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CHAPTER 1

HOME SECURITY SYSTEM:-

1.1 Introduction

A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a

building or area. Security alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and

military properties for protection against burglary (theft) orproperty damage, as well as

personal protection against intruders. Cars likewise protect vehicles and their

contents. Prisons also use security systems for control ofinmates.

Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems

provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined

with closed-circuit television surveillance systems to automatically record the activities

of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for electrically locked doors.

Systems range from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area

systems with computer monitoring and control.

The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to detect intruders, and an alerting

device to indicate the intrusion. However, a typical premises security alarm employs the

following components:

Premises control unit (PCU), or panel: The "brain" of the system, it reads sensorinputs, tracks arm/disarm status, and signals intrusions. In modern systems, this is

typically one or more computercircuit boards inside a metal enclosure, along with a

power supply.

Sensors: Devices which detect intrusions. Sensors may placed at the perimeter of the

protected area, within it, or both. Sensors can detect intruders by a variety of methods,

such as monitoring doors and windows for opening, or by monitoring unoccupied

interiors for motions, sound, vibration, or other disturbances.

Alerting devices: These indicate an alarm condition. Most commonly, these arebells,

sirens, and/or flashing lights. Alerting devices serve the dual purposes of warning

occupants of intrusion, and potentially scaring off burglars.

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Keypads: Small devices, typically wall-mounted, which function as the human-machine

interface to the system. In addition to buttons, keypads typically feature indicator lights, a

small mulch-character display, or both.

Interconnections between components. This may consist of direct wiring to the control

unit, or wireless links with local power supplies.

Security devices: Devices to detect thieves such as spotlights, cameras & lasers.

In addition to the system itself, security alarms are often coupled with a monitoring

service. In the event of an alarm, the premises control unit contacts a central monitoring

station. Operators at the station see the signal and take appropriate action, such as

contacting property owners, notifying police, or dispatching private security forces. Such

signals may be transmitted via dedicated alarm circuits,telephone lines, orInternet.

Concept of Home security Alarm

During the olden days a watchman would be hired to take care of property and offer needed

security in the home. Some homes also had fierce dogs that would be let out only at night. The two

were supposed to provide security to our belongings even in the absence of the owner. However,

hiring a watchman was not an effective method since most of them would be killed in the line

ofduty. Sometimes dogs would attack even visitors while some watchmen looted property.

About the circuit

As we have describe aove this product give alarm when any human body touch any of the matalic

things which are protected by the circuit.This project is working on two transistor which make

complimentry pair direct coupled amplifier this circuit basically a audio osilator for osilation we use

collector transistor DC558 which is connected to the base of transistor BC548 via resistance 18k

or0.2mfd capacitor.Transistor BC548 is working as pre amplifier.when any human body touch sensor

which is connected to BC548.this transistor conduct the human skin conductance.when transistor

BC548 conducting its forced to transistor BC558 to start conducting so we get alarm sound from

speaker.

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Circuit Diagram :

Fig: 1.1 Circuit Diagram

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COMPONENT COST LIST

2.0 component list

Table 1

Name quantity Cost per piece Total cost

transistors 2 5 10

Resistors 2 5 10

Capacitor 1 5 5

Battery 1 15 15

Speaker 1 50 50

Pcb board 1 20 20

Wooden Block 1 200 200

Wire 5m 10 50

Total cost:

The cost of this project is about 360rs.

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Chapter 2

RESISTOR

2.1 Introduction

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its

terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's

law:

[V = IR]

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in

most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and

films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-

chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum

working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature

coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance the value below

which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the

limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and

dimensions of the resistor.

.

