Globally Effective Teams:Leveraging Optimal Skills for Teaming (LOST)

David Shaw, Kira Travis, Cynthia Lee Mai, Valerie Bowe, Eric Johnson

Today’s world is tightly interconnected. Earthquakes in Japan affect production lines in Europe and the US. Technology gives us an instant and constant flow of information from around the world. The availability of air travel allows us to be anywhere in the world in 24 hours. People from all corners of the earth work together, in person or through the use of technology, to achieve amazing accomplishments.

Everything is possible, but is it easy? People from different parts of the world speak different languages, have different customs and ideas. How do you learn to navigate in this diverse environment? This is a guidebook to help you get LOST in the adventure and effectively explore these strange new lands.

So whether you are working in a culturally diverse team, a geographically distributed virtual team or preparing for an international assignment, here is information you can use. A great starting place is with an understanding of the Dimensions of Culture and how it affects decision-making in the team. If you are building a team to work in a culturally diverse environment, check out Team Formation and Development to see how to leverage the diversity of skills to accomplish great things. As a leader, this perspective on Leadership and Management of Culturally Diverse Geographically Dispersed (CDGD) teams is the place for you. As a leader, you will also need to understand how the Ecology of the Task will affect problem-solving in the team. You may also encounter conflict in your team, so Learning Esperanto might be helpful. Interested in the current and future enabling technology? Stop by the Technology section. Need to establish effective Knowledge Exchange and Knowledge Management techniques for your team? Off to an exciting new international assignment? Don’t miss this view of what to bring along besides your toothbrush in Packing for your trip. And perhaps most important of all, when you make that inevitable mistake, visit The Art of Mis-Takes to learn and move beyond the learning errors you encounter.

So get out there, get LOST and enjoy the adventure!

Knowledge Exchange and Knowledge Management

“Information is not knowledge.” Albert Einstein

To work collaboratively, teams need to share information and build up knowledge within the team members in order to accomplish their goals. Sometimes the end goal is knowledge transfer, but more often, knowledge from all team members needs to be shared with all other team members for the team to achieve their objectives. There are two types of information, explicit and tacit (Fontaine, 2003). Explicit knowledge is the visible information – formal processes and procedures, facts and figure. Tacit knowledge is the less tangible information around what really happens and why. Explicit information is easier to share because it is more easily documented or described. For people who meet regularly face-to-face, the process of sharing explicit knowledge provides a natural framework for sharing the tacit knowledge through regular, personal interaction. For geographically distributed, culturally diverse teams this knowledge exchange is especially challenging.

Formal knowledge sharing has at least two facets: technology and social. If knowledge is to be managed and maintained as an asset, some type of repository is needed. For a geographically distributed team, this repository must be electronic and accessible to all team members. Web-based portals, shared documents or files, wikis are some examples of technology which could be used to support information exchange/management. Technology also facilitates the communication required by the team to make sense of the information and enables information to become knowledge and skills. Interestingly, a study on the effects of socio-technical enablers on knowledge sharing, found that the knowledge management system itself has “an insignificant influence on knowledge sharing intentions.”(Choi, Kang & Lee, 2008, p. 749). The inference is that other factors such as trust, expertise and rewards are more important in successful knowledge management.

A 2010 report on communication technologies, confirms the importance of trust. In that report, Mohja Rhoads notes that “dearth of trust is a barrier to knowledge sharing…” (Rhoads, 2010, p. 116). Obviously, a knowledge repository is only valuable if people are willing and able to effectively contribute their knowledge. See Teaming for thoughts on creating trust in teams.Traditional repositories such as web portals, shared documents and even wikis are well suited for capturing explicit knowledge, but tacit knowledge is more difficult to capture. Tacit knowledge is often transferred ”through chance encounters with people.” (Fontaine, 2003, p. 661). It is transferred through the history, stories and shared experiences. For a virtual team, it is much more difficult to enable these informal conversations and transfer the tacit knowledge. Possible solutions are to support regular face-to-face meetings of the teams, to re-assign team members to another location or to establish mentoring relationships across locations. However, social networking tools may provide an alternative. On-line communities of interest

leverage a variety of technologies including repositories, blog and forums. The most effective communities are self-organized and develop their own micro-culture. Questions can be asked and the collective intelligence is harnessed to provide the answers and support to the members of the community.

Leadership and Management of Culturally Diverse Geographically Dispersed (CDGD) Teams

As defined by Johnson and Johnson (2009), a leader "is a person who can influence others to be more effective in working to achieve their mutual goals and maintain effective working relationships among members" while a manager is an individual "who "handle(s)" the status quo". At the same time, an effective group is described as a group that "achieve its goals; maintain good working relationships among members" (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Thus when examining leadership and management in Culturally Diverse Geographically Dispersed (CDGD) Teams, we are most interested in seeking leadership and/or management behaviors that drive task achievement and relationships creation in teams.

When we consider effectiveness of leadership as measured by task and relationship dimensions:

Task orientation: organizing work activities, setting of goals, assigning of work, directing and coordinating work activities, monitoring performance, resolving immediate problems that would impact work and so on.

Relationship orientation: providing support and feedback, building interpersonal relationships among team, recognizing contributions, celebrating success, consulting with people on decisions that affect them, keep people informed about actions that affect them, build team identity, coaching, mentoring and so on.

(Fryberger, 2010)

In addition to issues faced by traditional team leaders and managers, leaders of CDGD teams also have to deal with:

Communications limitations - including languages, lack of social presence, non-verbal cues, no or limited face-to-face interactions

Cultural differences Technological challenges - including agility in usage of multiple technology types such as emails,

tele/video conferencing, and instant messaging, and understanding the perils and benefits that come with the different technology type.

Logistical challenges - including differences in time zones and distance between team members.(Kayworth & Leidner, 2002)

Task Orientation Relationship Orientation

Communication Limitations

Setting of goalsMonitor performance

Relationship buildingGiving negative feedbackProviding supportBuilding team identity

Cultural DifferencesIndividualist-CollectiveShort-term-Long-termUncertainty Avoidance

Neutral-Affective Power DistanceDirect-Indirect

Technological Challenges Benefits and drawbacks of various types of technologySense of presence

Logistical Challenges Asynchronous Lack of turnaround time for consultation with

communicationImmediate problem resolutionOrganize work activities

people

Communication LimitationsMany leadership development literature and training programs have depended on the ability of the leader to interact with the team members on a regular face-to-face basis. However when working with a CDGD team, face-to-face meeting is a luxury rather than a norm.

For Task Orientation:When considering the type of work and individuals involved in a CDGD team, leaders need to be aware that not all work activities and individuals are suitable for a CDGD team, especially given the constraints of communication limitations. Work activities that require a lot of coordination, discussion and real-time interactions may not work well in such a team. At the same time, individuals who require close supervision, or are inflexible to adapt to the multi-cultural environment would not be appropriate for the team. Language barriers, on the other hand, can cause concerns for the leaders when setting goals and communicating work requirements with a team that has varied language proficiency. Team members may be limited by their grasp of language to have a meaningful discussion with the leader and prevent the team from functioning at its full capability.

For Relationship Orientation:The limitations in communication would mean that it would be harder for leader to build relationships and identity within the team. When team members are communicating only virtually, it would be easy for individuals to dismiss others. Yet development of work relationships is critical for success of projects as found by Lampshire (2009). On the part of the leader, it would thus be essential that he/she creates opportunities for face-to-face meetings, devotes time for team members to get to know each other personally, and explores different means for team members to learn about each other such as blogs, twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook. One-on-one meetings between the leader and individual team members can also help to build trust between the leader and team member which would help to extend trust to the rest of the team. Yet it would not be easy for leaders to break bad news, or give negative feedback to team members virtually. The lack of non-verbal cues would mean that the leader cannot tell how the individual is taking the information. Usage of technology such as video-conferencing can help to partially mitigate the risk but the leader would need to be better prepared to handle such situations.

