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AnthropologyofthisCentury

AnthropologyandanthropologistsfortyyearsonAdamKuper(http://aotcpress.com/author/adamkuper/)

I

MyaccountofBritishsocialanthropologywasfirstpublishedbyPenguinBooksin1973underthetitleAnthropologistsandAnthropology.Itwasnotwelcomedbytheanthropologicalestablishment,yetsoldsteadilyforanumberofyearsbeforefallingbelowthelevelthatwasrequiredinthosedaysforamassmarketpaperback.TenyearsafteritsfirstpublicationitwasreissuedbyRoutledge.ThetitlewaschangedIdontrememberwhytoAnthropologyandAnthropologists,andImadesomerevisions,addingamoregloomyconclusion.Athirdrevision,withamoreupbeatconclusion,appearedadecadelater.Sincethenthreeexcellentbiographieshaveappeared,ofMalinowski,EdmundLeachandMaryDouglas,alongsideanumberofmemoirsandinterviews.Historianshavedugintothearchivesandfoundsurprisesthere.Inthemeantimesomemattersbecameclearertome.OnothersIchangedmyviews.Now,fortyyearsafterthebookwasfirstpublishedIhaveundertakenathoroughrevision,soradicalthatIwastemptedtoissueitunderyetanothertitle,butinsteadsimplychangedthesubtitle(forthefourthtime,asamatteroffact).[1(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn1)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn1)]

AnthropologyandAnthropologistsisanethnographicaccountofBritishsocialanthropologistsintheirgoldenage,themiddledecadesofthe20thcentury.Whatreallymattersistobefoundinwhattheyleftbehind:thebooksandpapersandintellectualargumentsthattestifytowhatthosemenandwomenmadeoftheworldtheylivedin.Yetasanthropologiststheseparticularnativesknewverywellthattheiracademicworkwasshaped,amongotherthings,bypersonalbackground,friendshipsandrivalries,careerstructuresandinstitutions,andthepoliticsofthetimes.Anethnographyshouldexplainallthat,andIhavetriedtobringouttheinterplaybetweenthesevariouscontextsandconstraints.

Asaparticipantobserver,Iwasperhapstooclosetothenativestokeepthemalwaysintheirproperperspective,althoughIhavedonemybest.Mydearaunt,HildaKuper,whofirstinterestedmeinanthropology,wasastudentofBronislawMalinowski.Malinowskiwasafoundingancestorofthetribe,andIwasusedtohearingtheprosandconsofhispersonalityandhisideas,andthoseofA.R.RadcliffeBrown,hisgreatrival,beingthrashedoutbypeoplewhohadstudiedunderthem.

Evenintheearly1960s,whenIwasinductedintothetribe,Britishsocialanthropologywasstillasmallcommunity:therewereseven

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departmentsandperhapsahundreduniversityteachers.Thedisciplinewasanewone,butitwasrathertraditionalist,withitstaboos,itsmythsandrituals,anditsrivalrouschiefs.Neverthelessnewrecruitswhohadpassedthroughtheinitiationceremonyoffieldworkweremadetofeelthattheyweremembersoftheclan.Weallgottoknowoneanother,andIcametoknowsomeoftheeldersverywell,overmanyyearsMeyerFortes,IsaacSchapera,AudreyRichards,MaryDouglasandErnestGellnerwerepersonalfriends.

II

IfetchedupinKingsCollege,Cambridge,in1962,attheageoftwenty,asaresearchstudentinsocialanthropology.[2(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn2)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn2)]ThiswasstillverymuchthepremodernCambridge,andforayoungforeigneritwasexoticandmorethanalittleunnerving.Butthedepartmentofsocialanthropologypresentedspecialproblemsforthenewcomer.Itwassmall.Therewereonlyperhapsadozenresearchstudents,ofwhomfourorfivewouldbeawayinthefieldatanyonetime.Theacademicstaffwasonlysevenoreightstrong.Itwas,however,deeplydivided.

Clicktoenlarge (http://aotcpress.com/wpcontent/uploads/adam1.jpg)

ThedominantfiguresweretheProfessor,MeyerFortes,andtheReader,EdmundLeach.TheywereBigMenintheopposingfactionsofBritishsocialanthropology,thepartyofMalinowskiandthepartyofRadcliffeBrown.Thenewresearchstudenthadtojoinonecamportheother.Thishadtodoinpartwithwhereonewantedtowork.Ingeneral,FortesdirectedtheAfricanists,withthehelpofhislieutenant,JackGoody,whileanybodytravellingEastofSuezworkedwithLeach.(Therestoftheworldwasdividedupasconvenient.)Butthisinitial

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choiceentailedanintellectualorientationaswell.TheAfricanistswereexpectedtoworkinthetraditionofRadcliffeBrown.TherestjoinedLeachintheMalinowskiancamp.Theywerealso,somewhatconfusingly,introducedtothestructuralistanthropologyofClaudeLviStrauss,towhichLeachwasincreasinglycommitted.

AuniversitylikeCambridgeisanefficientengineofacculturation.Thedepartmentitselfimpressedaveryspecificacademicidentityonthenewrecruit.WithinacoupleoftermsitwouldturnoutafledgingFortesianAfricanistorstructuralistSouthAsianist,armedwithsomeideasbutaboveallwithstrongloyalties.Theseconvictionswereinculcatedwithaminimumofdirectinstruction.Onehadtopickupagreatdealononesown.WealsoallimbibedthefaiththatfieldresearchintheMalinowskianmannerbyparticipantobservationwouldyieldamoreaccurateviewofanotherwayoflifethananyothermethod.Buthowwasitdone?Weputnervousquestionstothefacultybutweretoldthattherewasnofixedprocedure,nothingthatcouldbetaught.Theimportantthingstobearinmindwerethatonehadtoremainhealthyandongoodtermswiththeauthorities,andkeepduplicatesoffieldnotes,sendingcopieshomeasoftenaspossible.

Thatwastheestablishedtradition.Theveteransboastedthattheyhadgoneintothefieldwithoutanyguidanceor,atbest,withrisibleandconflictingpiecesofadviceonmattersofetiquette.Thegreatethnographer,EdwardEvansPritchard,claimedthathewastoldbyhissupervisorCharlesSeligmantokeephishandsoffthelocalgirls,whileMalinowskiadvisedhimtotakeanativemistressassoonaspossible.Andyet,ofcourse,thedirectiveswereintheirwayexplicitenough,perhapsallthemorepowerfulforbeingpurveyedthroughindirectionand,especially,bywayofpersonalanecdote.

