KarmaQ&A

AStudyGuide

by

ṬHĀNISSAROBHIKKHU

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Copyright2018ṬhānissaroBhikkhu

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Note

Karma is a Sanskrit wordmeaning “action.” InPāli, the language of the earliestBuddhistCanon,it’s rendered as “kamma.” Because “karma” ismorewidelyknownin theEnglish-speakingworld,it’sbeenusedforthetitleofthisbook.Butbecause“kamma”isprobablythewordtheBuddhahimselfused,it—alongwithPālispellingsofotherterms—hasbeenusedinthetext.

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Introduction

KAMMAANDREBIRTHareoftenunderstoodtobeteachingsoffateandhelplessness inthefaceofunknowable influencesfromthepast.Forthisreason, they’re often rejected. Many people regard them as Buddhism’scultural baggage: a set of Indianbeliefs that—eitherbecause theBuddhawasn’tthinkingcarefullyorbecausehisearlyfollowersdidn’tstaytruetohis teachings—got mixed up with the Dhamma, his teaching, eventhoughtheydon’tfitinwiththerestofwhathetaught.SonowthattheDhammahascometotheWest,manypeoplebelievethatit’stimetoleaveall this unnecessary baggage unclaimed on the carousel so that we canfocusonhistruemessageinawaythatspeaksdirectlytoourownculturalneeds.

However,therealproblemwithkammaandrebirthisthatwetendtomisunderstand what these teachings have to say. This is becauseBuddhism came to theWest at the same time as other Indian religions,and its luggage got mixed up with theirs in transit. When we sort outwhichluggagereallybelongstotheDhamma,wefindthatitsbagsmarked“Kamma” and “Rebirth” actually contain valuables that are priceless inany culture. Insteadof teaching fate, they’re empowering, showinghowpeople can develop skills in the present that will lead to the end ofsuffering.So,tohelpshowhowvaluabletheseteachingsare,here’sasetofanswers, based on the Pāli Canon, to some questions frequently askedaboutthesetopics.

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BasicPrinciples

1.Whatiskamma?

The word “kamma” has two meanings, depending on context.Primarily, itmeans intentional actions in thought,word, anddeed [§1];secondarily,theresultsofintentionalactions—pastorpresent—whichareshapedbythequalityoftheintentionbehindthoseactions[§2].

2.Howdoactionsdetermineresults?

Skillfulintentionalacts—thosethatwouldleadtonoharmforyourselforanyoneelse—tendtowardpleasantresults.Unskillfulintentionalacts—thosethatwouldleadtoharmforyourselforothers,orboth—tendtowardpainfulresults[§16]

It’simportanttoemphasizethewordtendhere,asthere’snoironclad,tit-for-tat deterministic connection between an intentional act and itsresults.OneoftheBuddha’simagesforkammaisaseed[§§19,47].Whenyou plant a bittermelon seed, it’ll tend to produce a bittermelon vine.Whenyouplantagrapeseed,it’lltendtoproduceagrapevine.Youcan’texpectagrapeseedtoproduceabittermelonvine,orabittermelonseedto produce a grape vine. Thatmuch is certain. But as towhether eitherseedwill produce a strong, healthy vine depends onmore than just thehealth of the seed. The soil, the sun, the rain all play a role, and thenthere’s thepossibility that the seedmightbedamagedordestroyedbyafire, eaten by an animal, or squeezed out by plants growing fromother,strongerseedsinthefieldsurroundingit.

In the sameway, when you plant a “kamma seed,” it’ll tend to givepleasant results if it’s skillful, andpainful results if it’snot. For instance,acts of generosity, over the long term, tend to lead to wealth; takingintoxicants tends to lead tomental derangement. But how strong thoseresultswillbeandhowlongtheywilltaketoripenwilldependonmanyfactorsinadditiontotheoriginalactions:theactionsyou’vedonebefore,the actions you’ve done after, and in particular, the state of yourmindwhentheresultsarefullyripe[§11].