To overcome possible communication limitations in CDGD teams, leaders should work on providing open communications that are multidirectional, transparent, unfiltered, and embracing active listening (Lampshire, 2009). Over-communication, such as providing information in multiple channels, could be necessary to ensure all team members are in sync. Active listening should be practised to capture thoughts and feelings of all team members, while also ensuring that all team members understand the team goals, or activities.

Cultural DifferencesMultiple cultural dimensions that can exist within a CDGD team can be mind boggling for a leader who has not been exposed to such teams previously. However instead of trying to second-guess the individuals in the team, it would be useful for leaders to consider the microculture within the team. The tool introduced in the The Dimensions of Culture page will be a valuable start for leaders to learn the different nuances within the team.

For leaders, it would be useful for them to focus on the following cultural dimensions when dealing with task and relationship orientation within the team.(For more information about the dimensions, you can refer to the The Dimensions of Culture page.)

For Task Orientation:

1. Individualist-CollectiveAs a leader, one of the key task orientation roles would be to set goals and reward achievements. When working with Individualist and Collective cultures, it is important for the leader to balance between setting group and individual goals, and rewarding individual and group efforts. For instance, if the leader is working with a group that has a strong preference for Individualist dimension, the leader's efforts to reward individual performance could be more valuable than attempting to reward group performance. Similarly group goals could work better in a strong Collective dimension team than an Individualist dimension team.

2. Short-term-Long-termThe differences in short-term and long-term perspectives affect the way teams set goals. When dealing with a team that has a preference for short-term perspective, the leader may need to break down 5 years' goal to more bite-sized portions. On the other hand, when dealing with individuals that prefers long-term perspective, a quarterly or yearly goal may make the team uncomfortable with working in such a team.

3. Uncertainty AvoidancePart of a leader's task orientation role is to direct, coordinate and monitor work activities, the leader would need to be aware of the comfort level of his/her team when dealing with structure and rules. Having a laissez faire style of coordinating work activities, for instance, can cause discomfort in highly avoidant cultures where they prefer a more structured approach to avoid uncertainty.

For Relationship Orientation:1. Neutral-AffectiveWhen a leader has to work with individuals from neutral and affective cultures, he/she has to be acutely aware of the emotions that may or may not be expressed by the individuals. Assuming that individuals from neutral cultures are not affected by certain actions, words or decisions, or assuming that individuals from affective cultures are more emotionally attached to the actions, words, or decisions can cause relationship strains within the team. The leader would thus need to pro-actively seek how individuals from neutral culture feel about the matter on hand especially if the group consists of mainly individuals from affective culture.

2. Power distanceWhen building interpersonal relationships among team members, the leader needs to be aware of how individuals perceive power distance. Individuals from a high power distance for example, would likely not be comfortable with interacting on a personal level with people they perceive as more junior or senior than they are.

3. Direct-IndirectWhen managing a team that has individuals from both direct and indirect cultures, leaders may find that individuals from direct culture dominate meetings and discussions, and may neglect group harmony that is essential to individuals from indirect culture. This can create a strain on interpersonal relationships within the team, and may cause team members to be disengaged. To manage this, leaders may need to be explicit about communication guidelines, and facilitate meetings and discussions to ensure inputs from individuals of indirect culture.

Technological ChallengesFor more information about the various technologies available for CDGD teams, you can refer to the Technology page.

With multiple technologies available for use with CDGD teams, leaders would need to be proficient and comfortable in juggling the various media, since they are dependent on these media to assign task, monitor performance, build relationships, and etc. At the same time, leaders need to understand the benefits and perils of using the different technologies for different purposes:

Task Orientation Relationship Orientation

E-Mails

Usually the most basic form of communication for task orientation information.Benefits: Simple, straightforward, and provide documentationDrawbacks: Lack of immediate feedback and questions opportunities

Can be used to keep people informed of decisions or actions that affect them.Benefits: To provide regular asynchronous updates.Drawbacks: Sensitive information can be easily misinterpreted, lack of emotional expression and synchronous communication to build relationships.

Tele/Video-conferencing

For discussion and coordination on work activities.Benefits: Allow immediate feedback and questions.Drawbacks: Quality of discussion is dependent on quality of technology connection, any language barriers and ability of leader to facilitate discussion.

Can be used for celebrating success, consult with people for decisions that affect them, resolve conflicts, coaching and mentoring.Benefits: Allow immediate feedback and questions, allow non-verbal cues to surface.Drawbacks: Quality of discussion is dependent on quality of technology connection, any language barriers and ability of leader to facilitate discussion.

Instant messaging

Can be used to resolve immediate problems that would disrupt work.For discussion and coordination on work activities.Benefits: Allow immediate feedback and questions.Drawbacks: More suitable for one-to-one communication. Should not be used for more formal discussion. Not applicable when there is a huge time zone difference.

Can be used for socialization among team members.Benefits: Provide an informal channel for team members to interact.Drawbacks: Can be disruptive to individuals. Not applicable when there is a huge time zone difference.

Even after taking into consideration all the benefits and drawbacks of the various mode of technologies, leaders would also need to be aware of their sense of presence among the team. (Please refer to the Technology page for more information about sense of presence.) To optimize their sense of online presence, leaders would need to strike a right amount of interaction with the team. Too much or too little input would both cause the leader to fail in this aspect.

Logistical ChallengesMuch of the logistical challenges come from the different time zones and geographical distances between team members. Typically the more varied the time zones and the further the geographical distances, the more challenges the leader will face in engaging the team members. Common issues face by the leader will include:

Coordination of meeting schedules Time lags in communication Limitations in collaboration on work activities Not being able to resolve immediate problems that would disrupt work Not being able to provide support and encouragement on the spot Less opportunities for informal 'water-cooler' or hallway chats Keeping people informed of urgent issues or decisions

For leaders to tackle logistical challenges, they can consider using a varied selection of technologies, and varying meeting schedules (as proposed in the Technology page ). More importantly, leaders will need to recruit individuals who are experienced, skilled or have the correct aptitude for a CDGD team. Siebdrat, Hoegl, & Ernst (2009) shared that a successful team member would usually need to have teamwork skills, self-leadership capabilities, and a global mindset.

Learning Esperanto: Conflict Resolution

Esperanto - an artificial language devised in 1887 as an international medium of communication, based on roots from the chief European languages (Oxford American Dictionaries).

Some may think that speaking the same language eliminates a good deal of misunderstanding and conflict. Unfortunately a common language does not guarantee understanding between all parties involved, and many issues involved in conflict go beyond language differences. Effective conflict resolution requires not just hearing what is being said, but listening to what is really being said. “Leadership begins with listening” (Benefiel, 2005,p.28) and listening involves being present. Fontaine states that “a sense of presence is associated with a broad awareness of the immediate situation, rather than a narrow focus on some specific part of it” (Fontaine,2008, p.22). In international interactions, as well as local, the big picture is missed when one only focuses on the incident, or problem, instead of taking into account all the factors involved, including the people and their culture (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner,1998,pp. 6-7; Fontaine,2006,pp.18-21).

The goal of conflict resolution is not to prove who is right and who is wrong, or to reinforce that someone’s way is the best way to do things (Fontaine, 2006,pp. 42-58)(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner,1998, pp.13-19). If done successfully, the process will help strengthen the existing relationships and create a more effective working relationship between all parties involved (Fontaine, 2006,p.16).

PerceptionLearning a new language involves taking new sounds, letters, punctuation, and words, putting them together so you can communicate. Perception involves assessing your environment, people around you, situations, etc., assigning meaning, hopefully leading to meaningful and effective communication (Fontaine, 2008,pp. 11-12). Paying attention to how we perceive things around us, creates a greater sense of presence and it allows us to see beyond the surface of what is presented (Fontaine,2008, p.20).