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Clicktoenlarge (http://aotcpress.com/wpcontent/uploads/adam2.jpg)

III

Imissedthebigbangofthelate1960sIspentthoseyearsinBotswanaandUganda.In1970,whenIreturned,itwastoaprofoundlychangedBritishuniversityworldandtoadisciplineunderthreat.HardlyhadIbeguntogetmybearingsthanIsaacSchaperainvitedmetowriteanaccountofmodernBritishsocialanthropology.Ihadnotforamomentcontemplatedsuchaproject.He,nodoubthadhis

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reasons,neverentirelycleartome.Anyway,young,heedless,andratherhardup,Itookiton,interviewedthemorecooperativeoftheeldersandorganizedaseminarseriesatwhichseveralofthemwerepersuadedtoreminisce.

Newsoftheprojectdrewamixedresponse.Someseniorcolleagueswerecautious,evenfurtive,readiertopurveyunreliableanecdotesabouttheircontemporariesthantotalkopenlyaboutthemselves.Twoorthreeweredeliberatelyobstructive.YetIwasnotpreparedforthereactionsthatpublicationprovoked.Itwas,ofcourse,ayoungmansbook,andthetonelackedreverence.Thiswas,afterall,theSixties,stillinfullflowintheearly1970s.Iappreciatedthatsomemightfeelthatitdealttoomuchinpersonalities.HereandthereIhadtouchedonmattersthatwerestillcontroversial.Nevertheless,Iwasastonishedbytheemotionalresponseofsomeoftheoldergeneration.FromManchester,MaxGluckmanengagedmeinafuriouscorrespondence.Thedeanoftheprofession,SirRaymondFirth,madeitclearthathewasnotamused.ItwasonlyaftertwodecadesthatLadyFirthcoulddrawmeasideandtellme,Raymondhasforgivenyou.YoungfogeysintheOxfordfactionofsocialanthropologywereevenmoresplenetic.ForthenexttwodecadesmybookwasvirtuallybannedinOxfordandhadtobereadassamizdat.

InretrospectIcanseethattheemotionalreactionhadsomethingtodowiththefactthatthebookwaspublishedatamomentoftransitioninBritishsocialanthropology.RiverswastheleadingBritishanthropologistintheearly20thcentury.Hemadeseveralshorttermfieldexpeditions.TheoreticallyhedrewontheevolutionismoftheVictoriansandlaterfromtheGermangeographicalschool.Theseapproacheswererejectedbytheleadersofthenextgeneration,MalinowskiandRadcliffeBrown.Malinowskipioneerednewmethodsoffieldresearch.RadcliffeBrownintroducedthesociologicaltheoryofmileDurkheim.RadcliffeBrownwasRiverssfirststudentinanthropology,andhewascastinghisargumentsintheformofacritiqueofRiverstwentyyearsafterhisteacherhaddied.BronislawMalinowskiworkedinMelanesia,aboutwhichRivershadwrittenhismasterpiece,andheonceboastedthatifRivershadbeentheRiderHaggardofanthropology,hewouldbeitsConrad.Togetherthetwofoundingfathersestablishedwhatamountedtoanewtraditionofintellectualenquiry,whichcamelooselytobecalledfunctionalistanthropology,orsimplyBritishsocialanthropology.

Surprisinglyquickly,whathadbeenaradical,fringeenterprisebecamemainstream.ThestudentsofMalinowskiandRadcliffeBrowntookuptheresearchfellowshipsanduniversitypoststhatnowbecameavailable.AftertheSecondWorldWartheywereappointedtothechairsinthevariousoldandnewdepartmentsinBritainandtheCommonwealth,andtheycontrolledthefieldforthenexttwodecades.Intheearly1970s,whenmybookappeared,theprofessorswereallretiring.Itwasatouchymoment,particularlysince,astheBelgiananthropologistLucdeHeuschperceptivelyobserved,BritishsocialanthropologydifferedprofoundlyfromitsFrenchcounterpartbyvirtueofaremarkabletrait:ellealespritdefamille.

PreparingthethirdeditionIhadrecognisedthatmybookwasturningintosomethingofanobituarynotice.TheprojectinitiatedbyMalinowskiandRadcliffeBrownunderwentacrisisinthe1970s.Adifferentsocialanthropologyemergedinthepostcolonialworld.Researchstudentswhocameintothedisciplineinthe1960swereinfluencedbystructuralismandbytheMarxistideasoftheperiod.TheytooknoteofchangingfashionsinAmericanculturalanthropology,whichwasgoingthroughatransformationofitsown.Somewere

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especiallyinfluencedbyfeministideas.Otherswentintonewsubfields,notablymedicalanthropology,visualanthropologyandcognitiveanthropology.

Isitanthropology?conservativesgrumbled,but,inexorably,thediscourseofsocialanthropologywastransformedinthelastdecadesofthe20thcentury.ItsmostinfluentialexponentsinthoseyearsPierreBourdieu,MaryDouglas,ErnestGellner,BrunoLatourwereinterdisciplinaryfigures.AndnolongeraspecificallyBritishorevenFrancoBritishenterprise,theverynatureofsocialanthropologychangedfundamentally.Itbecameacosmopolitanproject.

IV

Between1924and1938MalinowskisseminarmetweeklyintermtimeattheLondonSchoolofEconomics.Herethenextcohortofsocialanthropologistswasformed.Aslateas1939thereonlysometwentyprofessionalsocialanthropologistsintheBritishCommonwealth,andalmostallhadbeenregularparticipantsinthefamousseminar.

Theparticipantsintheseminarfeltthattheywereengagedinasortofgame,AudreyRichardsrecalled,inwhichtheaimwastodiscoverthenecessityofthecustomorinstitutionunderdiscussiontotheindividual,thegrouporthesociety.

IftheTrobriandislandersdidit,orhadit,itmustbeassumedtobeanecessarythingforthemtodoortohave.Thustheirsorcery,condemnedbythemissionaryandtheadministrator,wasshowntobeaconservativeforcesupportingtheirpoliticalandlegalsystem.Prenuptiallicence,alsofrowneduponbyEuropeans,wasdescribedassupportingmarriageinstitutionsandallowingforsexselection.Thecouvadewasnolongeralaughableeccentricitybutasocialmechanismforthepublicassumptionofthefathersdutiestowardsthechild.[3(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn3)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn3)]

Thestudentscontinuedtheconversationinformallyamongthemselvesthroughtheweek,meetingupintheReadingRoomoftheBritishMuseumduringthedayandinpubsintheevening.Asthefirststudentswentoutintothefieldandreturned,newfindingswerediscussed,freshproblemsraised.Theorieswerestretched,questioned,vindicatedand,occasionally,relinquished,thoughseldombyMalinowskihimself.