Fig 2.1 SYMBOLS OF RESISTORS

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2.2 TYPES OF RESISTOR

2.2.1. Carbon film

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix cut in it to create a long,

narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of carbon, (ranging

from 90 to 400 n m) can provide a variety of resistances. Carbon film resistors feature

a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm

to 10 mega ohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating temperature range of -55 C to

155 C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film

resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.[1]

Fig 2.2 CARBON FILM RESISTOR

2.2.2. Wire WoundWire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome,

around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded

to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a

layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because

of the very high surface temperature these resistors can withstand temperatures of up to

+450C. Because wire wound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance

than other types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately

reversed direction can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or

a flat thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For most demanding circuits

resistors with Ayton-Perry winding are used.

Fig 2.3 TYPES OF WINDING IN WIRES RESISTER

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2.3 COLOR CODING

How can the value of a resistor be worked out from the colors of the bands? Each color

represents a number according to the following scheme: The first band on a resistor is

interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value. For the resistor shown below, the

first band is yellow, so the first digit is 4. The second band gives the SECOND DIGIT.

This is a violet band, making the second digit 7. The third band is called the

MULTIPLIER and is not interpreted in quite the same way. The multiplier tells you how

many naught you should write after the digits you already have. A red band tells you to

add 2 naught. The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the

percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-colored

tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of the nominal

value. Other tolerance colors are

COLOR CODING

Fig 2.4 TOLERANCE TABLE

Tolerance Colour

1% Brown

2% Red

5% Gold

10% Silver

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Fig 2.5 COLOR CODING SYSTEM

CHAPTER 3

TRANSISTOR

3.1 Introduction

Transistor Working

BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN based on the doping a

types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two

semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped anode region, and a PNP transistor

comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region.

In typical operation, the baseemitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-

doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the

basecollector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, when positive bias isapplied to the baseemitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between the thermally

generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the n-doped emitter depletion region.

This allows thermally excited electrons to inject from the emitter into the base region.

These electrons diffuse through the base from the region of high concentration near the

emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the

base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the

majority carrierin the base.

To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collectorbase

junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it

in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the

thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The

collectorbase junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs from the

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collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are

swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collectorbase

junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collectoremitter doping is what

differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased diodes

connected in series

.

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Voltage, current, and charge control

The collectoremitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the baseemitter

current (current control), or by the baseemitter voltage (voltage control). These views

are related by the currentvoltage relation of the baseemitter junction, which is just the

usual exponential currentvoltage curve of a p-n junction (diode).[1]

The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority carriers in the

base region.[1][2][3] Due to low level injection (in which there are much fewer excess

carriers than normal majority carriers) the ambipolar transport rates (in which the excess

majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess

minority carriers.

Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as the GummelPoon model, account

for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour more exactly.[4] The charge-control view easily handlesphototransistors, where minority carriers in the

base region are created by the absorption ofphotons, and handles the dynamics of turn-

off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However,

because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and

voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.

In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is

approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately times the basecurrent. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the emitterbase voltage is

approximately constant, and that collector current is beta times the base current.

However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control

(for example, EbersMoll) model is required.[1] The voltage-control model requires an

exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the

transistor can be modelled as a transconductance, as in the EbersMoll model, design for

circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the

voltage-control view is often preferred. For translinear circuits, in which the exponential

IV curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modelled as voltage

controlled with transconductance proportional to collector current. In general, transistor

level circuit design is performed using SPICE or a comparable analog circuit simulator,

so model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer.

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Fig 3.1 Symbol of pnp & npn transistor

PNP

NPN

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CHAPTER 4

BUZZER

4.1 Introduction

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical, orpiezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm

devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.

4.2

Mechanical

Ajoy buzzeris an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.

4.3 Electromechanical

Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell

without the metal gong. Similarly, a relaymay be connected to interrupt its own actuating

current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling

to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that

electromechanical buzzers made.

