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LANDSCAPE STEWARDSHIP:NEW DIRECTIONS IN CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND CULTURE

The George Wright Forum 17(1), 1. © 2000 The George Wright Society, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 5

Fausto O. SarmientoGuillermo Rodr�guez

Miriam TorresAlejandro Argumedo

Mireya Mu�ozJack Rodr�guez

Andean Stewardship:Tradition Linking Nature and Culture in

Protected Landscapes of the Andes

ResumenEn los paisajes protegidos de los Andes, la mayordomía que se ha

experimentado en diversas regiones que han forjado intrincados modelos deconservación y desarrollo a través de los siglos. De las prácticas deadministración de recursos y de uso de la tierra, los modelos andinos permitengeneralizar las nociones que permiten unificar la naturaleza y la cultura en untodo integrado como paisaje protegido, para vincular la biodiversidad ygestión humana como impulsoras de una simbiosis que ha forjado la identidadde sociedades de montaña.

Al presentar varios casos de estudio provenientes de diferentes paísesandinos, incluyendo Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia, se perfilan losdiferentes criterios necesarios para la mayordomía del paisaje cultural en losAndes.

Introduction tradition of stewardship is embedded in the popular culture of theAndes. It has helped to sustain practices associated with land use inthe local communities living and working in mountainouslandscapes (known as “lifescapes” for short). The actors of the

Andean drama have not only been objects, but subjects of holisticcollaborative management as stakeholders for conservation and development(Gade 1999). They are regional and multilateral organizations; governmentalagencies at the local, provincial, and national levels; non-governmentalorganizations; universities and research centers; and traditional andindigenous communities. In this mixture of conservation scenarios, the task ofapplying IUCN Category V protected landscapes in the region is to enrich op-tions of sustainable development by bringing to the forefront the concept of

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56 The George Wright FORUM

culture and nature as an integral unit, with important roles for the local playersas stewards of both their natural and cultural heritage (Phillips 1998).

We argue that, once Category V isofficially implemented in the region,it may help to change the “paper

parks” problem found in most LatinAmerican countries. The case studiesincluded in this paper may lead to a

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Figure 1. The northernAndean region, with theapproximate locations ofthe case study sites.

1. Sierra Nevada de SantaMarta, Colombia

2. Quijos River Valley,Ecuador

3. Valley of the Kings,Peru

4. Alto Cañete–CochasPachacayo, Peru

5. Communities of theSajama Volcano, Bolivia


Volume 17 • Number 1 2000 57

Figure 2. Several countries in the Andean region have been developing legislationenabling designation of protected landscapes. Photograph by Jessica Brown.



review of the management categoriescurrently used in the region, or at leastto an evaluation of their efficiency inachieving the goals of ecodiversityconservation. To have protectedlandscapes cared for by thestakeholders themselves as stewardswill finally dispel preconceptions thatlimit nature and culture in the Andes(Sarmiento, in press). Furthermore, itwill provide an opportunity to ac-knowledge that these local commu-nities created working landscapesreflecting traditional practices ofstewardship. Whether the selectedsites will showcase indigenous man-agement, criollo achievements, orcolono lifestyles, the role of humansin tropical mountain ecosystems—recognized as a key to shapingbiodiversity in the area (Ellenberg1979)—is increasingly important topromote as a good conservation strat-egy.

Criteria for a Regional ApproachThe Andes ecoregion harbors

some of the most bioculturally diverseecosystems in the world. It containstwo recognized hotspots ofbiodiversity, two of the eight recog-nized centers of origin of major crops,20 of the 36 World Heritage Sites inSouth America, and more than 205languages (A. Argumedo, personalcommunication). The indigenouscultures have developed ingeniousmeans for dealing with water stressand sloped terrain, as evidenced by

the Pimampiro aqueduct in Ecuador;the Cumbemayo and Mochechannels, the Puquios of Nasca, orthe cochas de Liallahua in Peru; andthe textiles of Atacama in Chile. Ahuge variety of plants has beendomesticated, including anihua,kiwicha, tarwi, quinua, yacon, achira,racacha, olluco, mashua, oca, andpotato. Ancient terraces foundaround Lake Titicaca, or the mono-liths of the Tiawanaku plateau, arewitness to the management of boun-ties long gone; even today, this greatdiversity is deteriorating rapidly in theface of global trends. Current conser-vation approaches in the region aredeficient in that they have failed tocomprehensively address socioeco-nomic, cultural, political, and insti-tutional challenges for mountainsustainable development.