ThefirstgenerationofMalinowskisstudentswerematurepeople,oftenwithprofessionalqualifications,somewithexperienceincolonialgovernment.TheywerepreparedtostanduptoMalinowski,andheenjoyedprovokingthem.EdwardEvansPritchardwasrespectedandtreatedwithsomeapprehension(theBlackKnight,theloyalistscalledhim).Notsoanaggingtrioofnitpickers,MeyerFortes,SiegfriedNadel,andaDutchman,SjoerdHofstra,whomMalinowskiderisivelydubbedtheMandarins.StrongpersonalbondsdevelopedbetweenusandwithMalinowski,HortensePowdermakerrecalled,itwasasortoffamilywiththeusualambivalences.Theatmospherewasinthe

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Europeantradition:amasterandhisstudents,someinaccordandothersinopposition.[4(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn4)(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn4)]

Asecondcadreofstudents,whojoinedtheseminarinthe1930s,weregenerallyyounger,andlessinclinedtochallengeMalinowski,buttheyweremorelikelytohavehadanundergraduatetraininginthefield,usuallyinSouthAfricaorAustralia.In1930,IsaacSchaperataughtforayearattheUniversityoftheWitwatersrandinJohannesburg.HisstudentsincludedMaxGluckman,EllenHellman,Hilda(Beemer)KuperandEileen(Jensen)Krige.AllofthemwentontostudywithMalinowskiandbecameprofessionalanthropologists.TherewasasimilarmigrationtoLondonfromtheanthropologydepartmentatSydneythathadbeenestablishedbyRadcliffeBrown.

V

Initiallyverylittlefundingwasavailabletosendpeopleintothefield.MostofthefirstcohortofMalinowskisstudentswrotetheirdissertationsfromsecondarysources,recastingethnographicreportsonaregioninafunctionalistmode,asMalinowskihimselfhaddonewithhisstudyofthefamilyamongtheAustralianAborigines.In1931MalinowskiandtheInternationalAfricanInstitutelaunchedaresearchfellowshipprogrammefundedbyaRockefellerfamilyfoundation.ThissupportedseventeenofMalinowskisstudentsoverthenextfiveyears.TheywenttoAfricaratherthanMelanesia,andthedisciplinenowbegantofocusonnewissuespoliticsandlawespecially.Aboveall,thefunctionalistschoolwasshaped,inwaysthatareonlynowperhapsbecomingfullyapparent,bytheAfricancolonialsystem.Andtherewasapricetobepaidforthat.

SiegfriedNadeldeliveredalectureonappliedanthropologyinLondonin1955.Afterwards,herecalled,anumberofWestAfricanstudentsintheaudienceviolentlyattackedme,allmyfellowworkersinthatfield,andindeedthewholeofanthropology.TheyaccusedusofplayingintothehandsofreactionaryadministratorsandoflendingthesanctionofsciencetoapolicymeanttokeeptheAfricandown.[5(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn5)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn5)]

Bythe1960sthesesentimentswerewidelysharedamongAfricanintellectuals.ThechargewasthatanthropologistsstigmatizedAfricansasprimitive,sidedwithtraditionalrulersagainsttheeducatedurbanpopulation,andgenerallydidwhattheycouldtopropupcolonialrule.

Amoregeneralizedcritiqueemergedinthe1970s.TakingaleadfromthewritingsofEdwardSaid,radicalacademicsnowdenouncedanthropologyasanexpressionofthecolonialmindsetthatregardedcolonialpeoplesasobjectsandconstructedfalseandmystifyingdifferences.ItwasdamnedasabranchofOrientalism,whichSaidcharacterizedasakindofwesternprojectionontoandwilltogovernovertheOrient.[6(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn6)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn6)]

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Britishsocialanthropologywasaparticulartarget,sinceMalinowskisschoolhadengagedwiththepolicyofIndirectRuleinAfrica.[7(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn7)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn7)]Aseriesofcasestudiesappearedthathituponsomeconfidentialreport,orcitedrashpromisesmadebyacademicsinpursuitoffunding,anddenouncedsocialanthropologistsasspiesandpartnersincolonialoppression.[8(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn8)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn8)]Someoftheoldergenerationrespondedwithratherdefensivememoirs,[9(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn9)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn9)]althougheventhebesteffortsofthecriticscouldnotturnupanyparticularlyshockinginstances,letaloneaconsistentpatternofcollaboration.

AlessjudgmentalapproachwasinspiredbyMichelFoucaultsparadigmofknowledgeandpower.Theargumentwasmadethatanthropologyandcolonialruledevelopedasymbioticrelationship.Socialanthropologycouldclaimtobeapracticalscienceofprimitivefolk.Armedwiththisscience,colonialgovernmentscouldrecasttheirruleasaprojectofbenevolentsocialengineering.Anthropologyshouldthereforebesituatedinthecontextofparticularcolonialprojects.Whatneedstobeaddressed,BenotdeLEstoileremarks,ispreciselywhatismeantbyanthropologicalknowledgebeingacolonialscience.Weneedtounderstandthespecifichistoricalconfigurationinwhichsomediscoursesandpracticescouldbeheldasscientific,whileatthesametimeunambiguouslybelongingtothecolonialworld.[10(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn10)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn10)]

BritishcolonialpolicyinAfricabegantochangeinthe1930s.TheAfricancolonieswerestagnatingeconomically.Therewaspoliticalunrest.IntheUK,Labourpoliticianswerechallengingthecolonialsystem.Africannationalistmovementsweregainingground,inspiredbytheexampleoftheCongressmovementinIndia.TheColonialOfficebegantopressAfricancolonialgovernmentstodrawupeconomicplansandtoundertakeadministrativereforms.JosephOldham,amissionarypoliticianandintellectual,whohadsetuptheInternationalAfricanInstitute,nowpersuadedtheLauraSpelmanRockerfellerMemorialfoundationtofundfellowshipsattheLSEforresearchonappliedanthropologyinAfrica.Malinowskiwasselectedtotrainandsupervisetheresearchfellows.TheupshotwasthathecorneredthemarketinappliedanthropologyinBritainsAfricancolonies,shuttingoutSeligman,theAfricanexpertattheLSE,andbeatingoffcompetingbids,includingonefromRadcliffeBrown,someofwhosestudentsinSydneyhadbeensupportedbyRockefellergrants.

Malinowskiwasready.Hehadhisownintereststopromote,andaboveall,studentstofund,buthealsofeltthattherewasanelectiveaffinitybetweenfunctionalistanthropologyandthepolicyofIndirectRule.InapaperentitledPracticalAnthropologypublishedin1929inAfrica,thejournaloftheInternationalAfricanInstitute,Malinowskihadcalledforananthropologyofthechangingnative.Theproperethnographicobjectwasnotsavageculturesbutrathercolonialculturesinaprocessofrapidchange.