Learning the ALPHABETIn studying the types of knowledge that expatriates bring back to their home countries, five types of knowledge were examined (Antal, 2000); declarative (what), procedural (how), conditional (when), axiomatic (why), and relational (who). When practicing presence as a strategy in conflict resolution, these five questions can also be applied when evaluating the ecology of your assignment and the dynamics at play in the conflict.

Some examples:What???What cultures are represented? What is the ecology?How??How does each culture communicate? How does each culture handle conflict?When?When is the best time to approach the issue?

Why?Why is this an issue and/or why is it important?Who?Who does the conflict involve? What is their status in the organization?

Don’t Forget Your Foreign Language DictionaryThe goal of studying a foreign language is proficiency. Here are some concepts and terms that you will need to be proficient in as an expat, and even as a national that is managing an international, or geographically dispersed team.

Universalism/Particularism Individualism/Communitarianism Neutral/Emotional Specific/Diffuse Achievement/Ascription Past/Present/Future Orientation Sequential/Synchronic Internal/External Control

(Taken from Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture,1998)*See The Dimensions of Culture for descriptions of these terms.

Where Can I Practice My New Language?You now know how to say “¿dónde puedo comprar arroz con pollo?” but you need somewhere to practice the phrase. When cultures come together to fulfill a task, or solve certain problems, conflict is inevitable. IMCs are “structures” that allow accommodation strategies to be explored, as well as exploring the strategies and ideas of the host culture and of an expats home culture (Fontaine,2006,pp. 57-58). Participation in IMCs is an excellent way for an expat to become educated in the problem solving skills of the host culture, and other cultures that may be represented (Fontaine, 2008,p.67). The goal of conflict resolution is not to win, but instead the focus should be to overcome the obstacles that come up while working with international teams, resulting in greater interdependence and better relationships within the group.

How to Pack for Your Trip - Social Support

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6r0dr_juOiI&feature=player_embedded

Now that you have your assignment and you are getting ready to leave, you realize you don’t have a suitcase large enough to take all your friends, family, preferred co-workers, favorite hang outs, social clubs, etc. You’ve excitedly taken on this assignment and hope to have a successful career with your company, but if you don’t take into account the importance of building and maintaining social support, chances are great that your tenure overseas may be short lived (Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001). I’m sure we have all gone on a trip and have forgotten to pack something. Many times it is an item we use daily, such as a toothbrush. These necessary items are so common that they are easily overlooked. Just like a toothbrush or some other common item, we don’t always recognize the vital role our social network plays in maintaining our success at home and abroad. As a manager, it is also important to ensure those being sent abroad are prepared for the challenges ahead.

Companies spend significant amounts of money to relocate and support employees sent to other countries (Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou,1991). Past research has shown that there is a high proportion of international assignments that fail, at least for Americans on international assignments (Black, et al,1991)(Fontaine, 2006, pp.5-6). Every failed assignment carries a high price. Financially there is cost to the company such as relocation and travel costs, and cost of living increases if needed. There is also a cost to the employee if the assignment fails, because they may lose their job as a result.

Montezuma's Revenge or Ecoshock. Taking Care of Your Health.In addition to financial costs, relocation and adjustment to a new environment and culture can be very costly emotionally, psychologically, and physically (Fontaine,2006,pp. 24-26).

Adjusting to a new environment is stressful enough, but when you neglect the normal human need for connection and support, you can become highly susceptible to the effects of ecoshock (p.132). According to Fontaine, ecoshock is “our reaction to ecological differences (including culture) encountered on such assignments” (p.24).

Possible Symptoms of Ecoshock physical illness irritability depression anxiety mild paranoia relationship problems

Your social support system, or lack thereof, will play a crucial role in how well you will be able to overcome any effects of ecoshock that you may experience (Fontaine, 2006, p.132). Your social support must be used properly in order to get the most benefit. You

may meet another expatriate that suffered and triumphed over ecoshock, but if you ignore this important resource, you do yourself a disservice. All of the symptoms listed above are difficult for anyone to go through in their native country in familiar surroundings, but the effects and difficulties are magnified in unfamiliar territory.

PreparationBefore you pack, take an inventory of what you have, what you will need, and what you will have to get when you get to your destination. During the preparation stage of your assignment, a thorough appraisement of your social support network should be completed (Fontaine, 2006,pp.135-136). Remember, your social support network goes beyond family and friends. Your assessment should also include co-workers, managers and supervisors, and other organizations (Kraimer, et al.)(Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley,1999). It is important to also assess your expectations about what is available to you in your host country. For example, you are Catholic and have easy access to a number of Catholic churches in your area. If you are sent to Taiwan where the Christian population is only 4.5% (Central Intelligence Agency,2009), you may encounter some difficulties finding a church that meets all of your expectations and needs.Your list can be broken down this way (Fontaine, 2006,p.135)

1. What you already have - Home support2. What you will need - Social support needed on the assignment3. What you will have to pick up over there - What support is available in the host

country

International Micro Cultures (IMCs)International micro cultures are defined as “cultures developed at the task level and involve international participants” (Fontaine, 2006, p.57). IMC involvement can provide further opportunities for networking, while also learning the host culture, thereby reducing some of the stress related to ecoshock (Fontaine, 2006, p.133). When used effectively, IMCs also communicate that a person is not alone, and has others to help complete the necessary tasks, thus lifting some of the overwhelming burden an expat may feel when facing a new challenge abroad.

Use the Buddy SystemIf you are taking along a spouse or significant other, their social support needs must also be considered when planning to relocate (Brewster & Pickard,1994)(Fontaine, 2006, pp.117-118). Many international assignments fail when the spouse is unable to adjust (Brewster & Pickard,1994). International assignment preparation includes all those going on assignment, not only the assignee. Past research has shown that spousal adjustment plays a critical role in the success of an assignment (Brewster & Pickard,1994), because

the potential stress and strain on the relationship due to ecoshock can effect motivation to continue the assignment (Fontaine, 2006,pp.138-139).

Maintaining Home Country SupportAlthough there is no replacement for live contact with your loved ones and your organization's home base, technology can be used to maintain regular contact and connection. Available technology includes the telephone, email, skype, and facebook. Whenever possible, take advantage of opportunities to visit home and to have others visit you. Your assignment may require frequent home visits, which can be helpful in maintaining home support.

What Now?After settling in your new destination, you may find that there is still some lack where your social suport is concerned. You may be fairly active in your home country, but maybe you are having difficulty finding activities to get involved in. This is where attentional flexibility comes into play. Attentional flexibility allows a person to examine the ecology around them and find activities to involve themselves in that will provide the same or similar fulfillment as a pastime engaged in in their home country (Fontaine, 2006, p.138). A social networking website like Meetup.com is one example of a way to search for social support activities in one's host country. Here are some examples:Barcelona ExpatsTaiwan InternationalJack Russell Terrier, Mexico

For Parents (CEOs, Leaders, Managers, etc.) Sending Your Children (Team Members, Employees) AbroadNo parent would send their kid to camp or some other destination with an empty suitcase or backpack. A parent would want to ensure that their child is as prepared as possible. Before someone is sent on assignment, it is the responsibility of the CEO or manager to assess if their assignee is capable of fulfilling the assignment and providing appropriate training and preparation before the assignment(Brewster & Pickard, 1994) (Fontaine,2006,pp. 117-119). Due to the potential for high psychological stress on assignment, it would be helpful for the organization to offer counseling and/or therapy as needed to the assignee and family (Kraimer, et al.2001).Quality of support from the host country organization is also correlated to the ability of the assignee to adjust properly to the new environment (Kraimer, et al,2001). A leader can help by arranging connection with a liaison, relocation agent, or human resources department. These contacts can help with educational needs such as orientation, language and culture classes, as well as help finding housing, schools for children, best shopping areas, etc.