With this background, we note thechallenges of developing the conceptof the interrelationship betweenforms of diversity (whether biologi-cally or culturally driven) amidst cur-rent trends of “setting aside” reservesfor preservation of pristine nature.We will demonstrate that the role ofhumans as stewards of their lands is aprerequisite of the comprehension ofthe values of Andean cultural land-scapes. We therefore, require a defi-nition of the new Protected Land-scape approach, stressing the high-land/lowland interaction, the likeli-hood of long-lasting small-impacteconomic activities, and the legal base



for buffer zone management and coreprotection.

There are several criteria of stew-ardship that may be used to selectcases in a regional approach. Theyinclude: (1) biological (e.g., largebiota inventories), (2) physical (e.g.,key environmental services such aswater capture and soil degradation),(3) cultural (e.g., agricultural prac-tices and religious considerations),(4) social (e.g., land tenure and classstructure), and (5) economic (e.g.,production modes and market strate-gies). Table 1 shows some of the in-dicators for landscape ecodiversityworth protecting.

Within the framework of Andeanmountain situations, there is no singleexample which encompasses all theindicative factors for landscape stew-

ardship. Here we try to cover the ex-tent of the options, including refer-ences to specific sites along the cor-dilleras in several countries, each oneemphasizing a particular criterion ora few criteria in working, living An-dean landscapes.

Case StudiesA selection of case studies makes

the point in favor of the protectedlandscape approach for conservationand development in traditionalcommunities of the Andean moun-tains. We will proceed from north tosouth, explaining the significance andpotential for demonstrating the valid-ity of the concept with different sce-narios that include tropical and tem-perate sites, highland and lowlandmontane environments, indigenous

Criterion IndicatorsHeirloom plants/animals(biological)

Local varieties, rare recipes, seed stock, local races,pets, and draft animals

Holistic rearing(cultural)

Not only agriculture, but livestock, rootrecollection, fruit and flowers, firewood, etc.

Traditional production(economic)

Subsistence agriculture, staple products and localspecialties geared to the local market

Water management (physical)

Successful irrigation processes and terracing orother soil management practices

Cultural boundaries(economic)

Seasonal utilization, transhumance and home-rangeuses of potentially limiting activities

Spiritual ecotones(cultural)

Mental constructs—not physical lines but spiritualor intellectual reaches

IUCN membership(social)

Sponsorship of individuals’ affiliation or NGOrecognition in IUCN structure, mobility andorganizational frames

Table 1. Some indicators of landscape ecodiversity.



and mestizo populations, and ruraland urban settings.

Table 2 lists different prospectivesites for an integrative protected land-scape demonstration exercise. Thisshould be considered a minimalsample for conveying the notion oflandscape stewardship in the region.Due to the difficulty of finding one sitethat may be indicative of all factors,each site will focus on a specialtheme.

The Sierra Nevada de SantaMarta, Colombia. This massif con-stitutes traditional grounds for threedifferent indigenous groups: theWiwa, Arrumaco, and Kogi. Thelocation of “Ciudad Perdida” in par-ticular is a sacred place for the Kogi,who are now living around the ar-chaeological site and are custodiansof its maintenance as spiritual totem.The Tairona Indian builders of thisimpressive architectural wonder havedisappeared. The area is already

protected as a national park andUNESCO biosphere reserve. With itscultural patrimony, “Ciudad Per-dida” is an important archaeologicalpark. A comprehensive study has ap-peared as an atlas with general infor-mation on the massif. This is thehighest coastal mountain on Earth,reaching from sea level to 5,755 m inonly 42 km. A rapid ecological as-sessment (REA) has shown that 13life zones are found within the 12,230sq km that share the greaterMagdalena River Basin.

