aspect

in the role of experiments in school science is that they are integrated in an organizedentity of a science course and that they add to the interest and motivation of students.

In the following, we present some machine translated excerpts related to the presenttheme available in Finnish on the web pages of The Research Centre for Mathematics andScience Education (RCMSE), University of Helsinki

Observation as an enquiry method in science

In the natural sciences observations, measurements and experiments (Scientific enquiry)are made so that new information would be obtained about the object to be examined.

The perception, the measurement and the performing of experiments as a scientificmethod reflect the reality idea of natural sciences. Real beings and phenomena are thosedisclosed by the scientific method. So the validity of the information is determined by thenature based on the observations from which that have been done the reality logically isbased. The performing of the observations and experiments as the foundation of thestudying has been considered self-evident ever beginning from the work of of GalileoGalilei. The beings, such as particles, parts, fields and organisms also and plants are, theymove and have effect, they can crash, can change, it grows, to dissolve returns etc..


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Natural phenomena refer in the nature to the manifested events or also such which can beobtained to an event in controlled ones "by itself" in experiments. In the phenomena thebeings do, they move, they behave, they change etc.. Some of the phenomena are forexample the business, the reduction of the current in the circuit, the different crashes and

the chemical reactions. The features of the beings or phenomena to be perceived arecalled the properties. Some of the properties can be, among others, the size, form, colour,reaction ability, boiling point, melting point, density of the being to be examined anddifficulty in the getting to the business. The identification of the being is based on theirpermanent properties. The identification of phenomena in turn is based on flat withwhich the phenomena are commanded ones.

Quantities are used to present the qualities of beings and phenomena

As in the natural sciences the subject of the teaching of natural sciences is phenomena,beings and structures of the nature. This has been indicated by stating in the corecurriculum of the comprehensive school that some of the central contents of the teachingare the structures and systems, interactions of the nature, energy, processes and the

experimental method. These the same can be interpreted the one meaning like thestructures and phenomena of the nature. The observations and experiments of the sciencediffer from the observations and experiments which are done in the teaching in regard toboth the objective arrangementand the standard. In the science the observations andexperiments are connected to the acceptance of the new information. The newinformation can be accepted only when it has been experimentally verified. In theteaching the objective of the performing of the observations and experiments is to supportto learn the pupil, in other words to construct new information or to develop the skills of


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the pupil. In the perception it is a question of the identification of the properties of thebeings and phenomena. The making of the observations can be directed for example withquestions: Tell what you see? How does it feel? Tell about its size and form. What doknow you hear/? Draw the picture of the target perceived by you. When a researcher

decides to make observations, measurements or experiments, he will not rushstraightforwardly the target "for the brim" to be surprised at the beings and phenomena.He designs the experiments based on his always earlier information. Usually experimentsthe wide studying the earlier study of the field precedes on the reading the publicationswritten by others. So the researcher's observations, measurements and experiments arewell designed and an attempt is made to strengthen with them or to disprove a shapedhypothesis based on the earlier information. When examining dependences between twovariables, an attempt is as well as possible made to standardise other factors. This kind ofa experiment is often called an experiment. The pupil also examines the structures andphenomena of the nature based on his own earlier information. However, the pupil'searlier knowledge, in other words preconceptions are according to the studies often in the

conflict with the ideas of the science. The researcher of the nature belongs to the scientificcommunity which accepts and shares the new information got by a researcher orresearcher group. The results of the study must be published and must be set thereforesusceptible to the criticism. Also in the class the class community shares new informationamong themselves. Social interaction belongs for the learning in which case the pupilsmust be directed to discuss the information or material experimentally acquired, itshandling and modelling and the estimating of its reliability. On the basis of theobservations and experiments new concepts are brought into use. The introduction ofconcepts is the joining of them to language. Natural phenomena are explained and withthe concepts, laws and theories are analysed. The concepts can be classified to the conceptclasses on the basis of their significance: beings, phenomena, quantities and models. The

models of the beings or phenomena are beings also or phenomena linguistically. A stiffpart that has been generalised can be used for example as the model of the iron bar (abeing) and a harmonic business as the model of the vibration of the bow (a phenomenon).The exact limit between the models and beings or the phenomena cannot be set becausewhen examining the phenomena or beings, idealisations are always made.

