David W. Leake, PhD, MPHDavid W. Leake, PhD, MPHCenter on Disability StudiesCenter on Disability Studies

University of Hawaii at ManoaUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa

Webinar PresentationWebinar PresentationMarch 1, 2012March 1, 2012

Social Relationships as a Critical Social Relationships as a Critical but Neglected Factor in Research but Neglected Factor in Research on Higher Education for People on Higher Education for People

with Disabilitieswith Disabilities

Transition to College Success by Transition to College Success by Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Culturally and Linguistically Diverse

(CLD) Youth with Disabilities(CLD) Youth with Disabilities

Funded by US DOE Office of Special Education Funded by US DOE Office of Special Education ProgramsPrograms

(CFDA 84.324C, Project #H324C010090),(CFDA 84.324C, Project #H324C010090),July 1, 2001 to June 30, 2007July 1, 2001 to June 30, 2007

Sites:Sites:North Carolina A&T UniversityNorth Carolina A&T UniversityNorthern Arizona UniversityNorthern Arizona UniversityOhio State UniversityOhio State UniversityUniversity of Hawaii at ManoaUniversity of Hawaii at ManoaUniversity of WashingtonUniversity of Washington

Themes Related to College Success Emerging Themes Related to College Success Emerging in Transcript Analysisin Transcript Analysis

Mentors extremely importantMentors extremely important

Friends support each otherFriends support each other

Relatives provide socio-emotional supportRelatives provide socio-emotional support

Those with Those with ““hiddenhidden”” disabilities tended to keep disabilities tended to keep them hiddenthem hidden

Disability trumps ethnicityDisability trumps ethnicity

Participants generally had sense of belonging on Participants generally had sense of belonging on campus, but inclusion often only partialcampus, but inclusion often only partial

Native Hawaiian male communityNative Hawaiian male community

college student with ADHD:college student with ADHD:

To me the only true friends that I have are To me the only true friends that I have are the ones that I met in special ed class. They the ones that I met in special ed class. They understand. Especially through high school understand. Especially through high school it was kind of rough. Just because we had it was kind of rough. Just because we had disabilities everybody treated us differently.disabilities everybody treated us differently.

I think one of my biggest I think one of my biggest frustrations is Ifrustrations is I’’m 25 years and I feel m 25 years and I feel like Ilike I’’m treated like Im treated like I’’m four. I donm four. I don’’t t think people like acquaintances at think people like acquaintances at work and stuff want to ask the girl work and stuff want to ask the girl in the wheelchair [to go with them in the wheelchair [to go with them to a bar] because they donto a bar] because they don’’t think t think she drinks. Well, she does, sheshe drinks. Well, she does, she’’s 25. s 25. She darn acts her age.She darn acts her age.

Hispanic female college graduate with Hispanic female college graduate with severe orthopedic disabilities:severe orthopedic disabilities:

Students with Disabilities in Students with Disabilities in Higher EducationHigher Education

Over the years there have been increasing Over the years there have been increasing numbers of students with disabilities numbers of students with disabilities enrolling in higher education, now at least enrolling in higher education, now at least 11% of all students11% of all studentsAbout half of all higher education students About half of all higher education students in the United States never graduate, with in the United States never graduate, with those with disabilities having even lower those with disabilities having even lower graduation ratesgraduation ratesImproving Improving ““retentionretention”” is therefore a major is therefore a major concern in higher education, and therefore concern in higher education, and therefore a major focus of researcha major focus of research

Welcoming Climate Welcoming Climate and Sense of Belongingand Sense of Belonging

Hurtado, S., & Carter, D. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and Hurtado, S., & Carter, D. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on Latino studentsperceptions of the campus racial climate on Latino students’’ sense sense of belonging. of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70, Sociology of Education, 70, 324-345.324-345.

Tinto, V. (1993). Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attritionstudent attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago (2nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Press.

Tinto (1993):Tinto (1993): College success requires College success requires integration into new social system where integration into new social system where roommates = siblings, faculty = parents, roommates = siblings, faculty = parents, dorm = home (within first 8 weeks!)dorm = home (within first 8 weeks!)