The study would also reflect the“degree of criticality” to help defineimportant areas in the Sierra Nevadade Santa Marta (“criticality” can bethought of as equaling “intrinsicquality” multiplied by “interventioncondition”). All of the selected areasinclude indigenous settlements andinterventions (Rodríguez 1999). Aprotected landscape category willbring to the forefront the important

Theme Place FacilitatorIndigenousmanagement

Ciudad Perdida, Sierra Nevadade Santa Marta, Colombia

Guillermo Rodríguez

Production alternatives The Quijos river valley, nearBaeza, Ecuador

Jack Rodríguez

Highland tourism Alto Cañete, CochasPachacayo, Huayhuash, Peru

Miriam Torres

Traditional agriculture The Valley of the Kings, nearPisac, Peru

Alejandro Argumedo

Cultural heritage Sajama community in theSajama National Park, Puna ofBolivia

Mireya Muñoz

Table 2. Prospective sites for protected landscapes.



role of the ancient Tairona and thecurrent Kogi and mestizo populationin the area. Indigenous land man-agement of the area, the seclusion ofpractices in sacred sites, as well as acomprehensive ethnobiologicalframework of Kogi livelihood makethe case for an important contributionof the protected landscape concept inthe northernmost Andean massif.

The Quijos River Valley, Ecua-dor. Amidst three important Ecua-dorian protected areas (Sumaco-Galeras National Park, AntisanaEcological Reserve, and Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve), two fertilevalleys run from the heights of theAntisana volcano to the foothills ofthe Andean crescent of the Amazonheadwaters. The bulk of biodiversityhoused in the tropical montane cloudforest belt is impressive in almostevery respect. The area has been al-ways an important mountain passconnecting the Amazon lowlandswith the Andean highlands. An ex-tensive network of pathways (or “cu-luncos”) criss-crossed the area, con-necting the Quijos Valley with otherprehistoric and historic market cen-ters, such as Pimampiro and Quito.With the arrival of the Spaniards, theregion became the gateway to theAmazon after the Orellana expedi-tion used this mountain pass to enterthe mythical “El Dorado.”

Colono lifestyle has changed theoriginal landscape into a mosaic ofpasturelands, croplands, and remnant

forest patches. Although the originalQuijos Indians have disappeared,rich archaeological evidence aboundsin the area. Baeza, in the heart of theQuijos Valley, is the only city towardsthe Ecuadorian Amazon territory thatis designated as being included inEcuador’s “National CulturalPatrimony.” The life of the mestizoalong the Quijos River and of theCofan Indians along the OyacachiRiver also present important exam-ples of traditional practices and alter-native economic options in a work-ing, living landscape (Sarmiento1997).

Several cycles of economic ven-tures have come and gone within thematrix of the valley, each leaving be-hind degradation of the original forestcomposition and soil structure. Themost recent fashions, fishing inmountain waters and ecotourism (in-cluding whitewater rafting), pose achallenge for finding an appropriateadministrative framework for conser-vation and development in the area.

The Valley of the Kings, nearPisac, Peru. The magnificent Andeancivilization of the Inca empire isvividly portrayed today in the tradi-tional village of Pisac, where the ar-chitecture and the surrounding ter-raced terrain set the stage for a con-tinuation of simple agricultural prac-tices and communal living. The pro-tected landscape category at Pisac,close to the imperial capital of Cuscoin highland Peru, will acknowledge



the intimate links embodied by anatural capital rich in evidence of an-cient human impact. UNESCO rec-ognized the important of the area asWorld Cultural Heritage Site, butreference is made only to the colonialcity without considering the sur-rounding Pisac valley, the breadbas-ket of the Inca empire.