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ButdespiteMalinowskispromises,theAfricanInstitutesresearchfellowswoulddoverylittlebywayofappliedanthropology.AudreyRichardshadtoadmitthattheanthropologistoftenoffershishelp,butseldomcondescendstogiveit.[11(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn11) (http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn11)]Orperhapsthedemandjustwasnotthere.Itlooksasthoughtheanthropologisthadbeenadvertisinghisgoods,oftenratherclamorously,inamarketinwhichtherewaslittledemandforthem,sheruefullyremarked.[12(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn12)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn12)]TherealityisthatBritishanthropologistswerelittleusedbythecolonialauthorities,and,despitetheirrhetoricwheninpursuitoffunds,theywerenotparticularlyeagertobeused.

Oneproblemwasthatanthropologistswereeasilydismissedasromanticreactionarieswhowantedtopreservetheirtribefromanyoutsidecontacts,andtokeepthemasmuseumexhibitsinsplendidisolationfromtrade,governmentandChristianity.Bythelate1930sthecolonialgovernmentswereallcommittedtotheextensionofthecasheconomy,tothesupportofmissionsandmissioneducation(withsomelocalexceptionsinMuslimareas),andtotheestablishmentofnewformsoflawandgovernment.

ItcouldhardlybedeniedthatsomefunctionalistanthropologistsdidindeeddeploremanyofthechangesthathadoccurredinBritainsAfricancolonies.Severalleadingfigureswereculturalconservatives.Malinowskicertainlywas,inhisveryparticularfashion.WithhisrootsintheantiimperialnationalismofCentralEurope,hewassympathetictotheculturalnationalismofhisstudentJomoKenyatta.HewroteaglowingprefacetoKenyattasethnography,FacingMountKenya,andhelatersupportedthetribalnationalismoftheSwaziKing,Sobhuza.MalinowskiwouldclaimthatspeakingasaPole,onbehalfoftheAfrican,IcanputmyownexperienceasasavagefromEasternEuropesidebysidewiththeKikuyu,ChaggaorBechwana.[13(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn13)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn13)]

Malinowskiwasneverpoliticallycorrect,buthispositionwasverydifferentfromthefranklyracistcolonialorthodoxy,inthralltostereotypednotionsofAfricanmentality,contemptuousofAfricancivilisations.Hewasmoreinsympathywithastrandofliberalthinkingoncolonialpolicyinthe1920sand1930s,whichtendedtoregardchangeasdangerous.Thepremisewasthatculturesallhaveavalue,whichshouldberespected,andthattribalculturesarepeculiarlyvulnerabletocorruption,evendisintegration,oncontactwithoutsideforces.Thereforetheforcesofdecencyshouldberangedagainstradicalchangesofanykind.LiberalswarredparticularlyagainsttheforcesofchangethathadmostobviouslydamagedAfricaninterestswhitesettlement,migrantlabour,andsoforth.Malinowskigavethisviewafunctionalisttwist.Thenativewasbeingforcedtolabouronproductshedidnotwishtoproducesothathemightsatisfyneedsthathedidnotwishtosatisfy.[14(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn14)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn14)]

Someculturalconservativesbecameadvocatesforthesectionalinterestsofparticulartribalelites.Othersteamedupwithprogressive

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colonialofficials:inUganda,AudreyRichardsworkedcloselywithSirAndrewCohen,anenlightenedGovernor.Butbynomeansallthesocialanthropologistswereeitherconservativesorliberalimperialists.TheColonialOfficewasalwaysonguardagainstradicals,communistsandagitatorswho,itfeared,werebeingslippedintothefieldbyguilelessprofessorsbackhome.

TherewasalsoacountercurrentwithinthesmallcommunityofBritishsocialanthropologists,aprincipledresistancetoappliedresearchthatbegantobearticulatedinthelate1930s.IntheconclusiontohisMalinowskianmonograph,WetheTikopia,publishedin1936,RaymondFirthwarnedthatsciencewasindangerofbeingcaughtupbypracticalinterestsandmadetoservethem,totheneglectofitsownproblems.Socialanthropologyshouldbecommittedtounderstandingsocialgroupsnotwithtryingtomakethembehaveinanyparticularwaybyassistinganadministrativepolicy.

FirthchangedhistunewhenhelandedabigroleintheColonialSocialScienceResearchCouncil,butthepuristlinewasassertedevenmorestronglyinOxford.InreactiontoMalinowskismonopolyofRockefellerFunds,andhisaccesstotheColonialOffice,EvansPritcharddenouncedappliedresearchandinsistedthatsocialanthropologyshouldbeastrictlyacademicpursuit.HetooktoreferringtotheLSEasthe.s.d.,andin1934hewrotefromCairotoMeyerFortes:

Therackethereisveryamusing.Itwouldbemoresoifitwerenotdisastroustoanthropology.EveryoneisadvisinggovernmentRaymond[Firth],Forde,Audrey[Richards],Schapera.NooneisdoinganyrealanthropologicalworkallareclingingtotheColonialOfficeCoach.Thisdeplorablestateofaffairsislikelytogoon,becauseitshowssomethingdeeperthanmakinguseofopportunitiesforhelpinganthropology.ItshowsanattitudeofmindandisIthinkfundamentallyamoraldeterioration.ThesepeoplewillnotseethatthereisanunbridgeablechasmbetweenseriousanthropologyandAdministrationWelfarework.[15(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn15) (http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn15)]

VI

Britishsocialanthropologyflourishedasadistinctiveintellectualmovementforjustfiftyyears,fromtheearly1920stotheearly1970s.Thetraditiondidnotthensuddenlycometoanend,butitgraduallylostitsdistinctiveidentity.Bythe1980sthedebatesthathaddividedMalinowskisstudentsandhisstudentsstudentsseemedincreasinglyremote.Thefunctionalistethnographiesbegantobetaughtasclassics,notasexemplars.

Avarietyofinternalandexternalfactorsunderminedthetradition,buttheendoftheBritishEmpirewasdecisive.ColonialruleendedinIndiaandIndonesiaimmediatelyafterWorldWarII.Chinaunderwentarevolution.In1957Ghanabecameindependent.WithinsevenyearsvirtuallyalltheAfricancolonieswereindependentstates.AThirdWorldwasborn.

HavinglostanEmpire,anthropologistshadtofindarole.Thiswasnotstraightforward.IntellectualschargedthattheywereOrientalistswhoviewedcolonialpeoplesasobjects,andconstructedfalseandmystifyingdifferences.Nationalistsfrettedthattheirresearch

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encouragedtribalism.Accordingtodependencytheory,muchfavouredbyLatinAmericanwriters,humanliveseverywherewereultimatelyshapedbymultinationalcompanies.Toemphasiselocalculturaldifferenceswastodrawaveiloverthisdeeperreality.