Infact,thislastfactor—howyourmindactsaroundtheripeningofoldkamma seeds—is the most important factor determining whether yousuffer fromthose results. Ifyourpresentactions—yournewkamma—are

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unskillful as they engage with the results of old kamma, you can suffereven from the results of good past kamma. If your present kamma isskillful, it can minimize the suffering that would come from bad pastkamma. For instance, if you treat the pleasure coming from past goodkammaasanexcuseforprideorselfishness,you’regoingtosuffer.Ifyoutreat the pain coming from an unskillful action as an opportunity tocomprehend pain so as to release yourself from its power, you’ll suffermuchless.

3.Ifyourintentionsinfluencethequalityoftheresult,doesthis mean that every action done with good intentions willtendtowardagoodresult?

Foranintentiontogivegoodresults,ithastobefreeofgreed,aversion,anddelusion[§31].Now,it’spossibleforanintentiontobewell-meaningbutbasedondelusion,whichcaneasilydisguisesubtleaversionorgreed.When that’s the case, actingon the intentionwould lead tobad results:believing, for instance, that there are times when the compassionatecourseofactionwouldbetokill,totellalie,ortohaveillicitsex.Togivegoodresults,anactionhastobenotonlygood,butalsoskillful:inotherwords,freeofdelusion.

Tominimize delusion, youhave to gain practical experience inwhatactuallygivesgoodresultsinthelongterm,andwhatdoesn’t.ThisiswhytheBuddhataughthimselftodevelopthreequalitiesinhisactions:

wisdom—aimingtoactforlong-termhappiness;compassion—intendingnottoharmanyonewithhisactions;andpurity—checkingtheactualresultsofhisactions,andlearningfromhis

mistakes so as not to be fooled by an intention that seems wise andcompassionatebutreallyisn’t.It’sthroughdevelopingpurityinthiswaythatgoodintentionsaretrainedtobeskillful.

Beyondthat,therearetwomainlevelsofskill:theskillfulactionsthatlead to a good rebirth, and those that lead beyond rebirth entirely, tonibbāna (nirvāṇa): a dimension totally outside of space and time, andtotallyfreefromsuffering.

4.Howlongdotheresultsofkammalast?

Thisdependsontheoriginalactionandontheactionssurroundingit.Sometimes they last only for amoment, sometimes for a period in thislifetime,afterwhichtheyend.Sometimestheylastuntilthenextlifetime,

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andothertimes—ifthey’rereallystrong—theycanlastformanylifetimes[§1]. There are also caseswhere the results of an actionwon’t appear inthislifetimeoreveninthenextlifetime.Thisisbecauseyourotheractionsget in the way of their appearing. In this sort of case, the results won’tshowuntilalaterlifetime[§14].

But just because you’re born with bad kamma from a past lifetimedoesn’tmeanyou’llhavetosufferfromitthroughoutthislifetime.There’sa passage where the Buddha describes three kinds of sick people: thosewhowillrecoverfromtheirillnesseveniftheydon’tgetmedicine,thosewhowillrecoveronlyiftheygetmedicine,andthosewhowon’trecovereven if they do get medicine. It’s because the second group exists thatdoctorsgivemedicinetoallthreegroups,becauseit’simpossibletoknowbeforehandtowhichgroupasickpersonbelongs[§6].

In the same way, if you’re born poor as a result of having beenungenerous in the past, it’s no sign that you have to stay poor. Somepeople get out of poverty with little effort on their part—this is a casewheretheoldkammasimplyrunsoutonitsown.Somegetoutofpovertyonlyiftheymakeaneffort—acasewherenewkammacanhastentheendoftheoldkamma.Andsomewon’tgetoutofpovertynomatterhowhardtheywork—acasewhere theoldkamma is really strong. It’sbecause thesecondgroupexiststhatpeopleshoulddowhattheycantocounteractthebad effects of old kamma. Even if their efforts don’t yield effects in thepresentlife,theywillformthebasisforhappinesslateron.

5.Doeskammashapeeverythingyouexperience?

TheBuddhausedtheteachingonkammatoexplainonlythreethings:•yourexperienceofpleasureandpain;• the level of rebirth you take after death, in terms of such things as

yourwisdomorlackofwisdom,wealthorlackofwealth,andthelengthofyourlifespan;and

•whattodotogetoutofthecycleofrebirth.Thenobleeightfoldpath—right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration—isthislasttypeofkamma: the kamma that, in leading to nibbāna, puts an end to kamma[§§1,17].