Local communities have devel-oped communal strategies for agri-cultural production and irrigation soas to develop a highly sophisticatedsystem of seasonally effective pro-duction mechanisms. Also, altitudi-nal adaptation to the “verticality” ofAndean landscapes is practicedaround the area by using several dif-ferent crops according to the eleva-tion and month of the year.

Agrodiversity, or the variety ofcultivars and heirlooms, is alsomaximized in the protected land-scape approach. This is somethingthat Andean indigenous peoples havebeen doing all along; for example, thecampesinos of Quechua descent havebeen stewards for several centuries(A. Argumedo, personal communi-cation).

Alto Cañete-Cochas Pachacayo,near Junín, Peru. The cordillera ofHuayhuash in highland Peru is oftenmentioned as one of the focal pointsfor mountain tourism and ecotourism(Torres 1999). As in Huascarán Na-tional Park, increasing pressure fromhikers, bird-watchers, and climbersput stress on the natural resource

base. Further to the south, lying be-tween the departments of Lima andJunín, another important tourist des-tination is emerging. The Alto Cañeteand the Cochas Pachacayo are areasof important potential. Here, for thefirst time in the history of Peru, eightlocal indigenous communities haveorganized themselves into the “Agri-culture Association of Social Interest”(SAIS) to create a new reserved zonein Alto Cañete and CochasPachacayo, where the national gov-ernment entrusted the indigenousleaders, who own the land, with thecreation and management of a pro-tected area. The search for an appro-priate designation will likely takeplace within the context of the pro-tected landscape approach.

Peru already has legislation ena-bling the establishment of a CategoryV area through the so-called “reservapaisajística.” However, a closer viewof the area reveals not only the scenicbeauty of a natural monument, butimportant agricultural biodiversity,forest cover, water supply, and cul-tural heritage issues. This designationof a reserva paisajística opens moreopportunities for private investmentin protected area management. In thepast, this was done by using a “basket”category of multiple use particularlyoriented to conflict management andgreater success in conservation.

The communities of the SajamaVolcano, Bolivia. Sajama NationalPark in Bolivia encompasses 200,000



ha. As one of the first Bolivian pro-tected areas, the Sajama volcano(6,540 m) and its zone of influenceshow a strong orientation towardbiological conservation of the lastremnants of Polylepis woodlands inthe so-called highest forests on Earth,with trees growing at 4,700 m.

However, with the presence of acombination of important archaeo-logical sites, some burial monuments,several “chullpas” and many“apachetas” that are typical of theAndean tradition of crossing the con-tinental divide via highland traderoutes, the Sajama Volcano (whichitself is considered a deity, or Apu, bythe indigenous population) holds ahigh amount of cultural and religioussignificance. Associations with thelandscape include sacred places, ritu-als, and age-old beliefs that haveevolved into organic cultural land-scapes with implications for local andregional trade and transit of goodsthrough the newly constructed high-way in Sajama National Park.

The Bolivian highland of the Sa-jama also readily qualifies for theprotected landscape approach. Notonly have humans been affecting thearea for centuries, but they haveforged associated managementschemes such that the current phe-nology of the national park is verymuch a response to ancient and cur-rent land use practices.

The Next StepsAll of these examples fully comply

with the tests of integrity and authen-ticity suggested in the operationalguidelines of the World HeritageConvention of 1992, as ratified insuccessive experts’ meetings in LaPetit Pierre (France), Schorfheide/Templin (Germany), and Amster-dam (The Netherlands). The frame-work of cultural landscapes in theAndes was discussed at a 1998UNESCO-sponsored meeting held atArequipa/Chevay in Peru’s ColcaValley. The next step will be to designa truly regional approach thatincludes both the biological and thecultural—and even the spiritual. Weare proposing that the condor beadopted as the project’s “biologicalflagship,” and Wiracocha, a mythicalpre-Hispanic wise man, as its“mythological flagship.” We can helpestablish a system of protected cul-tural landscapes throughout the re-gion by adopting the “Condor Route”(La Ruta Cóndor) and the“Wiracocha Route” (La Ruta deWiracocha) as a lead-in to the pro-ject. With this concept in mind, addi-tional areas already listed as potentialcultural landscapes (either designed,living, relict or fossil, or associative)could be incorporated to obtain anoptimal representation in the regionalspectrum. These sites include thePáramos of Mérida in Venezuela; thecacao haciendas in Venezuela; thepáramos of Antisana in Ecuador; the