Thechargeofcomplicityandcomplacencywasunsettling,butamoreseriousproblemhadtobefaced.Theanthropologistsneededtothinkagainabouttheverynatureoftheirscientificobject.ColonialnativeshadoncebeenlooselyidentifiedasPrimitives.Bythe1970sfewBritishanthropologistswereusingtheoldidiomofprimitivesorsavages,exceptinafitofabsentmindedness,or,likeMalinowski,ironically.Theynolongerseriouslybelievedthattherewasadistinctcategoryoftribalsocieties,forwhichaspecialtheoryhadtobeconstructed.Yetanthropologywasassociatedwiththeintellectuallyindefensibleandpoliticallyunsavouryideathatthecolonialpeopleswereuncivilized,backward,andverydifferentfromEuropeans.Fewanthropologistsaddressedthesepopularmisconceptions.Perhapstheoldnotionshadevenbeenratherconvenient,sincetheyshieldedethnographersfromticklishquestionsaboutwhytheyspentsomuchtimeinthecolonies.

Andyes,manyanthropologistsdidindeeddotheirfieldworkinAfrica,OceaniaandtheAmazon.Amoreconsidereddefenseofresearchprioritieswasnowrequired.Ifthosefolkdidnotrepresentadifferent,tribalworld,whyweretheytheprivilegedsubjectsforethnographicresearch?Andifsocialanthropologydidnothaveitsspecialfieldofresearchaparticulartypeofsocietyandculturethenwhatcoulditcontributetothebroaderdiscourseofthesocialsciences?

Threepossibleanswerstothesequestionswerefloated,perhapseventhreeandahalf,butnonewasentirelypersuasive.Thefirstoptionwastoinsistthatsocialanthropologistshadindeedhonedspecialmethodsfordoingresearchinnot,ofcourse,Heavenforbid,primitivesocieties.Therewasasearchforeuphemismspreliteratepeoples,orbetterstill,lesspatronizing,theOther:thenonwestern.(Apopularintroductiontosocialanthropology,publishedin1966,wasentitledOtherCultures.)[16(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn16) (http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn16)]Inanycase,theclaimwasthatwhenitcametotheseOtherCulturesanthropologistscoulddrawonastoreofaccumulatedwisdom.Inshort,socialanthropologydidpossessitsownpropersubjectmatter,evenifitwasnteasytogiveitaname.

Thiswasnotanunproblematicclaim,however,ifonlybecauselocalethnographersinAsiaandLatinAmericaparticularlyweremakingstudiesathome,althoughusuallyinthepoorestandmostmarginalcommunitiesintheircountries.NeverthelessIcantestifyfrommyownexperiencethatresearchstudentsintheearly1960swerefirmlygiventounderstandthattowintheirspurstheyhadtostudyforeigners,themoreforeign,andthefurtheraway,thebetter.Thatwasthecoremissionofthediscipline.AnyonewhoinsistedondoingfieldworkonlyorevenmainlyinBritainriskedbeingexiledtoadepartmentofsociology.

Asecondclaim,atvariancewiththefirst,wasthattheethnographersmagiccouldworkverywellathome,oranyway,quiteneartohome.AfterWorldWarII,socialanthropologistshadventuredintoEurope,ifonlytotheperiphery,seekingoutlineagesinaGreekisland,ordowrysystemsinAndalucia,orperhapsdescribinglifeinawindsweptislandsomewherebetweenScotlandandNorway.Iremember

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EdmundLeachreturningfromaholidayinPortugalintheearly1960sandreportingthathehadseenpeasantsploughingwithbullocks.Someoneshouldgooutandstudythem.

MalinowskismagicmightevenbemadetoworkinBritainitself.In1937theanthropologistTomHarrissonlaunchedMassObservation,whichrecruitedamateur,parttimeobserverstoconstructacollaborativepopularethnographyofeverydaylife.[17(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn17)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn17)](EvansPritcharddenouncedMalinowskiasabloodygasbagbecausehelookedkindlyonthemassobservationbilge.)[18(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn18) (http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn18)]AsBritainsbombedoutcitieswererebuiltafterWorldWarII,andnewurbancommunitiesplanned,therewasawaveofcommunitystudies.Afewanthropologistsjoinedin.RaymondFirthandAudreyRichardsstudiedEnglishkinship.AtManchesterUniversity,MaxGluckmanencouragedsomeurbanresearch.Oneofhisassociates,RonaldFrankenberg,didfieldworkinWalesandpublishedanoverview,CommunitiesinBritain,in1970.However,ageneralswitchtodoingfieldworkathomecouldhardlyrepresentanewprogrammeforthedisciplineasawhole,unlesssocialanthropologyweretomergewithsociology,bringingasadowryonlyitsquestionablecopyrightonaparticularmethodofcollectingdata.

Athirdanswertothequestionwhatarewedoingoverthere?wasthatsocialanthropologyrepresentedthecomparativewingofthesocialsciences.Itisobviouslyworthfindingoutwhethersocialsciencetheoriesworkinothersocieties.Dotheirgeneralisationsapplytohumanbeingsingeneral,oronlytocitizensofWesternliberaldemocracies?Sociologicaltheory,RadcliffeBrownhadpronounced,mustbebasedon,andcontinuallytestedby,systematiccomparison.[19(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn19)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn19)]Andwhobuttrainedethnographerscouldputthepropositionsofthesocialsciencestothetestinotherconditions?

ArevivalofcomparativestudieswasindeedattemptedinBritain,butthistookaveryparticularform,areturntotheuniversalhistoriesoftheEnlightenment,anambitiousprogrammethatdidnotreallysuittheBritishsocialanthropologists.ItdidnotfitintothetraditionofMalinowskiandRadcliffeBrown.Anditgavenoimpetustoethnographicfieldwork.YetwhatweretheheirsofMalinowskiiftheywerenotethnographers?Indeed,onelast,ratherdespairing,halfanswertothecrisisofidentitywastofetishizeethnography.Atleastthatwassomethingtheycoulddo,butevenheretheirmonopolywaschallenged.Totheirirritation,someeccentricsociologistsclaimedtodoethnographies,evensuchcheek!ethnographiesofscientificlaboratoriesandfilmstudios.