Observation as a constructive process

Learning is a constructive operation in which the pupilconstructs new information by observing on reading, todiscuss on the operation etc.. In modern learning opinion

the information is not transferred from teacher to pupilbut the pupil constructs it himself. The pupil selects andinterprets information, analyses based on its informationwhich is earlier than it and interrelating to it (Rauste vonWright & von Wright 1994, 15). The learning is alwaystied up with it to the situation and culture in which ittakes place and always anchors itself in social interactionprocesses and through them to the significance structures


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which have been created. The perception is understood from outside often in the workdaythinkingin as a proceeding process in which the external stimulus moves to the brain andconsciousness through the senses. According to this kind of thinking the similar repeatedstimulus always causes a similar observation and change in the consciousness. The

modern learning idea interprets that the active charge of the detector is always connectedto the perception in the observation process. The perception is the constant search of theinformation which is directed at the environment. To the perception from the point ofview of the psychology of the learning the identification and selection and interpretationof useful information are always characteristic. There is always information from theenvironment over the perception but over the detector available, the momentary handlingability of the information is limited. The attentiveness is small perception of the exactnessand hangs: the detector is able to pay attention to another environment the more carefullythe less target is perceived. So the perception forces to the selection. When theobservations are made, they will also be interpreted at the same time. The detector sees, ithears, it knows, it smells, it tastes as something to perceive. There is the world of

observations, significances the world of stimuli not. The observations get the significancethrough the fact that they are connected to the one that has been learned earlier, theobservations are interpreted based on the frame of reference formed by the earlierexperiences and connected to the situation where the observations are made. Theperception and the interpretation of observations are regulated by the ideas, objectivesand motives of the detector. So the pupil's earlier information affects learning. Thecontents of the long-term memory affect where the attentiveness is directed, whatinformation is received and how it is processed. According to Neisser (1976) perception isdirected by the schemes activated by the situation, in other words by the establishedoperations models of an observation or the motor coordination of the detector and byideas of what is taking place. In the learning the schemes have a central position as factors

which affect a mind pressing, remembering and recalling. The encoding of the newinformation and old taking depend forth on the logical order of schemes. English Adey(1988) lists the following schemes which are related to perception and the examining ofnatural phenomena: control of variables, elimination of variables, proportional reasoning,combinatory reasoning, multivariate thinking, scheme of conservation, balance, thinkingwhich is based on a statistics or probabilities and correlation. An example of an smallerobservation scheme is the scheme of the closed circuit formed for instance by a lamp andbattery the variables of which are a bipolar lamp, a bipolar battery and metal cables withwhich the components have been connected to each other. When the essential variablesget the wrong values, it will not be identified any more to be closed a circuit. So theschemes direct the interpretation of the observation information, expectations concerningthe directing of the attentiveness and the progress of the perception. Based on theobservations in turn the ideas which have formed will affect since their turn the scheme atthe bottom of the observation strengthening it or editing. The development cycle of theperception scheme continues until the progress of the phenomenon ends or some otherevent fixes the attentiveness of the detector into its half .

Emotions are components of the schemes and they direct a selective attentiveness. Theyare not only mental but in them the fears, desires, wishes and interests of the detector are


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reflected. The emotions also affect the interpretation of the information. The frightfulnessor desirability of an event can be the most important feature of the event to the detector.Ausubel (1968) has used a cognitive structure in other words to the pupil's knowledge,ideas, others factors in the same significance as a scheme which are related to the

expectations and the processing of the information. The cognitive structure can beunderstood as the hierarchical system of concepts in some area of the information. Thecognitive structure of the pupil will develop when the pupil connects new experiences toformer schemes. So observation and performing experiments are also more generallymeans which help the pupil to connect the new concepts and principles to the pupil'searlier knowledge. Thus the experimental approach is a means which can be used tosupport a pupil on to process information and to record it in a long-term memory. Withthe experimental approach a pupil is supported on to build from the nature scientificinformation the capital which he can utilise in many ways in his later life. The teacher'srole and task change to the role of the controller of the learning information about thedivider's role. The new nature scientific information is not created through the teacher

