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Learning from Architecture‐‐ Information Inquiry for Architectural Historians Chenshan Wang, Ph.D. University of Pennsylvania University of Pennsylvania

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Page 1: Learning from Architecture‐‐library.tmu.edu.tw/chiu/2011-architectural and art...Ajanta caves (200 BCE, 600 CE) Ajanta cave 26, India: Chaitya and nirvana-Buddha 5th century AD

Learning from Architecture‐‐

Information Inquiry for Architectural Historians

Chen‐shan Wang, Ph.D.

University of PennsylvaniaUniversity of Pennsylvania

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Chen‐shan Wang / 王珍珊

Education:

PhD  East Asian Languages and Civilizations, School of Arts and Science, University of PennsylvaniaMaster of Science       Historic Preservation, School of Design, University of PennsylvaniaMaster of Science 臺大建築與城鄉研究所Master of Science       臺大建築與城鄉研究所Bachelor                       臺大園藝系

Experiences: p

Lecturer on Chinese and Cultural studies       UPenn and Carnegie Mellon UniversityAncient Wine Analysis                                       Museum of Archaeology, UPennSheep Barn Survey National Park Service PhiladelphiaSheep Barn Survey                                             National Park Service, Philadelphia臺南大天后宮第一期修復工程宜蘭歷史空間調查評估

Interests:

Multicultural Studies on built environment, Religious Buildings, Historic Preservation

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Visual Arts and Architectural History

The history of architecture traces the changes in the history of architecture through various countries and dates. 建築史研究的是建築在不同國家、時期的歷史

Like the analysis of historical trends in politics, literature, and the sciences, the discipline benefits from the clarity and portability of the written word, but art historians (including architectural historians) also rely on formal analysis, semiotics, psychoanalysis and iconography. Technologies such as photography and printing have helped to advance the discipline in profound ways, as they have enabled easy comparisons of objects, motifs and structures. The study of architectural history as a visual art can be a practice that involves understanding context脈絡, form 形式(style and period), and social significance社會意義.

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Architectural history and Art history

Art history has historically been understood as the academic study of objects of art in their y y y jhistorical development and stylistic contexts, i.e. genre, design, format, and look. This includes the "major" arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the "minor" arts of ceramics, furniture, and other decorative objects.

S h l hi A hit t R i l t di A h l L dScholarship: Architecture, Regional studies, Archaeology, Landscapearchitecture, Historic preservation, etc 

Historic Preservation:  Documentation and Conservation (applied science) 

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What do architectural historians do?Architecture professions: Design, Engineering and History/Theoryp g , g g y/ y

中國建築史學研究的開端: 梁思成與林徽音

Nanchan temple

Foguang temple

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Example 1. 敦煌莫高窟建築與其壁畫中的建築的形制與意義

敦煌

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Background – I. 敦煌歷史:

黃河遠上白雲間,一片孤城萬仞山。羌笛何須怨楊柳?春風不度玉門關。

敦煌: 原是漢武帝為阻擋匈奴,於111 BCE 設河西四郡 (武威、張

涼州詞. 王之渙

敦煌 原是漢武帝為阻擋匈奴 於 設河西四郡 (武威 張掖、酒泉、敦煌),後因路上絲綢之路的形成,敦煌位於漢最西的關口,而成為絲路南北兩線的匯集點(經玉門關可進入絲路北道,出陽關則到達絲路南道)。也因地理位置特殊而成為熱衷的佛教徒出陽關則到達絲路南道)。也因地理位置特殊而成為熱衷的佛教徒開鑿石窟的地點。

敦煌石窟: 莫高窟、西千佛洞、東千佛洞、楡林窟(安西)、五個廟敦煌石窟: 莫高窟 西千佛洞 東千佛洞 楡林窟(安西) 五個廟

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II.The Great Manuscript Race of 敦煌莫高窟

1. 大發現: 1900 道士王圓籙清理時意外發現藏經洞(第十七號),藏經超過五萬卷

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2. Sir Aurel Stein:1907年5月,Stein 在蔣孝琬的翻譯及協助下,以40個馬蹄銀錠,向王圓籙換取七千份古寫本、刻本卷子,還有殘片散頁六千多號,以及一些佛絹畫、佛幡等。 現存於大英博物館。

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3. 1908年春,Paul Pelliot (法) 在Urumqi烏魯木齊聽說敦煌發現藏經洞,立刻趕往敦煌莫高窟,這年3月3日,精挑細選了個半月,最後以五百兩銀子帶走了六千餘件。