Critiques:Critiques: Should focus on how Should focus on how institutionsinstitutions fail to create welcoming climates -- e.g., fail to create welcoming climates -- e.g., Hurtado & Carter (1997) identified Hurtado & Carter (1997) identified ““sense sense of belongingof belonging”” as critical for Latino students as critical for Latino students

Research Question: How much attention do Research Question: How much attention do higher education journals pay to studentshigher education journals pay to students

with disabilities?with disabilities?

• Community College Journal of Research & Practice: Community College Journal of Research & Practice: 4 (3.2%) of 124 articles4 (3.2%) of 124 articles

• Journal of College Student Development: Journal of College Student Development: • 4 (2.0%) of 200 articles4 (2.0%) of 200 articles• Journal of College Student Retention: Journal of College Student Retention:

1 (0.4%) of 276 articles1 (0.4%) of 276 articles• Research in Higher Education: Research in Higher Education:

0 of 154 articles0 of 154 articles• Review of Higher Education: Review of Higher Education:

0 of 47 articles0 of 47 articles• TOTAL: 9 (1.1%) of 801 articlesTOTAL: 9 (1.1%) of 801 articles

Research Question: How do higher education and disability-focused journals compare on issue of social relationships?

Explaining the Findings:Explaining the Findings:Impact of Federal LegislationImpact of Federal Legislation

Rehabilitation Act (1970) and Americans Rehabilitation Act (1970) and Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) require non-with Disabilities Act (1990) require non-discrimination based on disabilitydiscrimination based on disabilityIHEs established disability support offices IHEs established disability support offices to meet legal mandates, and they therefore to meet legal mandates, and they therefore focus on focus on ““technicaltechnical”” issues only since social issues only since social issues are not mentioned in the legislationissues are not mentioned in the legislation““Silo effectSilo effect””: Other student services assume : Other student services assume students with disabilities are responsibility students with disabilities are responsibility of disability support officesof disability support offices

Impact of Federal Legislation Impact of Federal Legislation (continued)(continued)

Disability-focused journals publish Disability-focused journals publish extensively on extensively on ““technicaltechnical”” issues issues (accommodations, assistive technology, (accommodations, assistive technology, assessment)assessment)

Much focus on training students with Much focus on training students with disabilities to gain social, self-advocacy and disabilities to gain social, self-advocacy and self-determination skills -- but self-determination skills -- but effectiveness of this training has been effectiveness of this training has been called into questioncalled into question

. . . from one issue of the . . . from one issue of the Journal of College Journal of College Student DevelopmentStudent Development (Volume 49, Number 6, (Volume 49, Number 6, Nov/Dec 2008):Nov/Dec 2008):ｷｷ The The social adjustmentsocial adjustment of undergraduate White of undergraduate White students in the minority on an historically Black students in the minority on an historically Black college campus; college campus; ｷｷ The role of The role of psychosocial variablespsychosocial variables in in understanding the achievement and retention of understanding the achievement and retention of transfer students at an ethnically diverse urban transfer students at an ethnically diverse urban university; university; ｷｷ The role of The role of peer relationshipspeer relationships in adjustment to in adjustment to college; college; ｷｷ The role of ethnic student organizations in The role of ethnic student organizations in fostering African American and Asian American fostering African American and Asian American studentsstudents’’ cultural adjustmentcultural adjustment and membershipand membership at at predominantly White institutions;predominantly White institutions;ｷｷ Pathological gambling college studentsPathological gambling college students’ ’ perceived social support.perceived social support.

It would be nice to see articles It would be nice to see articles like these on students with like these on students with

disabilities:disabilities:

Implications for PracticeImplications for PracticeIn both high school and college, focus is on In both high school and college, focus is on classroom accommodations, instruction, classroom accommodations, instruction, assistive technology, transportation, etc. -- assistive technology, transportation, etc. -- need to add focus on social relationship need to add focus on social relationship issuesissuesCan address in Individualized Transition Can address in Individualized Transition Plans, include starting to make college social Plans, include starting to make college social connections BEFORE reaching campusconnections BEFORE reaching campusCollege disability support offices might do College disability support offices might do more social events, support groups, study more social events, support groups, study groups, raising awareness of students and groups, raising awareness of students and facultyfaculty““Double whammyDouble whammy”” means culturally and means culturally and linguistically diverse youth with disabilities linguistically diverse youth with disabilities face highest barriers to sense of belonging -- face highest barriers to sense of belonging -- work with ethnic/cultural organizationswork with ethnic/cultural organizations

Ultimately, to create truly welcoming Ultimately, to create truly welcoming campus environments that promote the campus environments that promote the essential sense of belonging for students essential sense of belonging for students with disabilities, IHEs need to fully with disabilities, IHEs need to fully embrace universal design in every aspect embrace universal design in every aspect of their operations, including the co-of their operations, including the co-curricular domain.curricular domain.

