Positional - Likely ResponsePositional - Likely ResponseLegitimate - ComplianceLegitimate - ComplianceReward - ComplianceReward - ComplianceCoercive - ResistanceCoercive - Resistance

PersonalPersonalReferent - CommitmentReferent - CommitmentExpert - CommitmentExpert - Commitment

• Reward power: Promising or granting rewards.

• Coercive power: Threats or actual punishment.

• Legitimate power: Based on position or formal authority.

• Expert power: Influence based on being perceived as having important knowledge or skill.

• Referent power: Power of one’s personality (charisma).

Industrial Workers’ Industrial Workers’ Perceptions ofPerceptions of

PreviousPrevious Frequency of Use (Ranks)Frequency of Use (Ranks)

StudentsStudentsLegitimate - 1Legitimate - 1 2 2Reward - 3 3Reward - 3 3Coercive - 5 5Coercive - 5 5Referent - 4 4Referent - 4 4Expert - 2 1Expert - 2 1

Information?Information? Association?Association?

Are leaders born that way or do they learn leadership behaviors? (Traits vs. Behaviors)

Is there one best way to lead in all situations? (Universal vs. Contingency)◦ If Contingency, what variables are important?

e.g., Followers, Task, Environment How much should the leader allow

subordinates to participate in decisions? How can you improve leadership?

Traits

Behaviors

Universal

Type I:Trait Theories

Type II:Ohio St., Mich.,

Lead. Grid

Contingent

Type III:Fiedler

Type IV:Hersey-Blanch.,

Path-Goal, Vroom

LeaderAttri-butesStressed

Applicability

Trait Theories ◦ e.g., Self-Confidence, Persistence◦ Don’t predict actions well◦ Don’t explain how traits translate into action

Universal Theories◦ Research disproves

Contingency-Style Theories (Type IV)◦ Most prevalent today

DriveDrive Desire to LeadDesire to Lead Honesty and IntegrityHonesty and Integrity Self-ConfidenceSelf-Confidence IntelligenceIntelligence Job-Relevant KnowledgeJob-Relevant Knowledge

THE OHIO STATE MODEL OF THE OHIO STATE MODEL OF LEADER BEHAVIORSLEADER BEHAVIORS

Low InitiatingStructure

HighConsideration

High InitiatingStructure

LowConsideration

High InitiatingStructure

HighConsideration

Low InitiatingStructure

LowConsideration

High

Low

Low High

Consideration

Initiating Structure

Employee-Centered Leaders

Job-Centered Leaders

HighHigh

HighHighLowLow

LowLow Concern for ProductionConcern for Production

Con

cern

for

Peop

leC

once

rn fo

r Pe

ople

Country Club Country Club ManagementManagement

Impoverished Impoverished ManagementManagement

Team Team ManagementManagement

Authority-Authority-Compliance Compliance ManagementManagement

Middle-of-Middle-of-the-Road the-Road ManagementManagement

Identify relevant Situational Variables and what Leader Traits or Styles are appropriate for each.

FieldlerFieldler◦ Leader-Member RelationsLeader-Member Relations◦ Task StructureTask Structure◦ Leader Position PowerLeader Position Power

Hersey and BlanchardHersey and Blanchard◦ Follower Readiness (Ability, Willingness)Follower Readiness (Ability, Willingness)

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory◦ Subordinates’ Ability, PersonalitySubordinates’ Ability, Personality◦ EnvironmentEnvironment

TaskTask WorkGroupWorkGroup Organization Authority SystemOrganization Authority System

VroomVroom◦ What is needed to facilitate a What is needed to facilitate a QualityQuality decision decision◦ What is needed to bolster employee What is needed to bolster employee MoraleMorale

Situational VariablesSituational Variables Leader-Member Leader-Member

RelationsRelations◦ Good vs. PoorGood vs. Poor

Task StructureTask Structure◦ Structured vs. Structured vs.