4 清朝于1910年將剩餘的經卷運往北京。啟4. 清朝于1910年將剩餘的經卷運往北京 啟運時清點尚有九千餘卷,三個月後到達北京時只剩下八千餘卷了,存放於京師圖書館。

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5. 1912年日本大谷光瑞探險隊的橘瑞超(たちばな ずいちょう)與吉川小一郎(Yoshikawa Koichiro)又從王圓籙手中購了近三百卷寫經,另外他們還在各窟搜尋到一批佛經寫本。

年 俄國考古學會會長奧登堡(6. 1914年,俄國考古學會會長奧登堡(S.F.Oldenburg)從王圓籙手中買了二百件寫經。奧登堡還對洞窟作了大量的勘查,對南區和北區的石窟作了搜尋,搜得殘對南區和北區的石窟作了搜尋 搜得殘片剩頁近一萬八千號。

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7. 1924年,Fogg Museum (Harvard University) 的Langdon Warner乘考察之際,用化學膠布黏走了十餘幅精美的壁畫,同時還將328窟窟龕的唐代供養菩薩像偷走。

被逃難的俄軍被逃難的俄軍燻毀的牆面

Warner 破壞的牆面牆面

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8. 張大千--敦煌藝術聲名遠播的推手還是另一個破壞者?

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敦煌學

1910年,傅寶書將 8697件寫本從敦煌帶到北京,迄今爲止總數目約16000號左右。中國年陳 的《敦煌劫餘錄》(第 部敦煌寫本 錄 該 錄於 年 月由當時的中1922年陳垣的《敦煌劫餘錄》(第一部敦煌寫本目錄),該目錄於1931年3月由當時的中

央研究院歷史語言研究所專刊第四種出版。陳寅恪在序言中提出“敦煌學”這一名稱。1944年常書鴻成立敦煌研究所,1987列入UNESCO World Heritage。

中國所藏敦煌藏品、吐魯番及其它中亞寫本和文書

中國國家圖書館藏敦煌文獻甘肅藏敦煌文獻天津博物館藏敦煌文獻天津圖書館藏敦煌文獻北京大學藏敦煌文獻上海圖書館藏敦煌吐魯番文獻上海圖書館藏敦煌吐魯番文獻上海博物館藏敦煌吐魯番文獻浙江藏敦煌文獻南京圖書館藏敦煌文獻湖北省博物館藏敦煌文獻湖北省博物館藏敦煌文獻國家博物館藏敦煌文獻重慶博物館藏敦煌文獻天津市文物公司藏敦煌文獻天津市文物公司藏敦煌文獻旅順博物館所藏敦煌文獻(大連)其它收藏機構: 如臺灣中研院傅斯年圖書館

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中亞文物1. 中國國家博物館(北京): 藏有大量過去幾十年發掘的最精美的文物。2. 陝西省歷史博物館(西安): 幾個展室陳列中亞文物,其他藏品如唐墓壁畫等。3 陝西省考古所(西安): 在西安地區佛塔及墓葬遺址中出土的文物3. 陝西省考古所(西安): 在西安地區佛塔及墓葬遺址中出土的文物。4. 敦煌市博物館: 藏有該地區發掘的寫本和文物,其中一些藏品對公衆展出。5. 敦煌研究院敦煌石窟文物保護研究陳列中心(莫高窟): 包括一些複製的洞窟和出土文物、寫本。6. 吐魯番博物館,藏有許多高昌和其他本地遺址出土的文物,有從阿斯塔那墓葬出土的絲綢、隨葬品和木乃伊。7. 新疆博物館(烏魯木齊): 中亞文物(公元前2世紀至公元2世紀的絲綢、織錦、刺繡品的斷片,毛毯,木器,陶器等,均來自樓蘭和尼雅遺址;有來自和闐和吐魯番的絲品的斷片,毛毯,木器,陶器等,均來自樓蘭和尼雅遺址;有來自和闐和吐魯番的絲織品、寫有婆羅米和佉卢文字的佛經木片;有從阿斯塔那墓出土的7至10世紀錦鞋、絲綢和麻布;也有谷物、堅果、乾果、饢餅和陶 俑的样本。)該博物館藏有超過10具沙漠古墓中發掘的木乃伊,其中最有名的是“樓蘭美人”。8. 喀什絲綢之路博物館: 所藏的中亞文物中有商代青銅器和周代木制墓葬小雕像等。9. 上海博物館: 有一個絲綢之路中亞古國錢幣的特藏室,這些錢幣由杜維善、譚端言(Mr and Ms. Roger and Linda Doo)捐贈。