Cordillera of Huascarán and the Lo-mas de Antiquipa in Peru; Aquina,Toconce, and San Pedro de Atacamain northern Chile; and the IslaNavarino in the extreme south ofChile (Mujica 1998).

The Cóndor/Wiracocha RouteUntil quite recently, national ap-

proaches towards protected areamanagement in the region adoptedthe national park model. The preser-vation of large areas of “unspoilednature” through ownership of landhave often excluded local peoplesfrom planning and implementationprocesses. The use of Western con-servation science and practices andthe involvement of formally trainedexperts have been emphasized, whilethe valuable knowledge and practicesof indigenous peoples have largelybeen ignored in the process. Para-phrasing IUCN’s Protected AreasProgram, “a ‘protectionist’ mentalitypersists in the management of pro-tected areas in South America, andsuccessful work with local communi-ties has seldom been achieved. Sys-tematic methodologies to bring aboutthe efficient participation of localpeople have not yet been developed.”The “Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha,” asdescribed below, presents a newparadigm, one in which local indige-nous communities form the core ofprotected area establishment andmanagement in a regime which aimsto conserve biological and cultural

diversity through a more integrativeapproach.

Building on this momentum, anetwork of indigenous peoples fromseven countries is developing an in-novative approach to the conserva-tion of Andean cultural landscapes.The “Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha” pro-poses a community based manage-ment regime in the Andean mountainecosystems intended to regenerateand conserve its cultural and biologi-cal diversity. By moving from strictnature protection to multipurposeprotection that embraces nature,culture, spiritual place, historicalsites, and centers of diversification ofnative crops, the foundations for sus-tainable, bioculturally rich Andeanlandscapes can be built.

Incorporating the diverse ecosys-tems of the Andes, which are linkedthrough historic and ecological at-tributes, an international route ex-tending from Venezuela to Chile,covering the historic pre-HispanicAndean space based on the ancientWiracocha Route, is being devel-oped. (La Ruta de Wiracocha was apre-Hispanic route which linkedculturally and biologically importantpoints, including sacred sites, cities,areas of high biodiversity, ceremonialcenters, and so forth. It was devisedby Wiracocha, a mythical wise man,who used Andean scientific princi-ples to establish a line which ex-panded from Colombia to Argen-tina.) The route will follow a network



of traditional-agriculture protectedlandscapes throughout the Andes, tobe established following IUCN Cate-gory V principles. These traditional-agriculture landscapes will link focalpoints along the route. For purposesof this project, “focal points” havebeen defined as being nodal conser-vation areas which have already beenestablished as well as other biocultur-ally rich areas that require conserva-tion. The Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha’sfocal points will include, among oth-ers:

1. Micro-centers of crop origin anddiversity (particularly Vavilovcenters and areas of crop diver-sity);

2. Areas of high biological diversity(including hot spots, critical, andvulnerable areas);

3. Outstanding mountain ecosys-tems (including high-mountainwetlands, native forests, andgrasslands);

4. Cultural areas (including sacredsites, archaeological centers,World Heritage Sites, and othercultural landmarks such as placeswhere there is a strong craft tradi-tion, e.g., pottery and weaving);and

5. Protected areas (including na-tional parks, nature reserves, bio-sphere reserves, etc).

The “Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha”will be implemented and managed by

indigenous communities themselves.Agricultural protected landscapesand new focal points making up theroute will be managed adaptively,based on the traditions and knowl-edge of the native peoples. Linkageswith the already established focalpoints will be done in collaborationwith conservation authorities in eachparticular country, and arrangementswill include strategies to ensure effec-tive participation of local people inthe management of such areas.