which as an authority would inform new information but the new information is createdwhen the pupil is in the interaction with the nature. The information technology andcommunication technique and measuring automation can be in many ways utilised in thisinteraction. With the help of information technology and communication technique asketch is collected information, is dealt with and it estimated. So the learning is connectedto the pupil's studying process which the teacher or the computer cannot do for the pupil.The remembering is a result it is manifested in how the learned matters are preserved inthe mind and how they are brought into use from there which. According to the multiplestorage theory of the memory the information is dealt with and stored in a sensorywarehouse (the warehouse of a sight and hearing), in a short memory (a scratch padstorage an active memory) and in a long time memory (a storage memory). The stimulus

that has been obtained with the help of senses will come into a sensory warehouse withouta voluntary control and stay from the environment there for about one second. Thestimulus moves as the result of the voluntary attentiveness into the short-term memory inwhich it will be preserved for 5 - 20 seconds. The transition of the stimulus to the long-term memory requires the editing and processing of the stimulus. The information isedited usually to a semantic linguistic form after which it moves into a very wide long-term memory. Information cannot be given to the pupil or in cognitive learning opinioncannot be shared ready but the pupil an own one active, target-oriented and he learningthe operation which searches for feedback, the learning requires a new one. The learningis closely connected to the studying process which is a self-controlling process in which thepupil designs, estimates and develops its own learning strategies. This process is awholeness the contents in which are among others learned, the approach of the teaching,the characteristics of the pupil, the pupil's needs, experiences,objectives, attitudes and motivation are among themselves in theinteraction and all affect learning. However, the pupil's independenceand the own active operation are not any new demand because forexample Dewey (1916) has proposed that the efficient independentlearning be one of the central objectives of the learning. The cognitivepsychology in the background of the cognitive learning view neither was


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created as a uniform theory either, nor has become uniform. Among others, the studies ofa learning psychology, artificial intelligence, psycholinguistics and developmentalpsychology have affected its birth. The influences have also been given to it from a so-called cultural-historical school. It is important to connect the learning in the school to the

taking place context of teaching and studying.

Assignment

1. Test you skills of observation! Close your eyes and tell, in what kind of a room you arenow? How many windows, doors, tables, chairs etc. there are in the room? Where is thespot where the light is brightest and where it darkest? Is the room clean? Of what colourare the tables, walls, floor etc.?

Measurement as the basic method of sciences

The exact comparing of the properties of the phenomena andmaterials requires the measurement. During the lessons, amongothers, measurements on length, mass, temperature, pressureand time can be easily performed. On the basis of themeasurement results for example the area can be calculated andpart of different forms areas can be compared or the change ofthe temperature can be studied as the function of the time.Phenomena which are seriously perceived can be studied withsenses by measuring as change of the length of the day, drawingof the Moon away, from the Earth heat expansion of the steelruler, progress of the electric current in cable, quieting of the

radiation, properties of materials and chemical reactions. Thecareful measurement can also be used to avoid inaccuracies and illusions which arerelated to the observations. The measurement is the basic method of physics andchemistry, sciences study the structures of the nature which surrounds the human being,phenomena and their explanations. They are experimental the clearest of the sciences. Inthe natural sciences there is interest of what in the phenomenon is preserved and how itcan be influenced. Exact answers and the scientific experiments are looked for to thesequestions by among others perceiving, by measurements, experiments, on the help. Thesubject of the scientific study is beings, phenomena and structures of the nature. Theresearcher always tries to simplify and to control the target when designing theexperiment arrangementto examine the phenomenon or the being in the laboratory

conditions. It is possible then for example to monitor the effects of different variables onthe phenomenon separately in which case the dependences are found out as the result ofseveral measurements between the variables which describe the phenomenon. When thedependences are graphically presented and still mathematically, an exact model or lawwhich presents the phenomenon will be obtained. So the information about the target isobtained by observing, by measuring and by concluding. Some of the reasoning methodsused by the natural sciences are, among others, the induction, the deduction, the analogyreasoning, the presenting of the hypothesis, the certificate, the verifying and the