Atthiscriticaljuncturethesocialanthropologistsbegantolosegroundwithintheirhomeuniversities.Britainssystemofhighereducationbeganaphaseofrapidexpansioninthe1960s.Newuniversitieswerecreated.Butsocialanthropologydidnotbenefit.Giventherequisite

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politicalwillitmighthavebeenpossibletoestablishnewdepartmentsofsocialanthropology.Ashighereducationwasdemocratizedstudentswereparticularlyattractedtothesocialsciences.However,socialanthropologyremainedasmallelitistdiscipline,positionedmostsecurelyatOxford,CambridgeandtheLSE.Throughtheearly1970sundergraduatestudentsinsocialanthropologyweredrawndisproportionatelyfromtheupperanduppermiddleclasses.[20(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn20)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn20)](BothPrinceCharlesandPrinceAndrewreadanthropologyatCambridge.Atthebeginningofthe21stcenturyPrinceWilliamfollowedsuitatStAndrews.)

Socialanthropologistswereemployedmainlyintheuniversities,butbecauseveryfewtooktheirchancesinthenewuniversitiestheprofessionremainedsmall.HalfofallPhDsinthesubjectwereawardedbyCambridge,OxfordandtheLSE.[21(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn21)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn21)]Bythelate1970stherewereonlyninedepartmentsofsocialanthropologyinthenearlyonehundredBritishinstitutionsofhighereducation,employingabout150socialanthropologists.Attheendofthe20thcentury,afteragenerationinwhichthehighereducationsystemexpandedenormously,therewerefewerthantwentydepartmentsandjust230fulltimeacademicpositionsinsocialanthropologyinBritishuniversities.Therewerealsoanumberoffixedtermappointments,manyofthempostdoctoralpositions,andafewpostsinmuseums,whichmighthavetakenthetotalto300.[22(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn22)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn22)]

Atthebeginningofthe1970s,confidencelow,prospectsdoubtful,theprofessionhadexperiencedatraumaticdemographictransition.TheOldGuardbowedout.ThestudentsofMalinowskiandRadcliffeBrownreachedwhatwasthenamandatoryretiringagewithinafewyearsofoneanother.Theyleftadiminishedinheritancetotheirsuccessors,thenewmen(and,eventually,onewoman,JeanLaFontaine),whowereappointedtotheirchairs.Someofthemostpromisingyoungeranthropologistsoptedforpostsabroadinthe1960sand1970s.Thenadirwasthe1980s,thedecadeofMrsThatchersbudgetcutting.Therewerefreezesonappointments.Universityadministrationsencouragedearlyretirements.Therenewalofthediscipline,evenitsreproduction,seemedtobeindoubt.

InthefaceofthesepressuresthecollectiveinstitutionsofBritishsocialanthropologybecamebastionsofconservatism,nottosayreaction.[23(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn23)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn23)]Eveninsomecasesaftertheirretirement,afewelderlyprofessorscontrolledthenationalinstitutions:theanthropologysubcommitteeoftheSocialScienceResearchCouncil,theRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,theAssociationofSocialAnthropologists,theanthropologicalsectionoftheBritishAcademy.SirRaymondFirthwascallingtheshotsinmostofthekeycommitteeswhenhewaswellintohiseighties.HiscloseallySirEdmundLeachwasamajorplayeruntilshortlybeforehisdeathin1989attheageof78,althoughhehadinsistedinhisReithLectures

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thatinourrunawayworldnooneshouldbeallowedtoholdanykindofresponsibleadministrativeofficeoncehehaspassedtheageof55.[24(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn24)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn24)]

Deniedopportunitiesforpatronage,thenewprofessoriatenevertookeffectivecommand.GiventheendofEmpire,theinstitutionaltransition,thedeclineinopportunities,itwashardlysurprisingthattheoreticaldebatestagnatedandthattherewasacrisisofintellectualidentity.

Asifthetimeswerenottroubledenough,thesocialanthropologistswerechallengedontheirownturf,withintheuniversities.Hamstrungbythescleroticstructureoftheprofession,theywereconfrontedbyupstartdisciplinesthatthreatenedtheirmarketposition.

IntheaftermathofEmpire,WesternEuropeangovernmentsdecidedtogivedevelopmentaidtotheformercolonies.Theysetupministriesofoverseasdevelopmentandcastaboutforacademicpartners.InresponsetherewasasurgeofsocialanthropologyinScandinaviaandintheGermanspeakingcountries.IntheNetherlands,newdepartmentsofnonwesternsociologysplitofffromtheolddepartmentsofethnology.TheFrenchoverseasdevelopmentministryfundedmoreAfricanistresearchthanthecolonialgovernmentshadeverenvisaged.InBritain,however,EvansPritchardandLeachhadwontheirbattleagainstappliedanthropology.Theywerenotgoingtoallowarerunofcolonialsocialwelfareresearchunderthenameofdevelopment.Inconsequence,anyanthropologistwhospecialisedindevelopmentstudieswasunlikelytofindencouragement,oremployment,inadepartmentofsocialanthropology.[25(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn25)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn25)]

Theriseofsociologypresentedanaltogethermorealarmingchallenge.Sociologywas,ofcourse,awellestablisheddisciplineintheUSAandinmanyEuropeancountries,butuntilthe1960sithadonlyamarginalpresenceinBritishuniversities.Thenitsuddenlytookoff,encouragedbyaLabourgovernmentandfuelledbystudentdemand.AtOxfordandCambridgetheprofessorswerefranklyterrifiedthattheirstudentswoulddeserttothismoreradicalandmorerelevantsocialscience.EvansPritchardwrotetoremindtheViceChancellorofOxfordUniversitythatsociologyhadbeentaughtintheInstituteofSocialAnthropologysince1910.PerhapsforgettinghisapostasyfromRadcliffeBrownsprogramme,orperhapscrossinghisfingersbehindhisback,heinsistedthatsocialanthropologyisandalwayshasbeenregardedascomparativesociology.AndinalatermemorandumtotheViceChancellorhesuggested,Whynotadepartmentofsociologytheprofessorofwhichshouldalwaysbeaprofessorofsocialanthropology?[26(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn26)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn26)]Whenatlast,in1969,CambridgeUniversityestablishedachairofsociology,MeyerFortesusedhispoliticalskillstosecuretheappointmentofasocialanthropologist,JohnBarnes.

BossingthesocialsciencefacultyatManchesterUniversity,MaxGluckmanhadencouragedsomeresearchinBritain,evenonfactoriesand

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urbancommunities.Yethepanickedwhentheuniversitydecidedtoestablishadepartmentofsociology.Gluckmansresponsewastoputuponeofhisownpeople,PeterWorsley,forthechair.Heappointedmeashispupiltheonlyconcernhehadwasthatsociologywouldntovertakeanthropology,Worsleyrecalled.Butthiscunningplancouldntwork.Threequartersofthefacultystudentswantedtodosociologywehad700students,andtheyonlyhad40,Worsleysaid.Iagreedtoalimittoexpansionism,butMaxpushedformoreconcessions.[27(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn27)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn27)]Therewasanacrimoniouspartingoftheways.