Team Formation and DevelopmentSocial Interdependence and Intercultural TeamsMuch of our current practice in managing and leading teams is based on social interdependence theory. Social interdependence relies on establishing a super ordinate goal that team members can rally around. Management and leadership action is then directed toward promoting cooperative action among team members. This is done by acting through one or more of five operational variables: positive interdependence, entitativity, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing (Johnson & Johnson 2009, pp. 90-92).

Looking at Trompenaars dimensions of culture (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 1998 pp. 29), it seems probable that attitudes and behaviors associated with social interdependence are strongly affected by cultural biases. For instance, the establishment of a super ordinate goal is bound to be influenced by attitudes toward communitarianism vs. individualism, and perceptions of action aimed at promoting social interdependence are likely affected by dimensions such as universalism vs. particularism, diffuse vs. specific, and achievement vs. ascription.

This interaction between social interdependence and the dimensions of culture may help explain the paradoxical influence of diversity on team performance. It is well established that diversity increases conflict in teams, but it may also improve creativity and result in better decisions (Johnson & Johnson 2009, pp. 459). Could the increased sense of presence experienced by individuals in diverse environments (Fontaine 2006, pp. ) help explain this positive effect?

Sequential theories of team development, such as Tuckman’s model of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (Johnson & Johnson, 2009) may also be important in helping intercultural teams. Although the coming together of people in intercultural interactions is made more complex by cultural diversity, it is essentially still a process of team development.

In any case, a better understanding of intercultural interactions may help improve our understanding of team process in general. Conversely, theories of team development may be relevant to our understanding of how to succeed in “strange new lands” (Fontaine, 2006). This would seem of particular importance as the diversity of our organizations and teams continues to increase.

Issues for Culturally Diverse Teams

Even if intercultural interactions can be viewed as team development processes, there is no doubt that they are special cases, and pose special problems. Issues of cultural diversity increase the complexity of team processes, and can even threaten the development of any level of social interdependence.

Fontaine (2006) and others have proposed that successful intercultural interactions involve helping the participants accomplish three things: overcoming the effects of ecoshock, dealing with diversity, and maintaining motivation. When team members overcome these individual challenges, they are then able to develop intercultural micro cultures, that blend the culture of individual team members in a way that optimizes performance specific to The Ecology of Task the team is undertaking.

It may be tempting to look at these stages as sequential, and analogous with stages of team development, but I do not believe that this is what Fontaine is saying. These stages may not be sequential, but instead may be cyclical or concurrent. Individuals may in fact be dealing with all three of these phenomena at once at any point or even throughout their assignment.

However, having personally experienced some of these phenomena, I believe that emphasizing the speed of dealing with ecoshock is essential. Until the individual begins to at least recognize the effects of ecoshock in themselves, dealing with diversity and maintaining the correct level of motivation may be impossible.

Traditionally, individuals and teams assigned to work in intercultural settings have been supported with training in language skills and cultural awareness. While it seems intuitive that these skills are important, research suggests they are not the determining factor for success.

Kuhlmann and Stahl (Comfort & Franklin, 2011) reported the most important individual and team attributes for successful intercultural interaction are:

· Tolerance for ambiguity· Behavioral flexibility· Goal orientation· Sociability· Polycentrism· Empathy· Meta communicative competency.__This work suggests that individuals and teams must go way beyond understanding their own cultural biases and the culture of others. Their behaviors, especially their interaction with other team members needs to create the right dynamic for the development of intercultural micro cultures to occur.

In their recently published book, Peter Franklin and Jeremy Comfort (Comfort & Franklin, 2011) seize on the psychological concept of mindfulness to describe what they believe is the key component of success for intercultural interaction. Mindfulness is a psychological state with its roots in Buddhist tradition and the practice of meditation. It was popularized into contemporary psychology in the 1980's by Ellen Langer at Harvard University. For their purposes, Comfort and Franklin use a definition of mindfulness proposed by Stella Ting-Toomey: “Mindfulness means attending to ones internal assumptions, cognitions, and emotions – while simultaneously attuning to the others assumptions, cognitions, and emotions.”

Comfort and Franklin (2011) believe that helps intercultural team members improve in three different areas:

Affective – intercultural sensitivityBehavioral – intercultural adroitnessCognitive – intercultural awareness.

The practice of mindfulness may indeed have important benefits for intercultural interaction, because it simultaneously improves self awareness, awareness of others, and management of psychological stress that is a well documented feature of intercultural interaction.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kxT0Ucc6WIw&feature=player_embedded

http://www.themindfulinternationalmanager.com/mindfulness.htmlWeb page for book by Peter Franklin and Jeremy Comfort

It would be interesting to explore more deeply the concept of mindfulness and the phenomenon of "presence" that has been discussed by Fontaine (2008, 2006, 2002) and others in association with intercultural interaction.

Proposed InterventionsBased on conventional theories of social interdependence and team development, and the above research on intercultural interaction, we propose the following interventions to assist in intercultural team development.

Personal Shield ExercisePurpose: Learn about each other. Discover something about your own cultural and preferences. Promote self-disclosure.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOAVIAKGXO0&feature=player_embedded

What is it: Team members are asked to construct a “personal shield” that introduces them to others. They are given a template of a “shield” divided into four quadrants, and asked

to construct a drawing or collage in each of the four quadrants. The themes for each quadrant are: the country and city you come from, an interest or hobby, the greatest achievement of their life to date, your aspirations for the future. Subsequently, each team member explains the shield and the meaning of the pictures they created collected to the rest of the team.

Particular Importance for Intercultural Teams: Awareness of self and others is particularly important for intercultural interaction. If the team has had some introduction to the dimensions of culture, they should be able to see cultural preferences coming out in their work and the work of others.

Resources:

 Personal Shield Exercise.pdf

Critical Incident Technique

Purpose: To help individuals understand the differences between cultures, and reflect on their own behavior and the behavior of others. Have people learn from each other. Promote self disclosure among team members.

What is it: Participants are asked to think about a critical incident that they experience personally and that made a difference for them in understand intercultural interactions. The critical incidents relayed by respondents then is used as the basis for small group discussion. The critical incident technique is a data collection and analysis tool that is widely used in social sciences research, and customer service research, and has proven very successful as a cognitive psychological tool for modifying behavior.

Resources: A description of how to use critical incident method is located at this site:

http://www.multiculturalcenter.org/exercises/

Simulations and Experiential Learning

Purpose: to extend improve intercultural awareness beyond the critical incident technique.

What is it: Critical incident case studies and other materials are used to teach intercultural awareness through game playing and simulation. An example is the simulation game Ecotonos, developed by Diane Hofner Saphiere. This product was used successfully by the Canadian Mounted Police in their intercultural training programs.

Resources:www.culturaldetective.com Information on Ecotonos.

http://wilderdom.com/games/MulticulturalExperientialActivities.htmlOther games and experiential learning tools for increasing intercultural awareness.

Team CharteringPurpose: Establish team goals, norms, and accountability. Govindarajan and Gupta (2001) identified team chartering as an activity essential to developing trust among team members.

What is it: In one or more group discussions, the team completes a team charter, using a predetermined outline. If the team is working virtually, Wiki format is recommended for this activity. The facilitator of this exercise should watch carefully and encourage balanced participation and understanding of the process and terminology. A simple outline format may not be sufficient to stimulate balanced involvement in the process from all members. Facilitators are encouraged to expand chartering activity to involve graphic facilitation, mind maps, or other tools to draw everyone into the process. Chartering for intercultural teams will not be a one time event. In fact the charter must become a living document that is updated regularly and reviewed as often as every meeting (virtual or face-to-face).

Continually revisiting the charter is part of the teams effort to develop The Art of Mis-Takes.

Particular Importance for Intercultural Teams: Many cultural differences will become apparent through different approaches to various elements of the chartering process. The importance of chartering for intercultural teams cannot be overstated. The charter becomes in effect documentation of the development of the teams intercultural micro culture. The initial charter developed is only a beginning. As the team understand more about the different cultures they encounter, and their own cultural preferences, the charter must evolve, and this evolution must be documented in the charter document. Issues of team role, responsibilities, and accountability must address The Ecology of Task.