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modelling. The information that has been received by examining is individualinformation, generalisations, principles, laws and theories. "The researcher does notmake observations and conclusions off but based on background information and basedon theories", empty. This way the received information is used and adapted in the further

studies and e.g. in technology, or in the constructing building and focusing of theworldview. The society tries to affect especially use and adapting of the information inmany ways. (see for example Kurki-Suonio & Kurki-Suonio, 1994). The theories ofscience are fundamental principles belonging together which explain a certain class ofnatural phenomena. The theories hold true in certain conditions with a certain accuracy.For example the laws of Newton are fundamental principles of the classic mechanics.They hold true for the phenomena of the macro physics to which the high speeds orenergies are not connected. The objective of natural sciences is as general as possible andexact theory which explains all the natural phenomena as widely as possible and carefully.When the areas of qualification of the models and theories are known, they can be usedfor the predicting of new phenomena in a controlled way. The progress of natural sciences

is based on the constant interaction of the experimental and theoretical study. Thisinteraction produces structural, progressing and self-correcting information. Thus bothexperimental and theoretical researches are connected to scientific information. Thecharacter of natural sciences includes the aim to connect new information and aim for theexpansion of the area of qualification of the theory to a known uniform data structure asscience.

When performing measurements most often we comparethe properties of two objects or follow the chance in a

property with time. We may e.g. find the answer to thequestion, which of two pupils is taller or which containerhas warmer water in it. In science we often want to find ananswer to a question concerning a phenomenon. Examplesof such questions can be of the type: Does the mass of a loaf change, when baking it? Doesthe mass of a quantity of water change when dissolving sugar in it? Does the volume ofwater change, when pouring it from a bottle to a shallow container?

References

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of Science Education 14 (2), 137 146.

Adey, P., Shayer, M. O. & Yates, C. 1989. Thinking Science: the Curriculum Materials ofthe CASE Project. London: MacMillan Education, Basingstoke. .

Arons, A. 1990. A Guide to Introductory Physics Teaching. New York: John Wiley &Sons.

Bacon, R. 1268: On Experimental Science(available inOliver J. Thatcher, O.J. (1901) TheLibrary of Original Sources. Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., Vol. V: TheEarly Medieval World, pp. 369-376).

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Berry, J. 1990. Soveltaminen koulumatematiikassa (Suomentaja P. Sahlberg). Helsinki :Valtion pai-natuskeskus.

Bradley, P. L. 1968. Is the science laboratory necessary for general education sciencecourses? Scien-ce Education 52, 58 66.

Brown, J., Cooper, A., Horton, T., Toates, F. & Zeldin, D. 1986. Science in Schools.Exploring the curriculum. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Bunge, M. 1983. Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World. Treatise onBasic Philosohy. Volume 6. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.

De Jong, M. L. 1991. Computers in Introductory Physics. Computers in Physics 5, 12 15.

Driver, R. 1983. The Pupils as Scientists? Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Driver, R. 1985. Childrens Ideas in Science. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Ekelund, B. 1989. Trghet, kraft, Energi och attraktivitet, Kognitivt stringentframstllning av ele-mentr dynamik. bo: bo akademis frslag.

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Gosper, M. V., Cheary, R. W., Hagerty-Hazel, E. & Kirkup, L. 1993. Reform in thePhysics Labora-tory: From Theory to Practice. Paper presented at the "ThirdInternational Seminar on Mis-conceptions and Educational Strategies in Science andMathematics", Cornell University, It-haca. 1 - 4.8.1993.

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London: Rout-ledge.

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Howe, C., Tolmie, A., Anderson, A. & Mackenzie, M. 1992. Conceptual knowledge inPhysics: The Role of group interaction in computer-supported teaching. Learning andInstruction 2, 161 183.

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secondary school science teaching. Development of evaluation methods for the Finnishcomprehensive school with emphasis on biological sciences and chemistry. University ofHelsinki. Department of Teacher Education. Research Report 84, 19-21.

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Wellington , J. (eds.) 1989. Skills and processes in science education, A critical analysis.London: Routledge.

Experimental Science Projects: An Introductory Level Guide (available athttp://www.isd77.k12.mn.us/resources/cf/SciProjIntro.html , visited 26.10.2007).

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Galileo.html , visited29.10.2007)

Experiments in school science

Introduction

Children and young people are interested in the matters of the environment naturally.Already quite a small child makes observations and questions of the environmentcontinuously. He feels, raises, pushes, smells and tastes objects, classifies and comparestheir properties, in other words studies its environment, it experiments. There are thescientist's and the child's operational common features but differences also. The most

central differences are in the objective arrangementand standard of the making of thestudy. The scientific study helps researchers to invent hypotheses and makes theexperimenting of hypotheses possible. This way the hypotheses get either support or theyare overturned and by thus conducting the study new information is created. At schoolthe objective of the doing of the study is to support the learning, to help to perceive and toanalyse nature and its phenomena and support the versatile development of the child'spersonality.