AsDavidMillsnotes,nosociologistswereofferedjobsinanthropologydepartments,andanthropologistsgettingjobsinsociologydepartmentswereseenasleavingthediscipline.[28(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn28)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn28)]Byandlarge,theBritishanthropologistsbeataretreatinthefaceofsociology.Sociologywasaboutmodern,industrial,westernsocieties.Verywell,socialanthropologywasdefinedasthescienceoftheRest,theothercultures.Theyalsostucktotraditionaltopicsofresearch.Evenwhentheirfieldworktookthemtosocietiesinthethroesofrevolutionarychange,theytypicallychosetostudycosmologiesandkinshipsystems.

Aboveall,socialanthropologyrequiredafreshtheoreticalproject.Thedisciplinemightclaimtohaveitsownmeasureoftheorytocontribute.Afterall,anthropologistshadideasaboutkinship,gender,ritual,classification,taboo,totemism,witchcraft,systemsofexchange,patronclientrelationshipsandsoon.Thesewerenotallpremodernissues.Manyhadanaloguesinallsocieties.Morebroadly,culturetheorycouldbeidentifiedasananthropologicalinspiration,thoughnotperhapswithmuchconvictiononthepartofBritishsocialanthropologists.AndthoseofastructuralistbentmightevenaspiretoworkwithneuroscientiststocompletetheprojectofLviStraussanddeliveracomparativeaccountofhumanwaysofthinking.

However,TheSixties,adecadeofcarnivalandradicalnewideasstillgoingstronginthe1970swasatraumaticperiodforallthesocialsciences.Theorthodoxieswerepummelled,theoldauthoritiesridiculed.Thestandardtheory,structuralfunctionalism,wasdenouncedasreactionary,impotentinthefaceofchange,aninstrumentforsocialcontrol.Theoldschoolwasnotwiththemovement.ANewLeftsociologist,AlvinGouldner,publishedafamouspolemicin1970entitledFromPlatotoParsons:TheInfrastructureofConservativeSocialTheory.[29(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn29)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn29)]StudentsdemonstratinginParisin1968heldupbannersproclaimingStructuresDoNotTakeToTheStreets.Attheveryleast,therewasaneedfornewideasabouthowsocietieschangedorenteredthemodernworld,aspeopleputitatthetime.

Durkheimandhissuccessorshadnothingtosayaboutsocialchangeorabouttheeconomic,politicalandreligiouscurrentsthatswept

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acrossnationalboundaries.Yetwhiletheethnographermightstillbeworkinginaremotevillage,thevillagerswereusuallywellawarethattheylivedinalargerworld.Theclassicalmodelstendedtoignorethisfactandtoassumethatsocietiesandculturescoincided,andthattheirboundarieswererealandrigid,andthattheywereinastateofequilibrium(thoughtherewereexceptions,notablyEvansPritchardsstudyoftheSanuniofCyrenaica,LeachsoftheKachinandErnestGellnersoftheBerbersoftheAtlasmountainsinMorocco).[30(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn30)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn30)]

TheseweaknessesmadesocialanthropologyvulnerabletoaMarxistcritique.CompetitiveMarxistanthropologiesemergedinParisinthe1970s.SomeBritishscholarswereinterested,evenexcitedbythesenewideas.AMarxistcargocultsweptstudentsinUniversityCollegeLondonandcaughtupsomeofthestaff.Aradicaljournal,CritiqueofAnthropology,waslaunched.Thenverysuddenly,inthemid1980s,Glasnostbrokeout.AfewyearslatertheSovietEmpireimploded.ThemoodchangedintheWest.Therewasashifttoamorepersonalpolitics,apoliticsofidentityandrepresentation.Culturebecameakeyword,andwithinEuropeananthropologysomecametofeelthatperhaps,afterall,Americananthropologyhadbeenrighttotakecultureasitssubjectratherthansocialstructure.

CliffordGeertzwasrenewingtheprojectofinterpretiveanthropology,andrefiningandcuttingbackthenotionofculture.Inthe1990sinterpretiveanthropologyseemedsetforawhiletosweeptheboardonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.EveninitsBritishheartlands,socialanthropologybarelyresistedtranslationintoculturalstudies(yetanothernewdisciplinetothreatentheiridentity).

However,theculturalistdiscourseexcludedmuchthathadbeencentraltothesocialanthropology.Politicswastreatedsimplyasrhetoric.Ethnicidentitywasmerelyanideologicalconstruction.Religionswerereducedtocosmologies.Kinshipwasasymbolicstatementaboutsharedidentity,notasystemofworkingconnectionsonwhichpeopledependedfordearlife.Economicswasaboutconceptionsofnature,productionandreproduction,butexcludedsuchmundanefactorsaslandlaw,labour,budgets,orcalculationsofprofitandloss.Ethnographieswere,atbest,tentativeessaysinthedifficultiesofinterculturalcommunication.

Thereisaprofoundgulfbetweentheculturalistsandthoseanthropologistswhoregardthemselvesassocialscientists.Fromtheidealistpointofviewoftheculturalists,culturesareapparentlyverydifferent,evenincommensurate.Indeed,theculturalistscelebratetheveryvariouswaysinwhichpeoplethinkabouttheworld.Butsocialanthropologistsareinterestedintheconditionsandorganizationofdailylife.Theyareimpressedratherbytherecurrenceofcertaininstitutions,thelimitedrangeofvariation,theverycommonstrategicresponsestotheproblemsofgettingby,makingdo,rubbingalong.Ananthropologythatsituatesitselfinthesocialscienceswouldhaveaverydifferentagendatotheculturalistprogramme.

Whilecomparisonsmaybedifficulttheyarenotimpossible,andthereisveryrealneedforbroaderperspectivesandforbetterinformationabouthowotherpeoplemanagetheirlives.VerynearlyallresearchfundinginthehumansciencesisdirectedtothestudyoftheinhabitantsofNorthAmericaandtheEuropeanUnion.NinetysixpercentofthesubjectsofstudiesreportedintheleadingAmerican

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psychologyjournalsaredrawnfromWesternindustrialsocieties.[31(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn31)(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn31)]Theserepresenta

minusculeanddistinctlynonrandomsampleofhumanity.TheleadingeconomicsjournalspublishmorepapersdealingwiththeUnitedStatesthanwithEurope,Asia,LatinAmerica,theMiddleEastandAfricacombined,accordingtoareportintheEconomist.Anditisascienceoftherich.Theworldspoorestcountriesareeffectivelyignoredbytheprofession,thereportnoted.[32(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn32)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn32)]

Andsonewprojectsareemerging,onawiderstage.TheEuropeanAssociationofSocialAnthropologistswassetupin1989,coincidentallyjustbeforethewallsthathaddividedEasternandWesternEuropefell.Ithasflourishedsince.AnewcommunityofEuropeansocialanthropologistsisbecomingmoresignificantthanthenationaltraditionsthatitencompasses.TheyoungergenerationsharestheclassiccommitmenttoMalinowskianfieldwork,butdrawsonarangeofsociologicalandhistoricaldiscourses.TheyengagewithEuropeanconcernsaboutimmigrationandethnicity,butmanydofieldworkinsocietiesbeyondEurope.Atthesametime,socialanthropologyismakingacomebackinsomeNorthAmericandepartmentsofanthropology,andthereareothervibrantcentres,notablyinBrazil,IndiaandJapan.Amorecosmopolitandisciplineisemerging,multicentred,engagedinarangeofcurrentintellectualdebates.Thesocialsciencetraditionisreassertingitself.