藏品:在IDP (International Dunhuang Project)的Database2001年,中國國家圖書館與英國圖書館合作,啓動IDP國際合作項目,旨在將兩館所藏的敦煌文献數字化,並使之能夠在IDP數據庫中自由利用。2002年11月,IDP中文網開通。數千件敦煌寫本的數碼圖像目前可以在網上查閲 並且都在增加中 目錄資料也已經在網數千件敦煌寫本的數碼圖像目前可以在網上查閲,並且都在增加中。目錄資料也已經在網上發佈。中國國家圖書館的其他中亞寫本、以及中國其他收集品的數字化整理工作也即將進行。

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敦煌莫高窟建築

初建: “莫高窟”一名, 早見於藏經洞發現的編號423隋代書寫的《莫高窟記》。初建 藏據唐代武周聖曆元年(698年)李懷讓《重修莫高窟佛龕碑》記,前秦建元二年(366年)有沙門樂僔行至此山,忽見金光,狀有千佛,遂開窟一所,後又有法良來此又開一窟,目前海內外學術界基本上都肯定這一說法。

1. 五胡十六國: 迅速發展2. 581 AD: 隋文帝統一,已有64 窟3 681 AD 唐太祖統 達2 9窟3. 681 AD: 唐太祖統一,達279窟4. 848-851AD: 張議潮歸順唐朝,張議潮家族十分崇敬佛法,在莫高窟營建與開鑿80餘

窟,其開窟的功德主,多數為當時的權貴顯赫人士和僧俗上層,宏大的規模、豐富的內容以及功德主們顯赫的地位構成了這一時期洞窟營建的特色內容以及功德主們顯赫的地位構成了這 時期洞窟營建的特色

5. 914AD: 曹議金代替張議潮掌管瓜、沙二州的軍事大權,曹氏家族統治瓜、沙二州近90年間在莫高窟新建洞窟約30多個,出資建窟的功德主有於闐、回鵑的國王、妃子、王子等,規模的宏大與富麗堂皇等方面在莫高窟的各代洞窟中也比較突出。

6 1036AD 西夏並建都于興慶(今寧夏銀川) 統治長達近200年 西夏統治者們也十6. 1036AD: 西夏並建都于興慶(今寧夏銀川),統治長達近200年。西夏統治者們也十分崇敬與篤信佛法,主要在對原有洞窟的改造、修繕與重繪,其內容幾乎都以千佛、供養菩薩、供養人、藻井花卉為主。

7. 1227AD: 蒙古統一中國,當時藏傳佛教在西北地方較為盛行,莫高窟現編號3、462、蒙古統 中國 時藏傳佛教在西 方較為盛行 莫高窟現編號463等窟都為元代時鑿建。

8. 元代以後: 海上絲綢之路的開拓與暢通,敦煌沒落,明嘉靖三年(1524)正式關閉了萬里長城西邊關隘嘉峪關。

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佛教石窟的分布

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石窟的印度原型 (1): Caitya (worship hall)A chaitya-griha is a Buddhist or Jain shrine including a stupa.

Stupa (Sanchi)

Karle rock-cut chaitya, 120BCE--

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石窟的印度原型 (2): Viharas (monasteries 精舍)

Kanheri caves, 1st c. BCE: Vihara, prayer hall and Spartan plinth bed

Ajanta caves (200 BCE, 600 CE)

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Ajanta cave 26, India: Chaitya and nirvana-Buddha

h5th century AD

Bamiyan cave, Afghanistan, 6th-7th century AD, destroyed by6 7 century AD, destroyed by Taliban in 2001

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敦煌莫高窟

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敦煌莫高窟形制: 1. 中心塔柱形

254 窟 (北魏)

303 窟 (隋)

雲岡石窟6窟(北魏)

Kizil #17

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2. Vihara 式佛窟

285窟(西魏)

487窟(北魏)

285窟(西魏)

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3. 覆斗式

249窟 (西魏)326窟(唐?宋?)