UnstructuredUnstructured Leader Position PowerLeader Position Power◦ Strong vs. Weak Strong vs. Weak

Leader TraitsLeader Traits Relationship-oriented Relationship-oriented

(High LPC)(High LPC) Task-oriented (Low LPC)Task-oriented (Low LPC)

(Fiedler believed it is (Fiedler believed it is easier to change a easier to change a situation than to situation than to change a leader)change a leader)

Predictions:Task-Oriented Leaders-Most effective when situation is either highly favorable or highly unfavorable Relationship-Oriented Leaders -Most effective when situation is moderately favorable

Situational Situational VariablesVariables

Followers’ Followers’ Readiness / Readiness / Maturity is due Maturity is due to :to :

AbilityAbility WillingnessWillingness

Leader BehaviorsLeader Behaviors Task Behavior (High Task Behavior (High

or Low)or Low) Relationship Behavior Relationship Behavior

(High or Low)(High or Low)4 Combinations 4 Combinations Including:Including:Telling (H-L)Telling (H-L)Selling (H-H)Selling (H-H)Participating (L-H)Participating (L-H)Delegating (L-L)Delegating (L-L)

HighRelationship

and->->->LowTask

HighTask

<-<-<-andHigh

Relationship

LowRelationship

<-<-<-andLowTask

HighTask

and->->->Low

Relationship

High Low

R4 R3 R2 R1Moderate

Task BehaviorTask Behavior HighHigh

HighHigh

LowLow

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

ior

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

ior

Delegating

Delegating

Participating

Participating Selling

Selling

TellingTelling

SellingSellingS2S2

Explain decisions andExplain decisions and provide opportunity forprovide opportunity for

clarificationclarification

ParticipatingParticipatingS3S3

Share ideas andShare ideas andfacilitate facilitate

decision makingdecision making

Follower-Directed Leader-DirectedFollower-Directed Leader-Directed

LowLow

LowLow

HighHighTask BehaviorTask Behavior

Follower ReadinessFollower ReadinessHighHigh Moderate Moderate LowLow R4 R4 R3 R3 R2 R2

R1R1

DelegatingDelegatingS4S4

Turn overTurn overresponsibility forresponsibility for

decisions anddecisions andimplementationimplementation

TellingTellingS1S1

Provide specificProvide specificinstructions and closelyinstructions and closelysupervise performancesupervise performance

A leader’s responsibility is to increase subordinates' motivation by:

Clarifying the subordinates' path (i.e., helping them reach the goal)

Giving things they value as rewards for reaching the goal

A major contribution is the “Achievement Oriented” leadership style in which the leader is able to provide goals that give subordinates an incentive

Situational VariablesSituational Variables Follower Follower

CharacteristicsCharacteristics◦ e.g, abilities, e.g, abilities,

motivationmotivation Workplace Workplace

CharacteristicsCharacteristics◦ e.g., task difficultye.g., task difficulty

Leader BehaviorsLeader Behaviors Directive leadershipDirective leadership Achievement-Achievement-

Oriented leadership Oriented leadership Supportive Supportive

leadershipleadership Participative Participative

leadershipleadership

Helps gauge the appropriate amount of participation for subordinates

5 levels of leader participation styles ranging from highly autocratic to highly democratic.

Participation is permitted primarily to: ◦ Enhance Decision Quality◦ Foster Subordinate Morale◦ Or Both

Series of questions asked about the situation (e.g., Does the leader have the expertise to solve the problem alone?, How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?)

Reasons:EducationTechnologyDeregulationDownsizingGlobalization

Not highly developed as leadership theories.

Often seen as beyond the bounds of traditional theories.

Stress what you might call the “Visionary Hero”

Transformational Leader◦Brings about innovation and change.◦ Imagines how the future could be and inspires

followers to work toward creating that future. Charismatic Leader ◦A leader whose personality motivates

subordinates to exceed their required performance level.

Newer Leadership ConceptsNewer Leadership Concepts

TYPES OF FOLLOWERSTYPES OF FOLLOWERS

Yes PeopleYes People

SheepSheep AlienatedAlienatedFollowersFollowers

EffectiveEffective(Super) (Super)

FollowersFollowersHighHigh

LowLow

LowLow

Employee Critical ThinkingEmployee Critical Thinking

HighHigh

Employee Activity/Employee Activity/InitiativeInitiative Survivors

Know your preferred Style. (Fiedler) Know and care about your Followers.

(Hersey & Blanchard, Path-Goal) Know and care about the Task. (Fiedler,

Path-Goal) Understand the Environment affecting

you and your followers. (Path-Goal) Fit your Style to your Followers, the

Task, and the Environment. (This may include making changes in S, F, T, or E.)

Enhance your Referent and Expert Power (Charismatic, etc.)

Visualize the Future and prepare your Followers for it (Charismatic, Superleadership)