Asidefromtheseissues,theBuddhasaidthatifyoutriedtoworkoutallthe ramificationsof the results of kamma, you’d go crazy [§15].Becausehisteachingdealssimplywithsufferingandtheendofsuffering,that’sasfarashetooktheissue.

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6.Isittruethat“Ifyouwanttoseeaperson’spastactions,look at his present condition; if you want to see his futurecondition,lookathispresentactions”?

That’smuch too simplistic. It implies that you have a single kammaaccount, like a bank account, with your present situation showing therunningbalance.

As mentioned above, kamma is like seeds in a field. You’re plantingkammaseedsinyourfieldwitheveryintention,andthoseseedsmatureatdifferentrates.Soyou’vegotlotsofkammaaccountsatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.All you can see at anyonemoment are the seeds that arecurrentlysprouting.Asfortheotherseedsthathaven’tyetsprouted,goodorbad,youcan’tseethoseatall.

7. Is there a general principle underlying the way thesekammaseedsinteract?

Yes. In describing the factors leading to suffering, the Buddhaexplained the underlying pattern as a combination of two causalprinciples. In the first principle, results arise at the same time that theircause arises, and disappear at the same time that the cause disappears:When this is, that is. When this isn’t, that isn’t. This is causality in thepresentmoment.Inthesecondprinciple,thearisingofacauseleadstothearising of the result either in the present or at a later point in time; thecessationofthecause leadstothecessationoftheresult,again,either inthe present or at a later point in time: From the arising of this comes thearising of that. From the cessation of this comes the cessation of that. This iscausalitythatcanextendovertime[§7].

Anexampleofthefirstprinciplewouldbewhenamentalpaincomesas soon as a desire arises, and ceases as soon as the desire ceases. Anexampleof the secondprinciplewouldbewhenadesire gives rise to anaction,eitherimmediatelyorlaterintime.Becausethedesirewillstopatsometime, theactionandits resultswilleventuallyhavetostopaswell,eventhoughtheymayoutlivethedesire.

Thesetwoprinciplesconstantlyinteract,sothat—intermsofkamma—yourpresentexperienceisshapedbythreefactors:

• the results of past intentions—and this includes all your sensespheres:eye,ear,nose,tongue,body,andmind;

•yourpresentintentions;and•theresultsofyourpresentintentions.

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Pastintentionsprovideyouwiththerawmaterialorpotentialsforyourpresentexperience,butyourpresentintentionsarewhatshapethoserawpotentialsintoyouractualexperiences,inthesamewaythatacooktakesrawingredientsandpreparesfoodthatcanbeeaten.Becausetheresultsofmany past actions, as they ripen, could be offering all sorts of rawmaterialsatanypointintime,andbecauseyou’repotentiallyfreetocreateany type of new kamma at all, these conditions can interact in manycomplexways.

Infact,inyourexperienceofthepresent,yourcurrentintentionscomeprior to your awareness of the senses [§9].What thismeans is that youdon’t simply respond to sights, sounds, etc., after they happen. Youactually approach sensory input with some intentions already inmind.These intentionsdeterminewhatyouwillnoticecoming in through thesenses,howyou’llinterpretit,whatyou’llwantoutofit,andwhatyou’lldowithit.Ifyou’relookingforsomethingtogetangryabout,you’llfindsomesight,sound,etc.,tofeedyouranger.Ifyou’relookingforreasonstobekindtosomeone,you’llfindthem.Aswenotedabove,ifthesepresentintentions are unskillful, they’ll lead you to suffer even from pleasantsights, sounds, etc. If they’re skillful,youcanavoid sufferingevenwhensights,sounds,etc.,arepainful.

For this reason, your present intentions are very important. In fact,withoutpresentintentionsyou’dhavenoexperienceoftheworldofspaceandtimeofferedbythesensesatall.You’dbefreefromtheirlimitations.Ontheultimate level, this fact iswhatmakesawakeningtoadimensionoutsideofspaceandtime—nibbāna—possible.Ontheimmediatelevel,itexplains why even though you may have bad kamma seeds from pastunskillful intentions ripening in your kamma field, you have somefreedom in how you treat the ripening seeds so that you don’t have tosufferfromthem.Youcanbeproactiveinpreventingsuffering.Themorealertyouare towhatyou’redoing in thepresent,and themoremindfulyou can be about how to act skillfully, the more freedom you have tochoosetheskillfulcourseofactionhereandnow.