Fig 4.1 PIEZOELECTRIC BUZZER

4.4 Piezoelectric disk beeper

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or otheraudio

signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to

indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

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4.5 Uses

Annunciator panels

Electronic metronomes

Game shows

Microwave ovens and otherhousehold appliances

Sporting events such asbasketball games

Electrical alarms

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CHAPTER 5

CAPICITOR

5.1 Introduction

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms ofpractical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors

separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of

metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as

parts ofelectrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops

across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge

on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is

characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric

charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of

capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one coulombpervolt.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of

conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means

of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of

leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The

conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while

allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filternetworks, they smooth the output of

power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particularfrequencies. In electric

power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.

Fig 5.1 CAPICITOR

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A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10] The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an

electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even

a semiconductordepletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is

assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence

from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on

their facing surfaces,[11] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a

capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a

voltage of one volt across the device.[12]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the

ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage Vbetween them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the

conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store

more charge for a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the

capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to

vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

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CHAPTER 6

BATTERY

6.1 Introduction

Fig.6.1 BATTERY

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical

energy into electrical energy.[1] Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic pile")

in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many

household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide

battery industry generates US$48billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are

designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries),

which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many

sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks

the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computerdata

centers.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)#cite_note-Webster-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)#cite_note-Webster-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaic_pilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Voltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000000000_(number)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)#cite_note-Webster-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaic_pilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Voltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000000000_(number)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_aidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center

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6.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

Electrochemical cell

Fig.6.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by

a salt bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions, but not water molecules.

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It

consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected

in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes

electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the

anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to

which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. Inthe redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the

cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes

do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use

two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to

flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion#Ionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion#Ionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElectrochemCell.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion#Ionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion#Ionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte

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CHAPTER 7

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

7.1 Introduction

In electronics, printed circuit boards, or PCBs, are used to mechanically support

electronic components which have their connection leads soldered onto copper pads in

surface mount applications or through drilled holes in the board and copper pads for

soldering the component leads in thru-hole applications. A board design may have all

thru-hole components on the top or component side, a mix of thru-hole and surface

mount on the top side only, a mix of thru-hole and surface mount components on the top

side and surface mount components on the bottom or circuit side, or surface mount

components on the top and bottom sides of the board.

The boards are also used to electrically connect the required leads for each component

using conductive copper traces.

The component pads and connection traces are etched from copper sheets laminated onto

a non-conductive substrate. Printed circuit boards are designed as single sided with

copper pads and traces on one side of the board only, double sided with copper pads and

traces on the top and bottom sides of the board, or multilayer designs with copper pads

and traces on top and bottom of board with a variable number of internal copper layers

with traces and connections. Single or double sided boards consist of a core dielectric

material, such as FR-4 epoxy fiberglass, with copper plating on one or both sides.

This copper plating is etched away to form the actual copper pads and connection traces

on the board surfaces as part of the board manufacturing process. A multilayer board

consists of a number of layers of dielectric material that has been impregnated with

adhesives, and these layers are used to separate the layers of copper plating. All of these

layers are aligned and then bonded into a single board structure under heat and pressure.

Multilayer boards with 48 or more layers can be produced with today's technologies.

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7.2 Types of PCB

7.2.1 Breadboard

Temporary, no soldering required

This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out an idea. No

soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy to

change connections and replace components. Almost all the Electronics Club projects

started life on a breadboard to checks the circuit worked as intended

.

Fig 7.1 BREADBOARD

7.2.2 Strip Board

Permanent, soldered:- Strip board has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The

strips are 0.1" (2.54mm) apart and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Strip board

requires no special preparation other than cutting to size. It can be cut with a junior

hacksaw, or simply snap it along the lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench

or table and pushing hard.

Fig 7.2 STRIP BOARD

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7.2.3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD:

Permanent, soldered

Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the components are

placed. They are designed especially for each circuit and make construction very easy.

However, producing the PCB requires special equipment so this method is not

recommended if you are a beginner unless the PCB is provided for you.