Universal DesignUniversal Design

Implications for ResearchImplications for Research

More collaboration between researchers More collaboration between researchers in college student development and in college student development and disabilities fieldsdisabilities fieldsMore research on links between social More research on links between social relationships and success for people with relationships and success for people with disabilities in college (and other domains) disabilities in college (and other domains) Consider use of constructs of cultural and Consider use of constructs of cultural and social capital, which have often been used social capital, which have often been used in research on diverse subpopulations but in research on diverse subpopulations but rarely in research on people with rarely in research on people with disabilitiesdisabilities

Example of Self-determination Example of Self-determination

Currently, research, policy, Currently, research, policy, and practice regarding self-and practice regarding self-determination all virtually determination all virtually ignore the critical ignore the critical importance of social capital.importance of social capital.

Financial capitalFinancial capital – used to fund, acquire or – used to fund, acquire or invest in other forms of capitalinvest in other forms of capital

Physical capitalPhysical capital – e.g., factories, machinery, – e.g., factories, machinery, transportationtransportation

Natural capitalNatural capital – e.g., clean air, water, fertile – e.g., clean air, water, fertile land, forestsland, forests

Human capitalHuman capital – e.g., knowledge, skills – e.g., knowledge, skillsCultural capitalCultural capital – familiarity with norms and – familiarity with norms and

codes at different levels of societycodes at different levels of societySymbolic capitalSymbolic capital – markers of high status – markers of high statusSocial capitalSocial capital – used to access or leverage other – used to access or leverage other

forms of capitalforms of capitalErotic capitalErotic capital

Forms of CapitalForms of Capital

““CapitalCapital is any resource that helps is any resource that helps individuals produce or achieve some individuals produce or achieve some goal. goal. Social capitalSocial capital inheres in inheres in relationships between individuals, just relationships between individuals, just as as physical capitalphysical capital inheres in physical inheres in physical objects and objects and human capitalhuman capital inheres in inheres in humans. Thus social capital is any humans. Thus social capital is any resource that inheres in relationships resource that inheres in relationships between individuals that helps them between individuals that helps them produce or achieve some goal.produce or achieve some goal.”” (p. 873)(p. 873)

Kanazawa, S., & Savage, J. (2009). An evolutionary Kanazawa, S., & Savage, J. (2009). An evolutionary psychological perspective on social capital. psychological perspective on social capital. Journal of Journal of Economic Psychology, 30Economic Psychology, 30(6), 873-883.(6), 873-883.

Definition of Social CapitalDefinition of Social Capital

•Bonding Social Capital:Bonding Social Capital: strong ties between family strong ties between family members and close friendsmembers and close friends

•Bridging Social Capital:Bridging Social Capital: weak ties across diverse weak ties across diverse groupsgroups

Social Capital RequiresSocial Capital RequiresSocial RelationshipsSocial Relationships

•For individuals, may be assessed For individuals, may be assessed by extent of social networks and by extent of social networks and quality of relationships (may be quality of relationships (may be positive or negative)positive or negative)

•For communities and nations, For communities and nations, may be assessed by levels of may be assessed by levels of trust, reciprocity, shared norms, trust, reciprocity, shared norms, civic engagement, etc.civic engagement, etc.