Clicktoenlarge (http://aotcpress.com/wpcontent/uploads/adam3.jpg)

Butitisnotstructuralfunctionalist.Thetheoriesofthepreviousdecadesareseldominvoked,yetyoungsocialanthropologistsreadwidely

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andreflectivelyinsocialtheory.Theirargumentsarecloselytiedtodetailedethnographicobservations,buttheirethnographiesdonotdescribeisolated,bounded,traditional,monoculturalsocieties.Rather,themostexoticcommunitiesarepresentedaspartofthewiderworld,thesiteofintellectualandpoliticalcrosscurrents,echoingtodebatesanddissension.Themostapparentlytraditionalsocietiesarenotpresentedasunchanging,orasmysteriously,orenchantingly,other.Inordertomakesenseoftheirworld,eventhemostconservativeandapparentlyisolatedpeopleappealtoshiftingframesofreference.Magicandreligionoftenappeartobenolesspragmaticthanbiomedicine.Adeptsofstrangecultsturnouttobenolessreasonablethanweourselves.Noristhisalltakentobeasignofmodernity,oramarkerofuncomfortableandillcomprehendedchange,tobeblamedperhapsonavaguelyconceivedNeoLiberalism.Rather,itisthenormalstateofthings,everywhere,atalltimes.Associalanthropologybecomesatrulycosmopolitandiscipline,anewrealismisabroad.[33(#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn33)

(http://aotcpress.com/articles/anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyears/#anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn33)]

[1]TobepublishedinOctober2014byRoutledgeunderthetitleAnthropologyandAnthropologists:TheBritishSchoolintheTwentiethCentury.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn1)

[2]ThefollowingparagraphsaredrawnfromAdamKuper,Postmodernism,CambridgeandthegreatKalaharidebate,SocialAnthropology,1992,1(1a):pp.5771.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn2)

[3]AudreyRichards,TheconceptofcultureinMalinowskiswork,inRaymondFirth(ed.)ManandCulture:AnEvaluationoftheWorkofBronislawMalinowski,London,1957,p.19.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn3)

[4]HortensePowdermaker,StrangerandFriend,London,1966,p.36.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn4)

[5]SiegfriedNadel,AnthropologyandModernLife,Canberra,1953,p.13.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn5)

[6]EdwardSaid,Orientalism,NewYork,1978.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn6)

[7]AninfluentialvolumeofcriticalessayseditedbyTalalAsad,AnthropologyandtheColonialEncounter,waspublishedinLondon,in1973.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn7)

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[8]See,e.g.,PeterPels,GlobalexpertsandAfricanminds:Tanganyikaanthropologyaspublicandsecretservice,19251961,JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,17,2011,pp.788810.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn8)

[9]SeeaspecialissueofAnthropologicalForum(1977),entitledAnthropologicalResearchinBritishColonies:SomePersonalAccounts.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn9)

[10]BenitdeLEstoile,FromtheColonialExhibitiontotheMuseumofMan.AnalternativegenealogyofFrenchanthropology,SocialAnthropology,2004,11:pp.341361,citationp.343.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn10)

[11]A.I.Richards,PracticalanthropologyinthelifetimeoftheInternationalAfricanInstitute,Africa,1944,p.295.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn11)

[12]Loccit,p.292.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn12)

[13]B.Malinowski,Nativeeducationandculturecontact,InternationalReviewofMissions,1936,25:pp.480515,quotep.502.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn13)

[14]MalinowskimemoforameetingwithLugardandOldham,1930,citedbyHelenTilley,AfricaasaLivingLaboratory,Chicago,2011,p.268.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn14)

[15]CitedinJ.Goody,TheExpansiveMomentTheriseofSocialAnthropologyinBritainandAfrica19181970,Cambridge,1995,p.73.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn15)

[16]JohnBeattie,OtherCultures:Aims,MethodsandAchievementsinSocialAnthropology,London,1966.(#to

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anthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn16)

[17]NickHubble,MassObservationandEverydayLife,Basingstoke,2006.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn17)

[18]CitedinJackGoody,TheriseofSocialAnthropologyinBritainandAfrica19181970,Cambridge,1995,p.74.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn18)

[19]A.R.RadcliffeBrown,Thecomparativemethodinsocialanthropology,JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,1951,p.16.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn19)

[20]DavidMillsandMetteLouiseBerg,Gender,disembodimentandvocation:ExploringtheunmentionablesofBritishacademiclife,CritiqueofAnthropology,2010,30(4),p.338.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn20)

[21]JonathanSpencer,Britishsocialanthropology:Aretrospective,AnnualReviewofAnthropology,2000,p.10.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn21)

[22]DavidMills,Quantifyingthediscipline.SomeanthropologystatisticsfromtheUK,AnthropologyToday,2003,19(3):1922.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn22)

[23]DavidMills,Professionalisingorpopularisinganthropology?AbriefhistoryofanthropologysscholarlyassociationsintheUK,AnthropologyToday,2003,19(5):813.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn23)

[24]E.R.Leach,RunawayWorld?London,1968,pp.7374.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn24)

[25]RalphGrillo,Appliedanthropologyinthe1980s.Retrospectandprospect,inR.GrilloandA.Rew(eds.),Socialanthropologyanddevelopmentpolicy.NewYork,1985.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn25)

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[26]CitedinDavidMills,DifficultFolk?APoliticalHistoryofSocialAnthropology,Oxford,2008,p.110.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn26)

[27]Ibid,p.109.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn27)

[28]Ibid,p.111.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn28)

[29]AlvinGouldner,TheComingCrisisofWesternSociology,NewYork,1970.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn29)

[30]E.E.EvansPritchard,TheSanusiofCyrenaica,Oxford,1954E.R.Leach,PoliticalSystemsofHighlandBurma,London,1954ErnestGellner,SaintsoftheAtlas,London,1969.(#toanthropologyanthropologistsfortyyearsn30)

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