The integrated ecosystem ap-proach that will be employed is key tothe effective conservation of eachelement in the route, since protectionof biological and cultural diversity areinterdependent. This holistic ap-proach will provide an enabling envi-ronment for conservation and sus-tainable use of biological diversity,including the maintenance of eco-system functioning and resilience,wildlife populations and habitats, andbiological diversity important to foodand agriculture, including landracesand wild relatives of domesticatedplants and animals. The route wouldbe free of genetically modified or-ganisms (GMOs) in order to maintainthe Andes as an important reserve ofstrategic plant genetic resources andto ensure critical ecological servicesfor the region’s increasingpopulation.

The “Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha”will link landscapes that developedorganically and were intimately tied



in the early history of the Andes. TheSpanish invasion violated the har-mony and connectivity of the land-scape and marginalized the indige-nous peoples who helped to createthe region’s richness and diversity.The “Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha” is,therefore, an attempt to revitalize na-tive peoples’ common identity. Tothis end, the “Ruta Cón-dor/Wiracocha” will emphasize theincorporation of culturally importantsites to help native peoples strengthentheir cultural identity and sense ofbelonging. The incorporation of sa-cred sites is also important from aconservation standpoint, since theyusually harbor high diversity as a re-sult of long-standing traditional pro-tection status.

The corridor framework is in-tended to empower local communi-ties and indigenous peoples and sup-port them in their conservation effortsby bringing them together in variousforums to share experiences andideas, obtain resources, and constructsuccessful conservation initiatives.McNeely et al. (1994) identify strate-gic actions required to strengthenprotected areas in South America,and these include the use of researchand planning techniques and trainingprograms that emphasize participa-tory processes, conflict resolution,and harmonization of interests. The“Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha” strategy isbased on these principles, and, givenits geographic scope, will go a long

way in strengthening in situ conser-vation objectives in the continent.Additionally, the implementation ofthe route will provide an opportunityto native people in the Andes to worktogether to create opportunities toconserve, protect, and benefit fromtheir knowledge, practices, and inno-vation systems. Issues of intellectualproperty and benefit-sharing will betherefore integral to the project.

The establishment of the “RutaCóndor/Wiracocha” will involve in-digenous and traditional communi-ties along the route, and will requireand strive for effective mechanisms tocoordinate actions and make deci-sions, collaborating with other con-servation and development actors atthe local and regional levels and fromnational and international sources.Direct participation and control of theproject by the local communities willensure that views of the indigenouspeoples and their construction oflocal reality are the basis of the in-tervention. This will also guaranteethat landscape conservation activitiesare tailored to local realities and en-hances the project’s chances of ac-ceptance and success. The projectstrategy will promote the use of tradi-tional knowledge, and will benefitfrom its shared ownership, adaptivenature, and Earth-based cosmovi-sion. In addition, the “Ruta Cón-dor/Wiracocha” initiative aims toinfluence regional protected areapolicy, especially where local com-



munities are concerned, and act as acatalyst for much-needed policy andinstitutional reforms.

The project will take proper ac-count of the general goals of equity forand poverty reduction among theindigenous peoples along the “RutaCóndor/Wiracocha.” An ecotourismand indigenous tourism plan will bedeveloped to provide economic in-centives for conservation, especiallyby adding value to local biodiversityand landscape features. Ecotourismactivities will be promoted within theframework of the 2002 United Na-tions Year of the Mountains and ofEcotourism.

The “Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha”initiative is an important first step indealing with various complex prob-lems that indigenous peoples face intheir efforts to co-exist as traditionalsocieties in the fast-paced globalcommunity. The project will serve asa model for locally driven sustainabledevelopment in the region and on theglobal scale, ensuring appropriatecommunity development processesand the sustainable management ofmountain resources. This is the firstcase in the region of a protected land-scape initiative of such scale estab-lished by indigenous peoples, and islikely the first initiative of its kind inthe world.