The nature scientific experiment is a way to get information about the nature. The naturescientific experiment is that question which to the nature is presented and through theexperiment the nature answers. Earlier ideas and the natural way of the human being to

analyse the world direct all observation. In a nature scientific experiment earlierinformation directs the planning of the experiment, realisation, the interpretation ofresults and the making of the conclusions. In the everyday life the observation is notusually designed. It indeed is difficult to learn the planning of the experiment. Whendesigning a experiment, it is thought what how an answer can be obtained to the questionsand what kind of results from the experiment can be expected already is known about thematter. The experiment can be used to experiment earlier information and ideas or to
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become acquainted with the being, phenomenon or their properties

The scientific experiment (or more widely, scientific research) is suitable for getting at thestage of the deepening information but also at the stage of the arrangement of the

problem for the model of the learning which examines excellently sometimes experimentsmust be performed so that one wants to get the answer to what kind of matters willbecome clear.

In addition to the arrangement of the problem, the scientific experiment (extended or astudy) contains, among others, the following stages (Adeyet al.,1989 ): identification ofvariables (for example: does the temperature have effect? what is measured?)setting ofhypotheses, planning of the experimental arrangement, collecting of measurement results,presenting of results and interpretation of results. It is to be noted that the pupils do notknow the stages of the making of the study and the forms of the reporting even naturally.The making of the study and the drawing up of the report must be taught therefore to

pupils as other acquisition methods of the information also. To read to the learning childa novel is not given to the hand as the first one but the learning begins the abc-book etc.with short and simple texts.

The making ofscientific experiment requires going of the pupil, among others, to thefollowing matters: becoming acquainted, co-learning and cooperative learning in whichthe contribution of all the members of the group is significant and important, systematicworking and ability to separate the skill to present as a table moth, schemes and text theinformation that has been collected in the nature unessential, personal studying the studyof the nature, to the subject matter of the study and to methods the most essential oneboth writes its thought in a clearly linked and proceeding form logically training to

present its thoughts, its ideas and its research results and in writing that orally, skill toutilise the received feedback and on the other hand to react critically to the feedbackestimating of the reliability and exactness of the obtained results. In their opinion, thedoing of the study develops at least the following features of the personality in the pupil:increase in the information from field of the study, learning of the making of the study,handling of information, presenting, estimating, use of the source books, sense ofresponsibility, perseverance, originality... , organising of work, together operating, ...planning and control of the use of time. These will be connected to the different stages ofthe making of the study which are examined in the following numbers. The emphasisingof stages depends on the objectives which are set on a nature scientific experiment. Theobjective of the experiment can be the determination of a value, the experimenting of the

area of qualification of the law, the experimenting of the hypothesis, the quantifying of theinterdependence of the variables, the perceiving of the interdependence to big. If theobjective to a big one is for example a determination of the value, then the planning of theexperiment and the collecting of measurement results will be emphasised or if theobjective is quantifying of the interdependence of the variables, then the presenting ofresults and the drawing of conclusions will be emphasised. The making of the study fromthe point of view of the cooperation is examined in connection with the introduction of


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cooperative approaches.

Scientific experiment as a pedagogical approach

In the scientific experiment belong at least in some extent the following stages. Howstrongly the stages are emphasised depends on the objectives appointed by a teacher andpupils to the experiment.

THE TEACHER'S GENERAL PLAN

THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT AREA/FORMULATING THE RESEARCHQUESTIONS

BRUSHING UP THE RELEVANT RESEARCH METHOD

FORMING OF GOUPS

THE PLANNING OF THE EXPERIMENT

DATA ACQUISITION /PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT

PRESENTING THE RESULTS

INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS, MAKING OF THE CONCLUSIONS

REPORTING THE RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT/STUDY

1. THE TEACHER'S GENERAL PLAN

The teacher designs the possibilities of the making of the study and the practicalrestrictions and surveys resources. Some of the resources are among others the availableteachers, devices, devices needed in the reporting such as computers, coloured pencils,scissors, cardboards and targets (a measurement). When making the general plan, theteacher will take the pupils' age and level of performance, time, a curriculum, theopportunities to cooperate into consideration, among others, during the school year, withother subjects and time to be used. The necessary time hangs very much from howfamiliar it is to do the study for the pupils, self from the readiness a study on the subject


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to be examined, on the openness of the act and on the given instructions and the pupils'general daddy.