Fig.7.3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

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CHAPTER 8

Working principal

8.1 home security system

As we have describe aove this product give alarm when any human body touch any of the matalic

things which are protected by the circuit.This project is working on two transistor which make

complimentry pair direct coupled amplifier this circuit basically a audio osilator for osilation we use

collector transistor DC558 which is connected to the base of transistor BC548 via resistance 18k

or0.2mfd capacitor.Transistor BC548 is working as pre amplifier.when any human body touch sensor

which is connected to BC548.this transistor conduct the human skin conductance.when transistor

BC548 conducting its forced to transistor BC558 to start conducting so we get alarm sound from

speaker.when we take back our hand then does not connected to base of transistors BC-548.so its

does not conduct we do not get the alarm sound.

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APPLICATION

We can use this security alarm conveniently at the entrance of a hall or any other similar

location to protect the same from unauthorized access as and when desired. Its range can

be extended further to protect the perimeter of a building from unauthorized intrusion by

using a cascade arrangement of multiple alarms. The security Alarm was built to our

satisfaction. This project is about how to prevent theft in homes, offices, banks, museums

etc, This project can be implemented by both wired and wireless technologies. Another

application of this instrument is as an "ANTI-THEFT SYSTEM", that means to protect

vehicles from kidnapping. In short I am sure that this device is highly useful to mankind

especially present scenario.

A perimeter alarm system is one that will go into alarm before an intruder enters yourhome, not after. Many alarm companies (the majority being the free alarm companies)

will recommend a system that focuses on protecting the main entry doors, and placing

motion sensors in strategic areas around your home. The thinking is that should an

intruder enter through any of the windows, they will eventually walk in front of a motion

sensor and the alarm will sound. The problem with this setup is that the intruder is

already inside your house! Now they have nothing to lose and grab whatever they can.

This is especially a problem if you like to arm your system while youre at home. Most

likely you will have to bypass some of the motion sensors to do this, so you can walk

about the house without setting off your alarm. Now, you have a serious drop in your

level of protection, and a false sense of security.

A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a

building or area. Security alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and

military properties for protection againstburglary(theft) orproperty damage, as well as

personal protection against intruders. Cars likewise protect vehicles and their

contents. Prisons also use security systems for control ofinmates. Some alarm systems

serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems provide both fire and

intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closed-circuit

televisionsurveillance systems to automatically record the activities of intruders, and

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may interface toaccess control systemsfor electrically locked doors. Systems range from

small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area systems with computer

monitoring and control.

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FUTURE SCOPE

A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion unauthorized entry into a

building or area. Security alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and

military properties for protection againstburglary(theft) orproperty damage, as well as

personal protection against intruders. Cars likewise protect vehicles and their

contents. Prisons also use security systems for control ofinmates. Some alarm systems

serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems provide both fire and

intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closed-circuit

televisionsurveillance systems to automatically record the activities of intruders, and

may interface toaccess control systemsfor electrically locked doors. Systems range from

small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area systems with computer

monitoring and control.

1. It is use where high level security is required.

2. It has been used where the costly part is kept.

3. The effective ability to be used indoors and outdoors.

4. It could be used as an effective alarm for the house/company boundaries.

5. It uses the normal power outlets and telephone jacks in case it used indoors.

6. It will used where low cost security is required.

7. It is used where high efficient security is required. Because it works with high

efficiency.

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CONCLUSION

I have successfully completed and run my project HOME SECURITY ALARM which

is a simple laser alarm circuit based on two transistor and BC548 &BC558. This is easy

to build and also a low-cost circuit.

I sincerely thanks to Mr. RAHUL MISHRA for his invaluable guidance and all the lab

assistants for their constant support throughout the making of the project.

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REFERENCE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/resistor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/laser

J.B. Gupta (2009), Electronic Devices And Circuit, New Delhi: S. K. Kataria and

Sons page no 56.

http://google.com/buzzer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDR

http://vsagar.com/2011/12/how-ic-555-works-fundamentals-of-ic-555-its-basic-

applications

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/datasheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/laserhttp://google.com/buzzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/datasheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/laserhttp://google.com/buzzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDR