Language ProductionLanguage Production: Speaking, : Speaking, Writing, and BilingualismWriting, and Bilingualism

SpeakingSpeaking Production ProcessProduction Process Speech ErrorsSpeech Errors Producing DiscourseProducing Discourse Social Context of SpeechSocial Context of Speech

WritingWriting IntroIntro Cognitive Model of WritingCognitive Model of Writing Planning, Sentence Generation, & RevisionPlanning, Sentence Generation, & Revision Writing Style in PsychologyWriting Style in Psychology

BilingualismBilingualism BackgroundBackground AdvantagesAdvantages 22ndnd Language Proficiency & Age of Acquisition Language Proficiency & Age of Acquisition

SpeakingSpeaking

Production ProcessProduction Process StagesStages

1.1. Gist/ meaningGist/ meaning

2.2. General structure of sentenceGeneral structure of sentence

3.3. Word selectionWord selection

4.4. Articulate phonemesArticulate phonemes

PlanningPlanning Linearization ProcessLinearization Process ProsodyProsody

Speech ErrorsSpeech Errors

Usually well-formed; few errors (appox. Usually well-formed; few errors (appox. 200-500 sentences)200-500 sentences)

Unfinished sentencesUnfinished sentences

Dell (1986) - 3 types of errorsDell (1986) - 3 types of errors

Types of Speech ErrorsTypes of Speech ErrorsDell (1986)Dell (1986)

1.1. Sound errorsSound errorssnack shop ----> shack snopsnack shop ----> shack snopsnow flurries ----> flow snurriessnow flurries ----> flow snurries

2.2. Morpheme errorsMorpheme errorsself-destruct instruction ---->self-destruct instruction ---->self-instruct destructionself-instruct destruction

3.3. Word errorsWord errorswriting a letter to my mother ---->writing a letter to my mother ---->writing a mother to my letterwriting a mother to my letter

Various FormsVarious Forms

1.1. ExchangesExchangesprevious examplesprevious examples

2.2. AnticipationsAnticipationsreading list ----> leading listreading list ----> leading list

noisy bore ----> boisy borenoisy bore ----> boisy bore

3.3. PerseverationPerseverationwaking rabbits ----> waking wabbitswaking rabbits ----> waking wabbits

4.4. DeletionsDeletionssame state ----> same satesame state ----> same sate

DiscourseDiscourse Beyond word and sentenceBeyond word and sentence NarrativesNarratives 6 parts convey6 parts convey

1.1. Brief overviewBrief overview2.2. Summary of characters / settingSummary of characters / setting3.3. ComplicationComplication4.4. Point of the narrativePoint of the narrative5.5. Resolution of storyResolution of story6.6. Final signalFinal signal

Structure lends coherence / predictabilityStructure lends coherence / predictability c.f. script and schemac.f. script and schema

Social Context of SpeechSocial Context of Speech

Language as a social instrumentLanguage as a social instrument

PragmaticsPragmatics

Common ground - shared background and Common ground - shared background and knowledgeknowledge

Clark & Wilkes-Gibbs (1986)Clark & Wilkes-Gibbs (1986)

Conversationalist FormatConversationalist Format

DirectivesDirectives

WritingWriting

Research limitedResearch limited Writing vs. SpeakingWriting vs. Speaking Cognitive Model (Hayes, 1996)Cognitive Model (Hayes, 1996)

Social, physical, motivational factorsSocial, physical, motivational factors WM plays a central roleWM plays a central role

• Phonological loopPhonological loop• Visual sketch-padVisual sketch-pad• ExecutiveExecutive

LTM (semantic memory, topic knowledge, general LTM (semantic memory, topic knowledge, general schemas, audience, writing style)schemas, audience, writing style)

Planning, Sentence Generation, RevisionPlanning, Sentence Generation, Revision

Planning & Sentence Planning & Sentence GenerationGeneration

PlanningPlanning GoalsGoals Amount and quality of planning highly correlated Amount and quality of planning highly correlated withwith

quality of final essayquality of final essay Outlining (Kellog, 1988; 1994; 1998)Outlining (Kellog, 1988; 1994; 1998)