Team chartering activity can be linked to building cultural awareness and cultural mapping activities as described in The Dimensions of Culture.

Resources:

 CharterWorksheet.docx

 Charter.docx

Above resources are from Joiner & Streibel (1996)as found at http://www.teamhandbook.com/home.cfm

Mindfulness Practice and Coaching

Purpose: Improved focus on self and others. Stress management.

What is it: Meditation practices that help increase awareness and reduce stress. These meditation practices have roots in Buddhist traditions. Participants in intercultural interactions can develop these practices independently or through a coach.

Particular Importance for Intercultural Teams: team members need to develop skills to simultaneously focus on self and others. They must be constantly aware not only of the content and surface process of interactions, but also be looking for the cultural biases that help explain observed behavior. These biases exist in themselves as well as others. This type of multi-level and multi-dimensional awareness is not easy to achieve, but is essential to successful intercultural interaction, especially the leadership of intercultural teams.

Resources:

 mindfulness_in_plain_english[1].pdf(Gunaratana, Henepola as found at http://www.lumosity.com/personal-training-plan)

ConclusionsThe fundamentals of social interdependence and its implications for team development still apply for culturally diverse teams. We can use many of the models and tools we already know to help these teams succeed. However, we need to be aware that many of the standard interventions and development activities we are familiar with have been developed in the context of North American and Northern European cultures. They will need to be used selectively and flexibly to be successful with dramatically diverse teams.

Success of dramatically diverse teams is essential to building an international or global organization. Selection of team members should reflect the importance of these experiences as essential development activities for key managers.

Research indicates that successful teams and leaders in dramatically diverse settings may be slightly less goal focused than their counterparts on less diverse teams (Comfort and Franklin, 2011). More time must be spent on team process. If the project will have an

intense goal focus and time pressure, lowering team diversity or using only team members with proven experience on diverse teams may need to be considered.

The success of the team will be directly proportional to its ability to develop a unique shared micro culture that blends the cultures of the team members in a way best suited to The Ecology of Task the team needs to accomplish. Standard models of sequential team development do not really apply. Storming and Norming are not something the team can “get out of the way” and move on to performing. It’s more likely that the process of understanding each others’ culture and more importantly discovering our own cultural biases produces a kind of perpetual storming and norming for the team. This has to become something team members expect, accept, and see as vital to their success. Dealing with the psychological pressure this exerts on team members then becomes critical.

Simple team development activities that allow team members to discover their own cultural biases and to explore the The Dimensions of Culture can be of high value. These will need to be used not only during team formation, but should be scattered throughout the team’s life cycle. There are an increasing number of team activities, simulation games, and interventions designed to help teams in this regard.

Psychological concepts such as Mindfulness may be particularly important in helping individuals develop the skills required to promote intercultural micro cultures, and to deal with the stress of intercultural interaction. Individuals will need to determine what this means for them: whether it is training in meditation techniques, or simply building in time for reflection and thought. Failing to give proper attentions to this area may be catastrophic for individuals and the team.

Technology

Virtual teams, where team members do not regularly meet face-to-face, are enabled by some form of collaboration technology. Often these virtual teams are also intercultural and internationally diverse which adds additional layers of complexity to the environment. The challenge for the technology is bridging not only the distance, but also the cultural differences. In its most basic form, the technology must allow provide alternative ways to accomplish what people do when they meet face-to-face. In a face-to-face meeting, people can see, hear and touch each other and they are aware of their shared environment. Physical items can be passed back and forth and worked on simultaneously.

In order to enable collaboration, technology focuses on establishing a “sense of presence” (Fontaine, 2004). Fontaine describes a “sense of presence” as the sense of “being there.” Other researchers take the concept of “being there” a step further to “making sense there (Riva, Davide, & IJsselsteijn, 2002). The various technologies, alone or in combination, attempt to provide both the sense of “being there” and enabling the users to “make sense there.” So what does it take to enable “making sense there”?

There are many technology options for communicating and collaborating across a distance. Some tools, such as postal mail or e-mail are asynchronous. The written information is sent at one point in time, received at a later time. While exchanging written information is hardly like “being there”, it can be more precise than verbal communication and it can be retained for future reference. Written communication is sometimes preferred when the team communicates in a language that is not native to all team members. Asynchronous communication also allows for “think time.” Initial

reactions can be held private and responses can be more thoughtful. Written communication can also be shared with others which may or may not be a good thing. Written communication has very little context associated with it and can be subject to misunderstanding if the author is not careful. Written communications play an important role in knowledge exchange and knowledge management. Readily available e-mail tools are offered by Google or Yahoo and many others.

Synchronous communication technologies which incorporate real-time voice and video are closer to “being there” and help in establishing a sense of presence. Voice and video allow for conveying the nuances such as body language, expression, tone of voice, etc. This context is even more important when people from different cultures are involved. All the cultural differences which would be present in a face-to-face conversation still exist in a virtual environment. For example in a high-context culture, much of the meaning is derived from these subtle contextual points and without it the meaning may be completely lost in a voice only conversation. Much more information on the role of culture in teams is available in Dimensions of Culture. Even with the additional context provided by video, it is still a long way from “being there.” The information flow is still narrow and only a sampling of the environment comes through, but it is much richer than voice alone. Videoconferences can also be recorded and played back for further study. There are many types of videoconferencing technology available. One of the most popular and free videoconferencing tools is Skype.

One significant issue for synchronous communication is coordinating across multiple time zones. For a widely distributed global team, synchronous communication requires a great deal of flexibility with respect to time zones. It is often impossible to hold the meeting during everyone’s normal working hours or even normal awake hours. Compromises such as alternating between normal working hours in each location or stretching normal work hours earlier and later can help team members share equally in the solution. The use of tools which provide a world clock view can be very helpful for such teams. One such tool is Symm Time which lets you display any number of clocks set to any world time zone.

More recently, communication techniques such as instant messaging (IM), texting (also known as short message service or SMS) and social networking have become popular. Both IM and texting are well suited for short interactions such as a quick question or thought or to coordinate another type of communication. Social networking can be used to share information with many people and is discussed in more detail in the Knowledge Management section. <link to KM>

Some teams are experimenting with virtual worlds where team members are not viewed as themselves, but rather represented by “virtual people” known as avatars. In such a virtual world, your avatar can meet and interact with other avatars. Avatars can hold meeting, socialize and work together. Context can be provided through the avatar’s actions through the capabilities of the virtual world. This context is of course, what the person wants the world to see, not necessarily the real context. The best known virtual world is Second Life.

The future of “making sense there” may lie in a different view of virtual reality (VR). Rather than a user projecting their self onto a virtual entity (avatar), this VR virtualizes a real world onto a real person. The virtual world is not something you view on a computer, but a world you experience. All virtual reality is “a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver experiences telepresence” (Riva, Davide, & IJsselsteijn, 2002). To provide this rich experience, a technique such as Ambient Intelligence (Aml) is needed. Aml is "a pervasive and unobtrusive intelligence in the surrounding environment supporting the activities and interactions of the users." (Riva, Davide, & IJsselsteijn, 2002). One sophisticated example of Aml is Mobile Mixed Reality (MMR). The key to MMR is the realization of the science fiction concept of "smart dust." Smart dust is a network of tiny sensors or motes which provide a variety of environmental information (Steel, 2005). MMR combines these inputs and senses for a mobile user in such a way that a much fuller environment becomes “real” to the user by engaging more of the senses through providing much more information. In this way, much more context is provided, ideally through a more natural human interface, which helps the user really feel like he is truly present and interacting with the virtual environment.

These types of technological evolutions are bringing man and machine closer together than ever before. The human body mediates all information that is processed by the brain. What we perceive through our senses is our reality. Virtual environments use the computer to mediate information to the brain. We separate the body mediated view as "real" and "normal" but the computer mediated view is thought of as "virtual." Is it such a stretch to see that distinction blurring? A world where the mind, body and computers are integrated in such a way to become "normal" to us?