Social Capital Exists atSocial Capital Exists atIndividual and Group LevelsIndividual and Group Levels

Relevance for Social CapitalRelevance for Social Capitalto Self-determinationto Self-determination

• Setting and striving for goals of oneSetting and striving for goals of one’’s s own choosing is a prototypical marker of own choosing is a prototypical marker of self-determination self-determination

• Self-determination is strongly promoted Self-determination is strongly promoted as something youth with all kinds of as something youth with all kinds of disabilities should be supported to disabilities should be supported to achieveachieve

• Innumerable programs and curricula are Innumerable programs and curricula are being implemented to provide youth with being implemented to provide youth with disabilities with self-determination skills disabilities with self-determination skills and knowledge, along with opportunities and knowledge, along with opportunities for practicefor practice

Self-determination is commonly viewed Self-determination is commonly viewed as requiring personal characteristics as requiring personal characteristics and skills that are very and skills that are very ““individualisticindividualistic””, , e.g.:e.g.:

•AutonomyAutonomy•EmpowermentEmpowerment• IndependenceIndependence• Internal locus of Internal locus of

controlcontrol• Intrinsic Intrinsic

motivationmotivation

•Self-advocacySelf-advocacy•Self-competenceSelf-competence•Self-directionSelf-direction•Self-efficacySelf-efficacy•Self-expressionSelf-expression•Self-realizationSelf-realization•Self-regulationSelf-regulation•Self-relianceSelf-reliance•Self-Self-

responsibilityresponsibility

““StandardStandard”” View of What Is Needed View of What Is Needed for Self-determinationfor Self-determination

But the capital inherent in social But the capital inherent in social relationships is often needed for there to be relationships is often needed for there to be self-determination: self-determination:

“ “TThe reason some of us are self- he reason some of us are self- determined is that we are in determined is that we are in interpersonal and social structural interpersonal and social structural relationships that empower us.relationships that empower us.”” (p. 681)(p. 681)

Sprague, J., & Hayes, J. (2000). Self-determination and Sprague, J., & Hayes, J. (2000). Self-determination and empowerment: A feminist standpoint analysis of talk about empowerment: A feminist standpoint analysis of talk about disability. disability. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(5), (5), 671-695.671-695.

Example: Example: ““ConvoyConvoy”” Concept Concept

People tend to move through life People tend to move through life with a relatively stable with a relatively stable “c“convoyonvoy”” of of friends and relatives who provide friends and relatives who provide each other with emotional and each other with emotional and instrumental supports, a sense of instrumental supports, a sense of group and personal identity, and a group and personal identity, and a comforting feeling of continuity.comforting feeling of continuity.

Kahn, R. L., & Antonucci, T. C. (1980). Convoys over the life Kahn, R. L., & Antonucci, T. C. (1980). Convoys over the life course: Attachment, roles, and social support. In P. B. Baltes & course: Attachment, roles, and social support. In P. B. Baltes & O. G. Brim (Eds.), O. G. Brim (Eds.), Life-Span Development and Behavior, Life-Span Development and Behavior, Volume Volume 3 (pp. 253-286). New York, NY: Academic Press.3 (pp. 253-286). New York, NY: Academic Press.

Between 40-70% of employees in Between 40-70% of employees in the general population find their the general population find their jobs through social contacts. In jobs through social contacts. In general, people with disabilities general, people with disabilities are likely to have an even greater are likely to have an even greater need of social support, but tend to need of social support, but tend to have smaller social support have smaller social support networks.networks.

Example: Finding a JobExample: Finding a Job

Parris, A. N., & Granger, T. A. (2008). The power and Parris, A. N., & Granger, T. A. (2008). The power and relativity of social capital. relativity of social capital. Journal of Vocational Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29Rehabilitation, 29(3), 165-171.(3), 165-171.

Example: Independent Example: Independent LivingLiving

“… “…what has begun to emerge in the what has begun to emerge in the research literature is that successful research literature is that successful interdependent relationshipsinterdependent relationships (with family, (with family, friends, neighbours and the local friends, neighbours and the local community) tend to respect and reinforce community) tend to respect and reinforce independence as a cherished component of independence as a cherished component of an older personan older person’’s self-image.s self-image.”” (p. 85) (p. 85)

Elderly interviewees indicated they did Elderly interviewees indicated they did not consider themselves to be not consider themselves to be dependent as long as they could dependent as long as they could reciprocatereciprocate in some way when receiving in some way when receiving needed help from others.needed help from others.White, A. M., & Groves, M. A. (1997). Interdependence and the aged stereotype. White, A. M., & Groves, M. A. (1997). Interdependence and the aged stereotype.

Australian Journal on Ageing, 16Australian Journal on Ageing, 16, 83-89., 83-89.