Thisiswhywemeditate:toprovideourselveswithmorefreedominthepresent.Inparticular,byintentionallytryingtofocusononeobject—suchas thebreath—webecome sensitive tootherpresent intentions, someofwhichareverysubtle.Thissensitivityenablesustoexpandourknowledgeof what’s actually going on in the mind, and this in turn expands therangeofourfreedomofchoiceinthepresent.We’rebetterabletotrainthemind in the skills it needs to create positive present kamma, to dealpositively with the raw material from past negative kamma, and

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eventually to go beyond the kamma of intentions entirely. That’s howsufferingcomestoanend.

8.Ifthere’sfreedomofchoiceinthepresentmoment,doesthismeanwehavefreewill?

Toa certain extent.Aswith somanyother issues, theBuddha took amiddlepathbetweenthetwoextremesofdeterminismandtotalfreewill.If all your experience were predetermined from the past—throughimpersonalfate,thedesignofacreatorgod,oryourownpastactions—thewholeideaofapathofpracticetotheendofsufferingwouldbenonsense[§§3–5].Youwouldn’tbeabletochoosetofollowsuchapath,andtherewouldn’t be such a path for you to choose in the first place: Everythingwouldhavealreadybeendeterminedforyou.Butif,ontheotherextreme,yourchoicesinthepresentmomentweretotallyfree,withnoconstraintsfromthepast, thatwouldmeanthatyourpresentchoiceswould in turnhavenoimpactonthefuture.It’dbelikeflailingaroundinavacuum:Youcould move your arms in any direction you wanted, but you’d getnowhere.

The Buddha took this issue so seriously that, even though he rarelysought out other teachers to argue with them, hewould if they taughtdeterminismorthechaosoftotallyrandomfreedom.

Incontrast,hetaughtthatwehavethepotential for freechoice in thepresent moment, but that this potential can be limited by unskillfulactions in the past. These limitations can be felt both in the range ofoutsideconditionsthoseactionsmakeavailabletoyou,andintherangeof thehabits you’ve developed inside. Still, the potential for free choicecan be developed, particularly in the area where it matters most: ourfreedomtochooseandfollowthepaththatleadstotruehappiness.

OneofthemainpurposesofBuddhistpracticeistoimprovethehabitsyoubring toshapingeachpresentmomentso that theycan lead in thatdirection. Take, for instance, the three habits that the Buddharecommendedaspartofthepracticeofmindfulnesssothatitwouldleadtoconcentrationanddiscernment:

•alertness, theabilitytobeclearlyawarebothofwhatyou’redoingasyoudoit,andoftheresultsthatcomefromwhatyou’redoing;

•mindfulness, theabilitytokeepinmindlessonsyou’velearned,bothfrom Dhamma instructions and from your own actions, as to what’sbeneficialandwhat’sharmfultodo;and

•ardency, thewhole-hearteddesire toactas skillfullyasyoucanwith

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everymoment[§44].Asyoudevelopthesehabits,youbuildafundofknowledgeastowhat

worksanddoesn’twork in leading to truehappiness.Youalsobecomeamore discerning judge ofwhich actions lead towhich results, andwhatreally qualifies as true happiness. As your mindfulness develops intostrong concentration, you learnhownot to be overcome by pleasure orpain—bymaintainingyourfocusinthepracticeofconcentrationeveninthepresenceofintensepleasure,andbycomprehendingpaintothepointof not suffering from it. This increased strength of mind expands yourfreedom.Youhavemorechoicesavailabletoyou,andyou’remoreabletoacton skillful intentions regardlessof the circumstances shapedbyyourpastintentions.Youbecomelikeanexpertcook,abletomakegoodfoodoutofwhatever,goodorbad,isgrowinginthekitchengarden.