One observation in using any of these technologies is that there are generational issues in how the same technology is used. In an Information Week article citing a 2006 survey by Forrester, analyst Ted Schadler noted that "[Older consumers] tend to use the new technology to do old things. Younger consumers use the new technology to do new things." Will “making sense there” be achieved by bringing a person closer and closer to feeling physically present or will it be achieved by a new paradigm entirely? It will be exciting to see both the new technologies and how the new generations use that new technology.

The Art of Mis-Takes An error doesn't become a mistake until you refuse to correct it.--Orlando A. BattistaExperience is simply the name we give our mistakes.--Oscar Wilde

Building a microculture to get the job done and effectively integrate the diversity on your team will require you to make a few mistakes. Mistakes can be big and small, and we all make them, especially in diverse team situations. So the first skill you will need to develop is the awareness that mistakes are an ongoing occurrence. Avoiding them is one goal, but you will still make them. Here are a few other skills you will need to artfully make mistakes, allowing you to recover well from 'not getting it quite right'.

The first strategy to keep in mind is that you can change the way you think about mistakes. Are they unrecoverable errors that permanently destroy your task? Not often, in fact, quite rarely. While working in a diverse group, in diverse cultures, and in diverse task ecologies you are bound to do something, or say something wrong. How you make that mistake, and what you do to recover from it, will determine whether it is a mistake or a mis-take. When filming movies, Directors have numerous 'takes' of a scene so they can edit the film later and create what they are imagining. What if you had that capability while you are working with a diverse group of people in a strange land? You might not have the exact control that a film Director has to craft group process and finish your task, but you can "reframe" (Darnton & Kirk, 2011; Dilts & DeLozier, 2000; Lakoff, 2004) the way you do things to allow everyone in the group to make mis-takes. Mis-takes give you more opportunities to learn and can give you a second chance to get it right (Roua, 2010, websource).

The Strategy of Reframing

When we encounter any behavior, idea, or experience, we instantly, and unconsciously, put a frame of perception around it - we have a frame of reference. Changing that frame of reference opens opportunities to experience the group process in a new way that can improve learning, and improve the outcome of the task.

Frames of reference are the mental connections we make to words and experiences. They reside in our long-term memory (Darnton & Kirk, 2011) so they are automatic and unconscious. Frames are closely connected to language (Lakoff, 2004). To reframe mistakes, we need to use language that makes new connections about the mistake, changing the images and emotions associated with the mistake into something new (Dilts & DeLozier, 2000). This takes a lots of practice; using new words like 'learning error' instead of mistake or evoking new emotions such as humor instead of anger. Changing

perceptions of what mistakes are and how they serve the group is an art (Roua, 2010; Brueckner, n.d., websource).

Framing the processes of the group in the beginning is the best place to start. You can frame how mistakes are perceived by the group by determining, as a group, how you will deal with mistakes, and how you will learn from them. Invoking an "action inquiry" process (Fisher, Rooke & Torbert, 2003) will give the group a system for learning in action by reflecting on mistakes in different ways using single, double and triple loop learning. You can reflect on the immediate impact of the mistake to understand what happened and how to avoid it in the future (single loop learning). You can reflect on the basic assumptions, such as the dimensions of culture or the task ecology (double loop learning). You can also reflect on the intentions and purposes of the group and system (triple loop learning). Talking about how you want to deal with mistakes is an ideal way to access the groups experience and learn from each other. For some people and some cultures, this express dialogue might be more uncomfortable, which can be a good introduction to ask about how people deal with mistakes rather than bringing it up as a subject for discussion.

Awareness Skills "Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an understanding of ourselves. I understand England only when I see where I, as a Swiss, do not fit in" (Jung, 1989).

Being aware of a mistake means that we are being present. This sense of presence will invoke stronger emotions because we care about the outcome and the process. Self awareness of our emotional state is a vital skill in solving problems and making decisions as a diverse group of people. When we accept that mistakes are normal, we can also accept that how we emotionally react to a mistake is normal, and we can allow ourselves to quickly explore the source of the emotions. Whether you make the mistake or someone else makes a mistake in your group, ask yourself, "Why am I feeling this? Why do I have this feeling instead of another feeling?" We often learn to feel certain ways from experience. This is a good opportunity to reframe how you can feel when you encounter a mistake.

Recovery SkillsSo what do you do when you make a mistake and you recognize it (or someone else points it out)? What do you do when you notice that someone else makes a mistake?

Diverse groups have many ways of dealing with mistakes because they have a broader range of experience with them. Our reactions to mistakes will often be emotional. Recovering from mistakes means we have a plan in place to move forward. Your plan can include anything that helps you stop in the moment, reflect on the situation, and then move forward. It can include taking a deep breath, counting, paying closer attention, laughing, calling 'time-out' or 'freeze' (which works wonders in US groups), focusing on "staying actionable" (Roua, 2010), or writing down the mistake to review later.

Timing is everything. Be sure to address the mistake when the time is right. People from Indirect cultures may expect you to notice your own mistakes and correct them. Recovering form a mistake in this regard means that you might have to let people with those cultural backgrounds know that you have not developed those skills and need some help, if they can give it. You may have to stop occasionally and remind them that you might not have the ability to recognize mistakes as well as them and ask. You might also have to refrain from talking about the mistake someone from that culture has made, but try to communicate about it in a way they might understand rather than being blunt about it.

Reviewing interactions and engaging in self reflection is a very important strategy when working in diverse groups. It may be difficult to frame mistakes, or talk about them in the midst of action or afterward. Looking for possible mistakes and trying to correct them is the final skill to turn them into mis-takes, and give yourself and your team a chance to improve.

The Dimensions of Culture

Cultures emerge as "ways in which a group of people solve problems and reconcile dilemmas" (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.8). Every team is a group of people from different levels of cultures (Fig.1) that form their own unique microculture. Every work group you join to get the job done is a microculture. The ecology of teams is unique as well and will include the characteristics of the people, the team architecture and the context (Fontaine, 2002, p.124). Solving problems and making effective decisions is based on accommodation to each other and the "task ecology" (Fontaine, 2006).

The Dimensions of CultureOne of the first places to start when you know you will be dealing with Microcultures (Fontaine, 2008, 2006, 2002) in your next task ecology, whether international, virtual or face-to-face, is to consider multiple "dimensions of culture" (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.8) that explain how each culture has developed ways in which a group of people solve problems and reconcile dilemmas. We have developed a graphical way to chart (Fig. 2) yourself and others based on descriptions in literature and research (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner,1998; Fontaine, 2006) and recognize that other dimensions can be included that add a

broader understanding to the context that you are or will be experiencing in your specific task ecology. The list can be almost unlimited - you can add your own. While it is important to research the specific cultures you are encountering, Earley & Peterson (2004) point out that individuals may express behaviors and values that are not aligned with their own cultures, making an assumption about a person based on their culture nothing more than a form of stereotyping. You will encounter all these dimensions within yourself and others. We do not stick to one dimension in every situation but can use them all while we have a preferred way of thinking and doing things in general. Having a broad awareness of different dimensions of how culture can influence an individual and group's behavior, and having the skill to enact strategies to compensate for the diversity will be more important than specific knowledge about a culture.

Instructions: Download this tool (Fig.2) to use for yourself and with your workgroup. Place your name in the one of the boxes on each row to represent where you see yourself on the scale between each of the dimensions. As a teambuilding activity, you can have each person in the workgroup place their names on the chart and engage a discussion about similarities and differences. You may also be interested in an application for your iPhone, a more generic tool based on Hofstede's (2010) 5D model.