Cultural Influences onCultural Influences onSelf-determinationSelf-determination

A woman who came from China to goA woman who came from China to go to graduate school in the US to graduate school in the US

said:said: ““I feel from my experience when I I feel from my experience when I grow up, I wanted to get good grades grow up, I wanted to get good grades because I want to make my parents because I want to make my parents proud. So itproud. So it’’s like I never thought, s like I never thought, ‘‘Oh, I need to get good grades to get Oh, I need to get good grades to get into college and so that I can make into college and so that I can make money.money.’’ I want to please my parents, I want to please my parents, yeah, so that they can be happy.yeah, so that they can be happy.””

““Self-determination...may include Self-determination...may include fulfilling group obligations, not fulfilling group obligations, not necessarily ridding oneself of themnecessarily ridding oneself of them”” (p. (p. 173).173).

““As paradoxical as it may seem from As paradoxical as it may seem from an individualistic perspective, self-an individualistic perspective, self-directedness may require a directedness may require a strengthening rather than a strengthening rather than a dissolution of the persondissolution of the person’’s s connection with and commitment to connection with and commitment to the groupthe group”” (p. 170). (p. 170).Ewalt, Patricia L., & Mokuau, Noreen (1995). Self-determination from a Pacific perspective. Social Work, Volume 40, Number 2, pages 168-175.

Expanded View of What Is Expanded View of What Is Needed for Self-determinationNeeded for Self-determination

•People with disabilities may have People with disabilities may have greater difficulties than others in greater difficulties than others in developing social capital.developing social capital.

•The concept promotes attention The concept promotes attention to assessing existing social to assessing existing social resources and how to strengthen resources and how to strengthen them.them.

•Taken seriously, the concept Taken seriously, the concept leads to examination and revision leads to examination and revision of policies, procedures, and roles.of policies, procedures, and roles.

Why Focus on Social Capital?Why Focus on Social Capital?

•Special issue of the Special issue of the Journal of Journal of Vocational RehabilitationVocational Rehabilitation in 2008 in 2008 was devoted to social capitalwas devoted to social capital

•According to the guest editors, social According to the guest editors, social capital has the potential to capital has the potential to “r“re-e-invent rehabilitationinvent rehabilitation””, making this , making this “one of the most important issues of “one of the most important issues of the Journal published to date.the Journal published to date.”” (p. (p. 139)139)

Example ofExample ofVocational RehabilitationVocational Rehabilitation

Condeluci, A., Ledbetter, M. V., Ortman, D., Fromknecht, J., Condeluci, A., Ledbetter, M. V., Ortman, D., Fromknecht, J., & DeFries, M. (2008). Social capital: A view from the field. & DeFries, M. (2008). Social capital: A view from the field. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29(3), 133–139.(3), 133–139.

•Several articles in the special issue Several articles in the special issue describe how organizations have describe how organizations have made building social capital a made building social capital a guiding value.guiding value.

•Organizations revamped policies and Organizations revamped policies and practices to focus on building social practices to focus on building social capital for those they serve, both by capital for those they serve, both by fostering personal relationships with fostering personal relationships with other people and by promoting other people and by promoting greater social inclusion of all people greater social inclusion of all people with disabilities.with disabilities.

Boosting Social CapitalBoosting Social Capitalfor Youth with Disabilitiesfor Youth with Disabilities

Key Issue:Key Issue: Many youth face Many youth face barriers to establishing and barriers to establishing and maintaining positive social maintaining positive social relationships with both peers relationships with both peers and adults, due to stigmatization and adults, due to stigmatization and/or emotional-behavioral and/or emotional-behavioral challenges.challenges.

Problem with Social Skills Problem with Social Skills Training as SolutionTraining as Solution

A study of 90 high school students with A study of 90 high school students with emotional disturbances and learning emotional disturbances and learning disabilities found social skills were a disabilities found social skills were a significant predictor of capacity for self-significant predictor of capacity for self-determination. Authors recommend a determination. Authors recommend a greater focus on social skills training, greater focus on social skills training, although they acknowledge that although they acknowledge that research on such training tends to find research on such training tends to find limited effectiveness and limited effectiveness and generalizabilitygeneralizability..