One can resort also to the help of the outside experts of the school. The empiric material

can be got from the water works of the municipality, from the health centre, amongothers, from the rescue institution and from the companies of the locality. A connectionalso to the experts of research institutions or of universities is obtained through the datanetworks. In that case the study will be more strongly emphasised to the handling ofresults, to the presenting and drawing of conclusions.

2. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT AREA/FORMULATING THERESEARCH QUESTIONS

The introduction of the topic of the experiment or the study by the teacher demonstratesthe subject matter of the study to the pupils and tells where the tools, books and reporting

utensils needed in the making of the study possibly are found from and how long time hasbeen reserved for the making of the study. At this stage the forming of the generalquestions the answering which requires the performing of experiments will be begun. Atthe stage of the planning of the experiment the final group-specific research problems willbe determined. With the pupils it is thought from the use of the external expert resourcesand data networks of the school from possible ones. The teacher can talk also about hisearlier experiences of the making of the study and can bring up the strategies of themaking of the study with which it was succeeded. The pupils can also be told about thoseadvantages which are found for example compared to the traditional teaching, a study onthe doing. In this context such information also and skills which are needed in a modernwork community can be brought up.

The scope of the describing of the subject matter hangs a study on the degree of theopenness and a study on the arrangement of the objectives of the act. If the objective is forexample to develop the pupils' independent working and the operating in a group of skills,the subject matter will be restrictedly shown so that the pupils would get independentlyand to design the study as from many sides as possible also in on the other hand, thegroup. The subject matter can then be given with one or two words. If as the subjectmatter of the study "the properties of the bow" are for example given, the pupils have todesign also the necessary measuring devices in addition to the making of the studythemselves and have to choose or have to develop the quantities with which the propertiesof the bow are measured. Usually it begins spontaneously to form during the introduction

of the subject matter, designing the study and executing groups.3.BRUSHING UP THE RELEVANT RESEARCH METHOD

Students are taught in a suitable scope the making of the study. On first times, when oneobjective is to learn to conduct the study to the subject matter the tools to the describingand introduction of the making of the study enough time is reserved.


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If a teacher says or looks a video like an earlier study on doing and problems which arerelated to it, the pupils will be asked to think how they take these points into considerationin the planning and doing of their own study. On the other hand, the making of the studyis learned by only self examining.

4.FORMING OF GOUPS

For the forming of groups there are numerous possibilities. The groups can bespontaneously established by drawing lots or the teacher can determine the groups. Theforming of groups and their operation have been examined earlier.

If a pupil decides alone to work, he will have much freedom and responsibility. In theplanning and realisation of the work opinions, restrictions or motives of the others do notneed to be taken into consideration. A two person group is probably the most general sizeof the group. In that case the discussion partnerwill be near and it also is simple to fit

from a schedule, working and sectioning. The team of more pupils is useful in widerproblems. When in that case conducting a study, the skills of the social interaction arelearned in addition to the examining of the nature. The groups can be established betweenthe pupils also of the separate classes or of even different schools. Then different teamprogrammes can be used for the communication of groups. With the help ofteamprogrammes there are no members of the group the ones that have been bound to thesame schedule but one can work more flexibly.

5.THE PLANNING OF THE EXPERIMENT

The considering of doing experiments and the making of experiments in science classes

can hardly too much emphasise the importance of the planning of the experiment. Thechildren and young people typically rush directly to perform the experiment and onlyafter the performing of the experiment begin to think what in the experiment should havebeen done. With the careful planning much unnecessary work saves and doing again. Theplanning of the experiment is on the other hand difficult and laborious. When designingan experiment, one must think from beginning to end, the structure of the wholeexperiment. What how you experience is known it is performed what kind of results areexpected.

The groups design a suitable division of labour, making of the study and reporting. Theamount of the teacher's manoeuvering in the planning depends on the pupils' experience

in the doing of the study. If the computers of the school are in the computer laboratories,the possibilities to use of such laboratories must be taken into consideration in theplanning of the making of the study.

If a study is open, the pupils will have in the mind a subject matter which they would liketo study. The marking off of the subject matter the research problems is the essentialstage of the doing of the study. At this stage the pupils will be actively supported by theteacher. When a subject matter is surveyed and marked off from the different approaches


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of the handling of the information, there is an advantage.