CultureGPS.com

Microculture Charting ToolIndividual CollectiveHigh Centrality Low CentralitySpecific DiffuseLow Power Distance

High Power Distance

Short-term Long-termIndulgence RestraintParticularist UniversalistNeutral AffectiveAchievement AscriptiveSequential SynchronicInternal Locus External LocusFast Paced Slow PacedTalkative ReservedDirect IndirectLow Context High ContextLow Uncertainty Avoidance

High Uncertainty Avoidance

Individual-Collective: These two dimensions are complementary (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998) allowing you to recognize whether you are primarily focused on individual wants and needs or the goals and norms of the group. Individualist cultures tend to give credit to individual effort while collectivist cultures reward behavior aligned with the group. You also need to consider which group is being referenced for affiliation - workgroup, family, community, organization, religion, political or other groups will adjust the preference on the dimensional scale. A specific impact of this scale is that as

the information society develops, collectivist oriented people will tend to share information more actively (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998).

High Centrality-Low Centrality: "Work centrality represents an individual’s beliefs regarding the importance of work, especially in regards to the role that work plays in one’s life" (Hattrup, Ghoprade & Lakritz, 2007, p.237). High centrality implies that work is the center of an employee's life allowing company intrusion into the rest of their lives and a strong identification with the workgroup (Ibid). Low work centrality means an employee distributes time and attention evenly among work, friends, family, and activities that are not connected with the work community (Fontaine, 2006).

Specific-Diffuse: Closely related to centrality, some cultures segregate an individual's life into specific parts, such as job role. In diffuse cultures "every life space and every level of personality tends to permeate all others" (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.83). In a work context, a specific focused person will associate you with certain characteristics and perhaps treat you differently depending on the context, i.e., as 'the boss' at work, but as a teammate on the community softball team. In a diffuse culture, status is attributed to the primary power base of the relationship, i.e., if you are 'the boss' at work then you are 'the boss' in every context and your reputation is connected throughout all areas of your life.

Low Power Distance-High Power Distance: "Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally" (Hofstede, 2011, websource). Low distance implies more equality in decision making. High distance gives some people more power than others.

Short-term-Long-term: These dimensions associate whether a culture tends to make decisions with a short-term or long-term perspective. Prioritizing the economic bottom line in a business focuses on short-term needs, as exemplified by the public stock ownership structure of corporations in the US, while prioritizing the health of the ecosystem and sociocultural systems within which businesses operate requires a Long-term perspective, as we see in many not-for-profit and aid organizations.

Indulgence-Restraint: "Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms" (Hofstede, 2011, websource).

Particularist-Universalist: Particularism is the focus on relationships and Universalism is a focus on rules. Particularist people will be strongly influenced by relationships with others when they make decisions and solve problems (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). Universalists will tend to separate their relationships from the information and even behavior of others in the group. Particularist people and cultures will want to get to know the person to make business transactions, while Universalist people and cultures will stick to facts and quality of the deal (Fontaine, 2006).

Neutral-Affective: These are emotional dimensions of culture. People from affective cultures are more willing to add an emotional dimension to their verbal and physical communication. They may be more histrionic, talk loudly or whisper to represent different states, and act out their emotions. Neutral cultures tend to subdue emotion in communication and relationships. This does not imply they are less emotional, but they show less emotion and control how emotion is communicated. Emotion will equally affects decision making for both, yet in affective people, the bias can be more obvious.

Achievement-Ascriptive: People have status in societies and your group will attribute status to members in different ways. Status can be earned through achievements, whether in the past or in the present actions of the group or it can be ascribed to someone based on how well they match the values of another person. If a person values wisdom from old age, then older people in the group will have a higher status. The same will be true for education, profession, social connections, gender job role and other characteristics (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998).

Sequential-Synchronic: Time scales can be perceived either sequentially "as a series of passing events" (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.123) or synchronically in a way that past, present and future overlap to varying degrees. People may prefer to order work processes one by one, or analyse the past first, then the present in order to strategize about the future. Other cultures tend to overlap discussions allowing ideas about past, present and future to blend together and have a loose timing of events, such as meeting times. We also give past, present and future varying degrees of importance. One person in the group may prioritize history while another is focused on the importance of what will happen in the future, and how.

Internal Locus-External Locus: These dimensions are about control. Some cultures foster an internal locus of control, that the individual's decisions and actions will exert control over the work systems. Other cultures perceive the influence of the external forces as more controlling, and that work processes are adaptive to the business environment. When devising a strategy, internally controlled people will choose to lay out a set plan while those who follow an external locus of control may prefer a set of guidelines and processes to be adaptive to the changing environment.

Fast Paced-Slow Paced: The pace of life is relative in different cultures. Developed countries tend to have a faster pace of life while developing countries are often slower paced (Thinkquest, 2007, websource). Cultures that place a higher value on the past may also be slower paced (Ibid). Group members will often have different paces of of work in different situations and may change their pace throughout the work process."For example, in Arabic people a speedy decision may be interpreted as a disregard to the importance of the relationship" (Derskey & Christopher, 2008, in Harvey, et al., 2009, p.366).

Talkative-Reserved: Cultures in which language is used to communicate meaning and build relationship tend to avoid silence in communication and will use language

extensively in their spiritual and ritualistic practices (Prechtel 2002) . Cultures that use other other forms of communication more often, such as many indigenous tribal cultures, tend to use gesture and build meaning and relationships on other ways of knowing such as spiritual, physical, emotional, vibratory and energetic which develops non-verbal spiritual practices and daily or life rituals. (Abram, 1996; Foster & Little, 1998; Plotkin, 2003; Some, 1993; Storm, 1972).

Direct-Indirect: Direct cultures tend to be expressive of thoughts and sometimes emotions, reflecting a prioritization of the individual over the group (Fontaine, 2006). Indirect cultures have a higher concern for group harmony prioritizing the needs of the group over the needs of the individual and communication is more discreet and subtle, sometimes through third parties and involving a time lag (Fontaine, 2006). People from Indirect cultures have developed awareness and tacit communication skills that are sometimes too subtle for Direct people and special skills are required to accommodate the two when they are working together.

Low Context-High Context: In Low Context communication, the burden for communicating is on the symbols that people use to exchange information such as words, gestures (Fontaine, 2006). These cultures carefully select the words to craft the message. High-Context communication is based on the context in which the interactions occur, using common language and gesture that has a common meaning for the people in that context. References to television shows is a high context communication, while clearly and narrowly defining a specific word or phrase is low context communication.

Low Uncertainty Avoidance-High Uncertainty Avoidance: A culture will effect the comfort level an individual has with structure and rules. Highly avoidant cultures create more rules and structure to limit uncertainty while low avoidant cultures honor the novelty of situations and accept the surprises of new discovery (Carteret, 2011).

Reconciling differences to solve problems and make decisionsIt is not enough to be aware of these dimensions of culture. Building a microculture that is adapted to the task ecology is a strategy that requires an expanded "sense of presence" (Fontaine, 2006); an expansion of awareness that broadens an individuals attention internally and externally. "What is critical is equipping a manager with metacognitive skills so that with time and experience he or she can acquire new information concerning the cultural issues in the team" (Earley & Peterson, 2004,p.104). The sense of presence expands beyond the cognitive or metacognitive and the intellectual awareness of cultural dimensions. Not only is it necessary to be flexible in how we adapt to each others cultural preferences and make agreements on how to adapt to each other and develop our own microculture, we need to hold a broader awareness of the environment in which we are participating to accomplish the task at hand. Murray (2011) explains that intelligence and wisdom can come from three places; our genetic code (nature), our culture (nurture), and our personal experiences (learning). The perspective of Cultural Intelligence (CQ) as described by Earley & Mosakowski (2004) gives us a way to reconcile the differences in the dimensions of culture and draw on our ability to learn by involving our heads

(cognitive and metacognitive abilities) our hearts (our emotions) and our hands (our behaviors). Integrating and reconciling the dimensions of culture requires the use of all three, and a motivation to learn and be open to new ways of thinking and doing. It is not easy to accept alternative ways to make decisions and solve problems, but recognition of the differences can enlighten us to begin the journey toward creating healthy and effective microculture so we can get our jobs done in diverse groups.