220窟(初唐)

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4. 背屏式

55窟,宋代

98窟,五代曹議金改建

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5. 佛涅槃(Nirvana)窟

158-中唐

四川大足石刻

148-盛唐

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6. 大佛窟

雲岡20窟,18窟

四川大足樂山

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石窟形式變化的意義

1.石窟初期: 多為中心塔柱、vihara式石窟初期 多為中心塔柱 式

• 受印度建築的影響較大,但前面的行禮敬拜(長廊)的空間明顯減小。• 融入中國建築的元素,如前面的半橢圓形長廊的屋頂成為覆斗(藻井) [Kizil 石窟仍為半橢圓形]

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2. Vihara 式在中國佛教石窟數量少、空間小

“vihara” 原意為”佛寺”,亦即僧侶可在此住宿、修行。

此類型在中國僅有新疆及敦煌可見,且數量少,可推測附近應另有住宿的地方。

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3. 盛唐所建的大佛窟與涅槃窟: $$+power建造此兩種石窟耗時費力,只有在國富民強時,才能在邊塞建造 [在印度及阿富汗的大佛窟也是在盛世時所建] 。在中國更有 “皇帝即如來” 之說,加上其令人震撼的效果,在中國內陸的雲岡(北魏孝文帝)、龍門(武則天修建)、麥積山、四川大足、樂山等皆可見。

都督夫人太原王氏一心供養(樂庭瓌妻) 圖

不同於其他石窟,敦煌大佛窟非直接鑿於山壁,而是以三層的通道對外連結,反像薊縣獨樂寺觀音閣(遼代)。

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3. 覆斗式、背屏式為中心塔柱式更接近中國傳統建築的表現?

(1) 繞行參拜(靜坐)→→ 正面禮拜 (2) 後代改建 (將中心塔改為背屏)

佛光寺東大殿(唐)

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敦煌壁畫上的建築: 佛寺布局的參考

1. 隋-盛唐: 一殿二樓的ㄇ(凹)字型

中國人對西方極樂世界的想像來源

漢墓,成都

隋代第423窟275 窟 (北涼)龕形窟的彌勒、佛傳出遊圖

盛唐45 窟,觀無量壽經變 (淨土) 日本宇治平等院鳳凰堂(1053AD) 淨土宗

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2. 盛唐以後: 院落式

(1) 單院式

五代61窟,五臺山圖五代61窟,五臺山圖

大建安寺大佛光之寺

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(2) 多院落組合

85 窟

盛唐第148窟南壁弥勒经变

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(3) 前後縱置的雙院制 (多出現在經變圖中)

148 窟85 窟

172 窟

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What do these frescoes tell us?What do these frescoes tell us?

1 St (舍利塔) d (塔) NOT i t t th h d b i I di1. Stupas (舍利塔) or pagodas (塔) were NOT as important as they had been in India

2. The architecture depicted on the frescoes is closer to contemporary Chinese architecture than to its Indian origins, including stories on the Buddha and the jataka. This indicates that the craftsmen (and donors) were Chinese.

Sinolonized Buddhism 佛教中國化的過程The flexibility of Chinese architecture 中國建築的多用性: it could be used in common residents, palaces and Buddha land. The difference is the scale

d l it I th d th t di ld band complexity. In other words, the western paradise could be seen as similar as the palace of the emperors.

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Main Resources:

1. IDP International Dunhuang Project (both texts and 2D&3Dimages‐underconstruction)g j ( g )

2. General history and historic records: 中研院漢籍電子文獻, 電子佛典協會 (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Texts), 中國佛寺志, 方志等

3. Many related books and articles, for example: UPENN library and its E‐Resources (subscribers only)‐‐Bibliography of Asian Studies, Grove Art (Oxford Art Online)

4. Google Scholar

5. ProQuest (Ann Arbor) ‐ Ph.D. Dissertations and Master Theses

6. Image comparisons: various online websites and published books, such as Fine Arts Image Collection (Upenn) and Huntington Art Archive (search or browse by Iconography, Original Location, Current Location, Material, Dynasty/Period, Religious Category): now “login” is required.

7. UNESCO World Heritage 

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IDP International Dunhuang Project 國際敦煌項目:

主持單位: British Library http://idp.bl.uk/

IDP 合作機構 (提供資料並設有多語言的網頁及資料庫) :

•The British Library London IDP Directorate (英文)•The British Library, London IDP Directorate (英文)•The National Library of China, Beijing (中文)•The Institute for Oriental Manuscripts, St Petersburg (俄文)•Ryukoku University, Kyoto (日文)•The Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Science and Humanities (德文)•The Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院(中文)•Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (法文)•Research Institute of Korean Studies Seoul (韓文)Research Institute of Korean Studies, Seoul (韓文)

主要 IDP 合作機構 (提供資料):