Scientific experiments are to be designed so that in one go the effect of only one variableon the phenomenon to be examined will be studied and standardised or other variables

will be controlled. If the problem is for example to clarify what factors have an influenceon the swing time of the pendulum, the possible factors will be first clarified. Some of suchpossible factors which have an influence on the swing time are the scope of the swing, themass of the weight and the length of the thread. The effect of one variable on the swingtime is studied in one go and others are standardised in which case it is noticed that thescope of the swing and the mass of the weight to make careful measurements do not reallyhave an effect on the swing time and by presenting them conveniently it is noticed that thesecond power of the swing time is proportional to the length of the thread.

The planning of the study also includes the identification of the variables of the study, thenoticing of their types, the planning of the measurement of the variable and of the

possible indicator, carrying out, the presenting of measurement results with the suitablescale. The values of the variable can be measured at least with a classification scale andorder scale and with constant scale. For example the type of the coffee cup is typicallymeasured with a classification scale, the roughness of the surfaces on the order scale andtemperature on a constant scale. The type of the variable affects the graphic presenting ofthe values received by the variable. For example it is not very natural to present thedegree of the roughness of the surface with a line diagram.

Still the planning of the study includes deciding about the number of a suitable samplesize and/or repetition experiments. These decisions affect the reliability of the study and tothe generalizability of results. The deciding of these matters requires basing to the earlier

information. In addition to the teacher and in addition to the textbook, the sources of theinformation can be libraries and the databanks of the Internet.

6.DATA ACQUISITION /PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT

The experiment is performed in the class, outside, in the nature, at home or for instance inthe laboratory of the industrial establishment.

Acquisition at the stage of the material the teacher's manoeuvering is usually needed lessthan to be designed a study. Sometimes the collecting of the material is a very short stagein the study and the actual work is both in planning and in reporting. If a measurement

system must be connected available to the computer, it also can be used in the collecting ofthe material.

The reliability of the collected material can be estimated according to the how long tripbetween the original source of the information and the researcher is. Directly the materialthat has been collected in the nature is the most reliable in this sense. The observationalerrors have to be estimated separately. If there is a filter, for example some other person,between a researcher and the primary information, the researcher will make use of the


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secondary information. Such secondary sources are for example information acquired ofthe books, simulations, the databases and data networks. When measurements are made,it is really important that what is wanted and expected is measured really. The reliabilityalso includes the doing ofrepetition measurements. Here the independence also is

important when observations are made, is measured and to be collected material.

It is good for the pupil to write during the study other points also than the actualmeasurement results down from the phenomenon to be examined. The use of a separatestudy diary is recommended. For example it is considerably more difficult to examinestatic electricity on moist like on dry air. The strange results of the experiments of thestatic electricity can be understood if there is the information about the weather of themeasuring time available.

7.PRESENTING THE RESULTS

The amount of the manoeuvering of the teacher of the handling of the material at ahandling phase and reporting stage Data, however, increase. It is natural that the pupilsdo not notice for example an invariance which appears in the measurement resultsbecause the creation of the new quantities and laws is a demanding process also in thescience and requires usually a considerable intelligence (for example Newton, Joule, Ohm)from the observer. In the handling of the material there may be help for example from ameasuring or spreadsheet or from another tool program that has been meant for handlingofnumerical data.

By studying the acquired information in the natural sciences (such as also in othersciences), it is often graphically presented. From a graphic presentation the change of the

values of the variable becomes clear on one glance. When in the measurements ameasurement system is used, the graphic presentation will be easily created. Also fromtraditional tool programs the spreadsheet is suited especially well for graphic presenting ofthe information. When using also a spreadsheet, the axes must be named and must beattempted to the fact that the figure is as informative as possible.

Read more from the graphs

8. INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS, MAKING OF THE CONCLUSIONS

It is worth separating the drawing of conclusions from presenting the results. On the

other hand, the choosing of thepresenting way of results facilitates the drawing ofconclusions and the drawing of conclusions requires the presenting of results in thesuitable way. The presenting of results and the drawing of conclusions are thereforeamong themselves in the more or less close interaction.

The drawing of conclusions requires usually close social interaction. The new informationis accepted in the science in the scientific community and in the class in the class


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community. The drawing of conclusions often requires the teacher's also control.

The pupils' earlier information, in other words preconceptions affects the drawing ofconclusions. On the basis of earlier numbers we know that there are often mistakes in the

pupils' earlier knowledge. The pupils must be therefore encouraged to speak itsconclusions on own to the voice and to compare them with the conclusions presented byothers. When drawing conclusions, obtained results are compared also with earlierstudies and theory.

9.REPORTING THE RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT/STUDY

Reporting if the objective to a big one is only a determination of the value, the report canremain a very short description from the method and result. When the objective of theexperiment is for example an examination of the firmness of the paper, it will be naturalthat the report is more versatile

What does the research report show and how has it been examined. The style is a matter-of-fact and exact language. In the report the possible own research results from theresults of the others are clearly separated. The own results are compared with results ofthe others or with a theory background.

In the drawing up of the research report the information technology is worth utilising.The word processing program can be freely used to change a text and to move pieces ofone place to another. The analysis of the study is worth making with the parser of theword processing program. If one does not want to use the parser, it will be worthbeginning the drawing up of the report with a table of contents. The table of contents

shows in one way or another the following elements: heading summary contentsintroduction theory backgroundproblems of the study methods, experiment arrangementsand devices collected material and results examination of results sources the discussion isobvious that in the reporting different multimedia applications become common. In thereports there is a text, it describes diagrams, figures, films, animations and voice. Thiskind of a report can be studied in free order by moving through the link words to newdisplays. The reporting in the Internet also will become common.

When the report is drawn up in a group, there will be an advantage from many principleswhich are related to theprocess writing. The unfinished report is supported by having itread by other members of the group and utilises to the further development of the report

the feedback that has been received this way. In the reporting on the other hand thecontribution of the member of each group for the forming of the wholeness must beclarified. Often one must require that every member of the group has a certain totallyindependent share in the report.

Read more from the structure and style of the research report


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Evaluation of the study

Every researcher and group gets feedback during the introduction both from the secondpupils and from the teacher. The research reports can be saved in study books or folders,

portfolios which the pupils show at regular intervals to theteacher. The pupil himself decides what report hedemonstrates and how he justifies it, the successful report ofthe one. In the discussion, among others, the success in theplanning of the study, in the presenting of results or theresults in the examination of exactness and sensibility can bebrought up.

To the introduction to other pupils or whole of the results ofthe study school community one belongs to the character ofthe study. The study is public. In addition to an oral report,

the results of the study can be published in the assemblies oron the walls of the school with the help of a poster. The mostinteresting studies can be published for instance in the paper of the school or they can beoffered in the local newspaper to be published. It is possible for the pupils to participatewith their studies also in different national competitions. There are the ones that havebeen most known from these the competitions arranged by the interest groups of theindustry and by the pedagogic teacher organisations. The publicity and spurring prizes arean important incentive both to the pupils and to the teacher.

The reporting to other pupils is the presenting of the oral summary from the results of thestudy. For every pupil or team enough time for the reporting on the results of the study is

reserved therefore. The oral presentation is particularly the presenting of the summaryand not the introduction of the whole study. Nobody has the strength to follow a very longtalk intently. Usually tables and figures are used as the support of the presentation. In thepresentation it is avoided from reading usually a written summary to the voice.

The opponents reading in advance the written report of the study also which they studycarefully are worth to the introduction opportunity of the study naming. The opponentbrings out the income and shortcomings of the work in his address. The criticism shouldbe building and the opponent should present his own improvement proposals also andsolution ideas to the shortcomings perceived by him. The good and encouraging custom tobegin the analytical group discussion on the work is to show the three central income of

the work even though and to justify why they is income of the work. The opponent doesnot wish the one paying too much attention to the irrelevances perhaps in the work intodefective use of the spot or for example to illogical numbering of tables but his task to tryto get its essential contribution, in other words problem loose from the work is ?a method,?the results, ?the conclusions. The maker's of the study/the factors' and opponent's/theopponents' discussion is most pleased a debate in which own viewpoints are argued to thefacts and the results of the study, inheritance support. Among others, the possible subjectsof the further study are discussed work together and after the opponent's evaluation are


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proposed. If one wants to use opponents in the evaluation of the work, its handling maytake the whole lesson

learning through experiments

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