9. When people talk about kamma, why do they tend tofocus on the punishments and hardships coming from pastkamma?

Because they ignore thepositive role thatpresentkammacanplay inshaping your life. They think that past kamma is deterministic, leavingyouhelpless in the faceofmisfortune in thepresentmoment—which isnothowtheBuddhataughtkammaatall.Infact,whenheintroducedthetopicofkammatohislisteners,hefocusedonhowitempowersyouinthepresentmoment,atthesametimeallowingforqualitiesweallknowtobegood—likegenerosityandgratitude—toactuallymakesense[§23].Here’swhy:

• In terms of empowerment, the Buddha’s teachings on kamma andcausality explain why we can develop skills that lead to the end ofsuffering.Ontheonehand,becausecertainactionstendtoleadtocertainresults, we can learn from past actions the general pattern as to whatwouldandwouldn’tworkinleadingtomorehappiness.Iftherelationshipbetween actions and resultswere totally random,we couldn’t learn anyskills at all. On the other hand, if past actions totally determined yourpresentsituation—includingyourpresentactions—youwouldn’thavethefreedom to choose to learn a skill in the first place. So the Buddha’scombinationofcausalinfluencesplusfreedomofchoiceprovidesjusttherightconditionsforwhywecandevelopskillsinouractionsthatwillleadtothehappinesswedesire.

• As for the good qualities of the heart, if our actions were totallypredetermined, generositywould benothing special: Peoplewould give,

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notbecausetheywantedto,butbecausetheyhadnochoice.Therewouldbenoreasontobegratefulforthegoodnessthatotherpeoplehavedoneforus:Theywouldhavehadnochoiceinthematter.

Butbecausepeopledohave some freedomof choice, the choice tobegenerousissomethingpraiseworthy.Itmeansthatyouaresensitivetotheneeds of others, and can restrain your own selfishness and greed. Andwhen other people help us, they deserve our gratitude. Their helpmayhavecausedthemhardships,buttheywentaheadanddiditforusanywayoutofthegoodnessoftheirhearts.

In fact, one of the first lessons the Buddha teaches about freedomofchoice is in thepracticeof generosity. It’swhenwe first give a gift—notbecauseweare told to,butbecausewewant to—thatwebegin to realizethatwedon’thave tobedrivenbyour selfishness andgreed.Toprotectthesenseoffreedomaroundthisact,hetaughthismonksnottoputanypressureontheir supporters togive. Instead,monksshouldteachpeopleto givewhere they feel inspired. That’s how freedomof choice becomesrealinpeople’slives.

10. You say that certain actions tend to lead to certainresults.Canyougivesomeexamples?

Yes.Ontheunskillfulside,theBuddhanotedthesetendencies:

killing—toashortlife;stealing—tolossofwealth;sexualmisconduct (having sexwithminors,withpeople already

in another committed relationship, or with those who havetakenavowofcelibacy)—torivalryandrevenge;

tellinglies—tobeingmisrepresentedandfalselyaccused;divisivespeech—tothebreaking-upofyourownfriendships;harshspeech—tohearingunappealingsounds;idlechatter—tohearingwordsthataren’tworthtakingtoheart;takingintoxicants—tomentalderangement;beatingothers—tosicknessandpoorhealth;beingill-temperedandeasilyangered—tougliness;beingenvious—tobeinguninfluential;beingungenerous—topoverty;beingdisrespectfulandarrogant—toalowbirth;

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notaskingknowledgeablepeopleaboutwhattodotobringaboutlong-termhappiness—toalackofdiscernment[§§25–26].

These are actually some of the slightest results coming from theseactions. If you engage in them repeatedly, they can lead to the lowerrealms of rebirth, such as rebirth as a common animal, in hell, or as ahungryghost.(InBuddhism,allofthesestatesaretemporary,andwillendwhenthepoweroftheactionsleadingthererunsout.)

It’s also possible for unskillful actions to have a snowball effect, inwhich one unskillful action makes it more likely that you’ll engage inmore unskillful actions, at the same time putting yourself in a positionwhere you don’t want to hear the truths about the long-term results ofyour unskillful actions. This increases the likelihood that you’ll do evenmoreunskillfulthings.Thepursuitofpowerisparticularlyharmfulinthisway:Youhavetoharmthosewhothreatenyourpower,andwhenyougetused to doing harm, you don’t want to hear the truth of what harmfulactionscandotoyou.Thismakesitlessandlesslikelythatyou’llchangeyourways[§31].