Pierson, M. R., Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., & Glaeser, B. (2008). Pierson, M. R., Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., & Glaeser, B. (2008). Factors influencing the self-determination of transition-age youth Factors influencing the self-determination of transition-age youth with high incidence disabilities. with high incidence disabilities. Career Development for Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 31Exceptional Individuals, 31, 115-125., 115-125.

A common orientation is to teach A common orientation is to teach people skills and knowledge on an people skills and knowledge on an individual basis, but Turnbull et individual basis, but Turnbull et al. (1996) criticize this al. (1996) criticize this ““unidimensional emphasis on unidimensional emphasis on individual skillsindividual skills”” for lack of for lack of attention to environmental attention to environmental barriers and collectivistic values barriers and collectivistic values like interdependence.like interdependence.

Turnbull, A. P., Blue-Banning, M. J., Anderson, E. L., Seaton, K. A., Turnbull, A. P., Blue-Banning, M. J., Anderson, E. L., Seaton, K. A., Turnbull, H. R., & Dinas, P. A. (1996). Enhancing self-determination Turnbull, H. R., & Dinas, P. A. (1996). Enhancing self-determination through Group Action Planning: A holistic emphasis. In D. J. Sands & through Group Action Planning: A holistic emphasis. In D. J. Sands & M. L. Wehmeyer (Eds.), M. L. Wehmeyer (Eds.), Self-determining across the lifespan: Self-determining across the lifespan: Theory and practiceTheory and practice (pp. 237-257). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (pp. 237-257). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

The The ““SkillSkill”” of Self-regulation of Self-regulation•Self-determination = Self-determination = ““unusually unusually

effective form of self-regulation effective form of self-regulation markedly free of external influencemarkedly free of external influence”” (p. (p. 22)22)

•When people see discrepancy between When people see discrepancy between what they have versus what they want, what they have versus what they want, an an ““incentiveincentive”” arises for self-regulation arises for self-regulation and action (and action (Homo economicusHomo economicus))

• ““Social contextSocial context”” important in whether important in whether other- or self-determinationother- or self-determination

Wehmeyer, M. L., Abery, B., Zhang, D., Ward, K., Willis, D., Amin, Wehmeyer, M. L., Abery, B., Zhang, D., Ward, K., Willis, D., Amin, W. H., Balcazar, F., Ball, A., Bacon, A., Calkins, C., Heller, T., W. H., Balcazar, F., Ball, A., Bacon, A., Calkins, C., Heller, T., Goode, T., Jesien, G., McVeigh, T., Nygren, M., Palmer, S., & Goode, T., Jesien, G., McVeigh, T., Nygren, M., Palmer, S., & Walker, H. (2011). Personal self-determination and moderating Walker, H. (2011). Personal self-determination and moderating variables that impact efforts to promote self-determination. variables that impact efforts to promote self-determination. Exceptionality, 19Exceptionality, 19, 19-30., 19-30.

A recent special issue of A recent special issue of Teachers College RecordTeachers College Record (Vol. (Vol. 113, No. 2, Feb. 2011) focused 113, No. 2, Feb. 2011) focused on links between self-on links between self-regulation and social aspects of regulation and social aspects of classroom learning, using classroom learning, using concepts like concepts like ““socially shared socially shared regulationregulation”” and and ““co-regulationco-regulation”” (which are based on trust, (which are based on trust, shared norms, etc.) shared norms, etc.)

But Regulation Is Also But Regulation Is Also ““SociaSociall ””

How Are Youth Being How Are Youth Being Supported to Make Social Supported to Make Social

Connections?Connections?

Need for Research on Social Need for Research on Social Capital and DisabilityCapital and Disability

““It is amazing that, as of this It is amazing that, as of this writing, there has been no major writing, there has been no major study or effort, either at the study or effort, either at the university or foundation level, university or foundation level, that has scientifically studied that has scientifically studied social capital and disability.social capital and disability.”” (p. (p. 137)137)

Condeluci, A., Ledbetter, M. V., Ortman, D., Fromknecht, J., Condeluci, A., Ledbetter, M. V., Ortman, D., Fromknecht, J., & DeFries, M. (2008). Social capital: A view from the field. & DeFries, M. (2008). Social capital: A view from the field. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 29(3), 133–139.(3), 133–139.