Th Lib f th H i A d f S i B d t•The Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest•The British Museum, London•The Victoria & Albert Museum, London•The Museum for Asian Art, BerlinThe Museum for Asian Art, Berlin•Guimet Museum, Paris•臺灣的中研院也是IDP合作及發起機構之一

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Issues on image search:

1. Spelling confusion: This research encounters multi‐languages: Chinese (pinyin, Wales‐Giles) and Indian (Hindi, Sanskrit and Bali), Tibetan, English, French, German, etcExample: chaitya (caitya), Dunhuang (Tunhuang)

2. Image qualityResolution, Color, Material, etc, , ,

3 References3. ReferencesToo much information, too little reliable references or notesMissing, Misleading, Mistaken

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Colonial Period:

Example 2. Pre‐Modernism American Architecture History

(1) Spanish Colonial (2) Dutch Colonial 3. German/Swiss Colonial

Ximenez‐Fatio House, 22 Aviles  Ira H. Brooks House,  Knapp Farm, Montgomeryville PAStreet, Saint Augustine, FL

(5) Early English Colonial

Fresno, CA  Montgomeryville, PA

(4) French Colonial

Bequette‐Ribault House, Ste. Geneviève, Missouri, 1778 (left)

Fairbanks House, Dedham, MA, 1636 (right)

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Georgian Era:

Georgian

H d H d H A li ML 1774

Federal  Greek Revival

Hammond‐Harwood House, Annapolis, ML, 1774

Kellogg‐Eddy House, Newington, CT, 1808 Second Bank of US, Philadelphia, PA, 1824

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Victorian Era:Gothic Revival Italianate Second Empire

StickQueen Ann

ShinglePhiladelphia City Hall, 1871‐1901 

Cape May, NJ

Woodstock, CT. Bowen House, 1846

Stick  Shingle

Queen’s University, CAGalveston, TX Charles Lang Freer House, Detroit MI, 1890

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Revivals: Colonial, Renaissance, Egyptian, Tudor Revival

G F l l H Cl k “L L d l Vi ” Th B k NGeorge Felpel House, Claverack,New York, 1920s

“La Loma de los Vientos”, Newhall, CA, 1924‐8

The Breakers, Newport, Rhode Island, 1893

Medical College of Virginia, 1845 George W. Maher building in Gary, IN, 1921

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Romanesques Revival

ClassicalismBeaux‐Arts

Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY,1902Trinity Church, Boston, MA (1872)

Crane Library, Quincy, MA, 1881 

Pennsylvania Station, NY, 1910Demolished 1964

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New American Visions:

Prairie School and Frank Lloyd Wright

Fallingwater, Bear Run, PA, 1937Frank Thomas House, Oak Park, IL, 1901

Bungalows

Pasadena, CA. Gamble House, 1908 Long Beach, CA San Antonio, TX

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1. Library of Congress: Prints & Photographs Online Catalog 

Web Resources on American architecture

y g g p gHistoric American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record/Historic American Landscapes Survey–more than 556,900 measured drawings, large‐format photographs, and written histories for more than 38,600 historic structures and sites dating from Pre‐Columbian times to the twentieth centurytimes to the twentieth century

(1) HABS (Historic American Buildings Survey), 1933‐ Charles Peterson’s project(2) HAER (Historic American Engineering Record), 1969‐ document US engineering and industrial structures(3) HALS (Hi t i A i L d S ) 2000 dd th di l d i t t t h it(3) HALS (Historic American Landscape Survey), 2000‐ address the recording landscape important to heritage(4) HABS (28,824 structures) and HAER (7,061 structures), 2003

2 National Historic Landmark Program

3. Fine Arts Library Image CollectionUniversity of Pennsylvania

2. National Historic Landmark Program

University of Pennsylvania

4. University websites and Foundations (ex. Wright Foundation)(ex. Wright Foundation)

5. Commercial websites: for example ‐ www.greatbuildings.com (including 3‐D models)

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Issues and Conclusions:

1. Research Index研究索引: spelling confusion, keywords (good research system)索 p g y (g y )

f ll b

2. Reference incomplete 標明參考資訊出處: all images need to specify reference

3. Information Collaboration 資訊整合:

(1) Drawings, Photos, 3‐D models, etc(2) Collaboration between different collections/databases?(2) Collaboration between different collections/databases? (3) Chinese architecture– compare to other cultures, its digital resource is limited 

4 Copyright and Fair‐use policy4. Copyright and Fair‐use policy智慧財產權與公平使用

Source   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama_%22Hope%22_poster