ConclusionThe Andean initiative of the “Ruta

Cóndor/Wiracocha” should be:1. Communicative, in order to

publicize Category V’s potentialamong community organizations,environmental NGOs, local andnational governments, andinternational agencies;

2. Inclusive, by having a nationalconsultation on the topic, bring-ing together both the grassrootsorganizations and governmentofficials;

3. Participatory, by having a re-gional workshop on the topic thatwould include regional and na-tional governments and commu-nity leaders;

4. Epistemographic, in order toclarify semantics and terminologyof the dynamics of mountain eco-systems;

5. Methodological, to start buildingexperience by documenting andpublicizing previous works orpilot studies applicable to theconcept of protected landscapesin the Andes ecoregion; and

6. Transcendental, to unify andinvigorate local cultures.

If these six conditions are fulfilled, the“Ruta Cóndor/Wiracocha” will be asuccess story in the pilot effort forprotected landscape conservationworldwide.



AcknowledgmentsWe acknowledge the opportunity to work together on the idea of protected

landscapes in the Andes occasioned by the special WCPA-IUCN InternationalWorking Session on Stewardship in Protected Landscapes, held in Wood-stock, Vermont, USA, and organized by the QLF/Atlantic Center for the Envi-ronment and the Conservation Study Institute of the U.S. National Park Serv-ice. We also thank the Andean Mountains Association for helping with net-working and the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Uni-versity of Georgia for help with references and illustrations.

ReferencesEllenberg, H. 1979. Man’s influence on tropical mountain ecosystems in South America.

Journal of Ecology 67, 401-416.Gade, D. 1999. Nature and Culture in the Andes. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.McNeely, J. 1994. Conserving biodiversity outside protected areas: How traditional agro-

ecosystems can contribute. IUCN Workshop on Biodiversity Paper. Gland, Switzerland:IUCN.

Mujica, E. 1998. Regional thematic meeting on cultural landscapes in the Andes,Arequipa/Chivay, Peru, 17-22 May 1998. Typescript report.

Phillips, A. 1998. The nature of cultural landscapes—A nature conservation perspective.Landscape Research 23(1), 21-38.

Rodríguez, G. 1999. Un modelo socioeconómico para definición de areas críticas para laconservación en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta-Colombia. Pp. 209-226. En:Entendiendo las Intefaces Ecológicas para la Gestión de los Paisajes Culturales en losAndes. F. Sarmiento and J. Hidalgo, eds. Memorias del III Simposio de DesarrolloSustentable de Montañas. Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional.

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———. 1997. The Quijos River Valley: A protected landscape as best management practice forconservation and development in Tropandean Ecuador. The George Wright Forum 14(3),59-66.

Torres, M. 1999. Una aproximación a la sustentabilidad del turismo Andino para el desarrollode las zonas de montaña. Pp. 233-238. En: Entendiendo las Intefaces Ecológicas para laGestión de los Paisajes Culturales en los Andes. F. Sarmiento and J. Hidalgo, eds.Memorias del III Simposio de Desarrollo Sustentable de Montañas. Quito: CorporaciónEditora Nacional.

Fausto O. Sarmiento, Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies,University of Georgia, G-40 Baldwin Hall, Athens, Georgia 30602-1619USA; [email protected]

Guillermo Rodríguez, Fundación Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Calle74, Numero 2-86, Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia; [email protected] or [email protected]



Miriam Torres, The Mountain Institute — Andes Program, Apartado 01,Psje. Ricardo Palma #100, Pedregal Alto – Huaraz-Ancash, Peru;[email protected]

Alejandro Argumedo, Indigenous Peoples Biodiversity Network, Ruinas 451,Cusco, Peru; [email protected]

Mireya Muñoz, Nogales & Asociados, Consultore Internacionales, P.O. Box5240, La Paz, Bolivia; [email protected]

Jack Rodríguez, FUNDRAE, Toribio Montes No. 766 y Cuero y Caicedo,Quito, Ecuador; [email protected]

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