• Manage attentionManage attention• SequencingSequencing

Sentence GenerationSentence Generation TalkingTalking Alteration of hesitant and fluent phrasesAlteration of hesitant and fluent phrases Computer vs. pen (Kellog, 1994, 1996; Hayes, Computer vs. pen (Kellog, 1994, 1996; Hayes,

1996)1996)• SameSame• Blocks of textBlocks of text

RevisionRevision Organization and coherenceOrganization and coherence

Reconsider goalsReconsider goals

College studentsCollege students Give little time to revision (e.g., Torrance, 1999) 4%Give little time to revision (e.g., Torrance, 1999) 4% Estimations incorrect, poor metacognition 30% vs. < 10%Estimations incorrect, poor metacognition 30% vs. < 10%

Expert vs. Novice WritersExpert vs. Novice Writers Time revisingTime revising Sentence problems vs. organization, focus, and transitionsSentence problems vs. organization, focus, and transitions Diagnosing sentence errorsDiagnosing sentence errors Drawbacks of expertiseDrawbacks of expertise

ProofreadingProofreading

BilingualismBilingualism

Bilingual vs. MultilingualBilingual vs. Multilingual

AdditiveAdditive vs. vs. SubtractiveSubtractive Bilingualism Bilingualism

North America - subtractive bilingualism North America - subtractive bilingualism predominatepredominate

Acquisition Acquisition

Three IssuesThree Issues

Advantages of bilingualismAdvantages of bilingualism

In-depth examination of how immigrants In-depth examination of how immigrants maintain their skillsmaintain their skills

Relationship between acquisition age and Relationship between acquisition age and language proficiencylanguage proficiency

Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism

Early theoristsEarly theorists

Early research results (flawed)Early research results (flawed)

Peal & Lambert (1962) -Peal & Lambert (1962) - 1 1stst well controlled study well controlled study

Bilinguals more advanced in schoolBilinguals more advanced in school

Scored better on tests of 1Scored better on tests of 1stst language language skillsskills

Showed greater mental flexibilityShowed greater mental flexibility

Replicated many timesReplicated many times

Advantages of BilingualismAdvantages of Bilingualism

Expertise in own languageExpertise in own language

Recognize arbitrariness of concept labelsRecognize arbitrariness of concept labels

Metalinguistic knowledge higher Metalinguistic knowledge higher

PragmaticsPragmatics

Complicated InstructionsComplicated Instructions

CreativityCreativity

Concept formation & Nonverbal intelligenceConcept formation & Nonverbal intelligence

Maintenance of First Maintenance of First LanguageLanguage

(Immigrants)(Immigrants)

Bahrick (1994)Bahrick (1994)

How well do they learn English?How well do they learn English?

How well do they retain Spanish?How well do they retain Spanish?

Second-Language Proficiency as Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisitiona Function of Age of Acquisition Factors:Factors:

aspect measuredaspect measured 2 specific languages2 specific languages

AspectAspect phonologyphonology vocabularyvocabulary Grammar Grammar

VocabularyVocabulary

No relationship between age of acquisition No relationship between age of acquisition

and vocabulary proficiency in Englishand vocabulary proficiency in English

Adults & children equally skilled in learning Adults & children equally skilled in learning

new wordsnew words

Flege, et al. (1999)Flege, et al. (1999)

1.1. Yes / No questions: Yes / No questions: Should have Should have Timothy gone to the party?Timothy gone to the party?

2.2. Pronouns: Pronouns: Susan is making some Susan is making some cookies for we.cookies for we.

3.3. Plurals:Plurals: Todd has many coat in his Todd has many coat in his closet.closet.

Grammar:Mixed Findings Grammar:Mixed Findings

Initial Analysis--early acquisition advantageInitial Analysis--early acquisition advantage

Confound--school experience -> formal training Confound--school experience -> formal training

in English languagein English language

Careful Analysis, controlling for education Careful Analysis, controlling for education

showed no differenceshowed no difference

Additional ConsiderationsAdditional Considerations

Match between L1 and L2Match between L1 and L2

Dissimilar Languages--children appear to Dissimilar Languages--children appear to

have advantagehave advantage

Similar Languages--adults appear to have Similar Languages--adults appear to have

advantageadvantage