Earley & Peterson (2004) describe the process:

"A person with high CQ is able to adapt behavior to be appropriate to any given cultural context. Adopting the behaviors consistent with a target culture is an important aspect of intercultural adjustment and interaction. This mimicry is not an attempt at subterfuge or camouflage—it is engaging in actions that put people from another culture at ease and comfort. A myriad of cues are provided through observing others, and observing their reactions as you interact with them. A person high in behavioral CQ integrates and mimics these cues and behaviors. Work on mimicry suggests that the effective mimicking of another person’s behavior, even if done subconsciously, results in an increased satisfaction with the interaction. Mimicry is subtle and often subconscious but it results in generally positive effects in a social encounter. A high CQ person is a talented mimic who uses mimicry in moderate doses. That is, excessive mimicry may be misinterpreted as mocking someone. However, a high CQ person models some of the mannerisms and posturing, verbal and nonverbal cues, and so forth, of the other person so as to create a “comfort” zone. For example, if I am speaking with a Mexican manager whose social distance is closer than mine and I maintain my distant position, this may make the manager feel uncomfortable. Although he may not identify the source of his discomfort, he will feel apprehensive and hesitant, and this will inhibit effective communication and interaction. Mimicry used intelligently (and judiciously) constitutes a type of cognitive strategy as well as a behavioral intervention" (p.109).

The Ecology of Task

Most ecological elements are historical adaptations of how people get things done within a specific ecology over time. Broken down, the term “ecology” has two parts. “Eco” means life, habitat or environment, and “ology” means the study of a discipline" (Shewchuk, 2011, p.3-3). Task ecology therefore means the study of life associated with a specific task. Ecology is the "physical, biological and sociocultural environment in which tasks...take place" (Fontaine, 2006, p.6) or the people, the team, and the context (Fontaine, 2002, p.124).

An ecological perspective is not a new concept to business. You may be familiar with Porter's (1998) five competitive forces model of strategy that determine industry competitiveness (Fig. 1). Like Porter's model, categorizing ecological elements of a task for a geographically dispersed and/or multicultural team can help you identify how the ecology is affecting your ability to get things done, and can also help you identify what ecological elements you might be able to change. The categories of ecology not only affect the task directly, but

they effect each other. Change one part of the ecology, and many of the other pieces change.

The main part of the task ecology is the people on the team. Each person has their own unique personality that may not reflect their cultural beliefs and behaviors that we explored with the Microculture Charting Tool, which is why using the Tool as a team exercise is a good idea. The team itself will be unique as well, comprising the goals, the processes, the roles and the interactions. Foundational and generic teamwork strategies and skills will need to be adapted to the specific needs of the team. Visit the Team Selection, Formation, Building, Development and Dissolution page for more information about the unique challenges of teams through an intercultural lens.

The people and team are within a special context. There are multiple ways to categorize this context to understand what can be changed and how the people and team will adapt to the ecology and make accommodations that will effectively achieve the goals. Some elements to consider:

The space in which the team meets; office, different offices, restaurants/bars, and virtual spaces. Siebdrat, Hoegl, & Ernst (2009) found that teams are most effective when the participants are located in different places but within the same city or community (Fig. 2). The characteristics of these spaces will affect the team, such as physical comfort and distance form each other, noise levels, whether the temperature is controllable, and the proximity of other people and tasks that can interrupt the attention of the team.

The kind of food and water. The meals and snacks might be familiar or new to the participants and the foods might elicit excitement or dread. Water may be suspect in many places and the amount of water people imbibe will have an effect on their performance.

The physical environment; humid, dry or polluted air, terrain such as mountains, plains, forest, or seaside and lakeside, types of buildings, urban or rural, and other physical elements will make a difference in how your team works together and how they get the job done. Some of the physical aspects can be obstacles and some can be supportive of the task at hand.

Infrastructure; systems employed for travel, communication, and basic necessities such as water, power and sanitation either enable your progress toward meeting your goals or become hurdles. Rolling blackouts in some parts of the world will disrupt communication, lighting at night, communication, and heating and air conditioning, which affect the times that you may have to work together, or even become part of the task in their resolution toward business goals.

Communication technology; how we communicate is changing on a daily basis with new software and new hardware. You can connect with your team synchronously in close proximity (face-to-face) or long distance (Webex, teleconference or virtual conference), or asynchronously via texting, website

communication portals, mail and email. Explore the effects of technology on your intercultural team at the Technology page of this Handbook.

Time; includes not only the length of the assignment and deadlines but the differences in timezones you experience during your work. On intercultural assignments, it often takes longer to get things done but the deadline pressure may be increased because of increased costs (Fontaine, 2006). People often have a very different understanding of time as well, as you can discover in the Microculture section including Sequential-Synchronic and Fast or Slow Pace.

Travel; the various modes of travel team members use have an effect on their abilities to do their work. Some forms of travel can be invigorating and others can be exhausting, based on the physical impact on the person and amount of time they travel. Travelling overseas typically requires some rest before you jump into work.

Support; this comes in many forms from social support to diet to fitness practices for mental focus and health, especially for dealing with stress. Visit our Support page to learn more.

Roles; sometimes teams have clear roles and sometimes they are a group of people thrown together to accomplish a task. Designating roles on the team based on the strengths, capabilities and interests of each person rather than official titles or roles can build momentum toward achieving the final outcomes.

Politics; play an ever present role in deliberations of a task. Understanding the national and local politics is important, but you also need to pay special attention to the corporate politics. Politics will often redirect team or individual activities and can involve agendas that are not clearly spelled out. In global work projects more stakeholders are involved in a web of interests that can become very difficult to untangle. Identifying the top priority interests of the stakeholders impacted by the task at hand can help clarify what needs to be done to achieve your goals.

Accommodating the Task ecology to solve problems and make decisionsThe key to fostering your International Microculture (IMC) (Fontaine, 2006) to get your job done is being hyper alert, having a "sense of presence" (Fontaine, 2006) in your specific group. By asking which of the ecological elements has the most importance, and which ones have flexibility in change can give you some control over how to adapt to the ecology in the best way. Yet much of the adaptation is through trial and error, based on your previous experiences. "The development of IMCs can be seen as a search strategy with fitness to the problem and ecology as the objective. IMCs then are more commonly emergent properties of local interactions in organizations than the result of "top-down" analysis, planning or leadership" (Fontaine, 2005, p.5).

Making mis-takes is a key strategy for developing a microculture that is optimal for the task ecology. Healthy experimentation with adaptations to the ecology and changes in the ecology itself will allow the best structures and processes to emerge to achieve the task at hand. This requires flexibility to accept new ideas and sometimes retry old ideas in a new way.

How you accommodate to the dispersion of a team will determine how well you solve problems and make decisions. Teams can "be spatially separate (from "across the hall" to "scattered worldwide"), temporally separated (spanning different time zones), configurationally uneven (for example, five members in one location and two in another), and culturally diverse" (Siebdrat, Hoegl & Ernst, 2009, p.64). Siebdrat, Hoegl & Ernst (2009) found that the strength of task related processes are determinate for high performance (Fig. 3).

Fontaine (2005) suggests that "for any given task there is a wide variety of regions (or types) of solutions within which some particular solutions are more optimal than others". He describes the search for these solutions as either "exploitation" or "exploration" (Fontaine, 2005). Both strategies are compared to hiking through the wilderness; exploitation is the focused search of a single hill of the ecology, searching for the best solution within a more narrow focus, with the risk of being stuck on one hill and missing opportunities of having a broader perspective. Exploration is like quickly moving through the overall topography and trying out wide ranging solutions looking for the best fit of the a solution to the task ecology.

Accommodation is the balance between both methods within the team, giving time and effort to allow incremental as well as transformational leaps in progress.

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