Ontheskillfulside,theoppositeoftheaboveactionscanleadtohigherrebirths—in the human or the heavenly realms—which likewise last aslongastheactionsleadingtherestillgiveresults.Forexample,theBuddhanoticedthesecausalrelationships:

abstainingfromkilling—toalonglife;abstainingfromstealing—tonolossofwealth;abstainingfromsexualmisconduct—tofreedomfromrivalryand

revenge;andsoon.

11. If hurting others tends to lead to illness in the nextlifetime, is illness in this lifetime always the result of pastkamma?

Aswith everyother experienceofpain, illness can come fromawidevariety of kammic factors, past and present. You’ve already noticed thisyourself:Whenyouintentionallystickyour finger ina fire, theresultingpaindoesn’tcomefromanactioninyourpreviouslifetime.Itcomesfromachoiceyoumadehereandnow.

TheBuddhahimself arguedagainst the idea that allpain comes frompastkamma,andinthecourseofhisargumentheprovidedalistofother

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factors that could give rise to illness. The list comes from the medicalbeliefsofhisday,andalthoughitincludesalotofothercausesbesidespastkamma—things like a chemical imbalance in the elements in the body,the change of the seasons, or poor care of the body—all the causesincluded in the listcomeunderwhat, inanotherdiscourse,he identifieseitheraspastkammaorpresentkamma[§§2,5].

So his list conveys two points. First, when the kamma leading to adisease plays out, it canoften fall under the laws recognizedby science.When it does, as when it’s a result of poor diet or body chemistry, theknowledgeofmedicalsciencecanbeusedtoalleviateit—ifthepersonhasthegoodkammatobeabletofindthepropertreatment.

Second, some diseases come primarily from past kamma; someprimarily frompresentkamma. If it’sapresent-kammadisease—coming,say,frompoortreatmentofthebodyorunhealthyattitudesinthemind—it can go away when the present kamma changes. If it’s a past-kammadisease,therearetimeswhentreatmentinthepresentcanmakeitgoaway—inwhichcase,theseedsofgoodkammaareripeningtocounteracttheeffectofbadkammaseeds.Buttherearealsotimeswhenthepastkammaissostrongthatnotreatmentwillhelpit.Incaseslikethis,though,yourpresent kamma—your attitudes, intentions, and mental skills—can bechanged so that even in the face of the illness in the body, yourminddoesn’thavetosuffer.

12. Can kamma get in the way of making progress inDhammapractice?

When the Buddha talks about people who can and can’t achieveawakeningeventhoughtheyheartheDhamma,hefocusesprimarilyonpresent kamma: whether you’re paying attention, whether you haverespectfortheDhamma,andwhetheryouwanttounderstand.Buthealsomentionssomecaseswherepastkammacangetintheway:theprimecasebeingwhenapersonisbornwithdulldiscernment[§§27–29].

However, even if your discernment is dull, there are ways ofcompensatingfor it.AstheBuddharecommends,trytofindwisepeopleandaskfortheiradviceastowhat’sskillfulornot;what’sblameworthyornot;what,whenyoudoit,will leadtolong-termhappiness;what,whenyoudoit,willleadtolong-termharmandsuffering[§26].Thentrytoputtheir instructions intopractice, and ask themquestionswhenyoudon’tgetgoodresults.

Still, there are five actions that, if committed in the present life, can

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makeitimpossibletogainawakeninginthislife—oreventogotoagoodrebirth immediately after death. They can have this effect even if thepersonwhohasdonethemotherwisehasafavorableattitudetowardtheDhamma. These actions are: killing one’s mother, killing one’s father,killinganarahant(afullyawakenedfolloweroftheBuddha),causingtheBuddhatobleed(whendoingthisthroughmaliciousintent),andcausinga split in the Saṅgha, the order of monks [§30]. If done in a previouslifetime, these actions don’t make progress impossible—one of theBuddha’sforemostdisciplesissaidtohavekilledhisparentsinalifetimeeons ago—but their consequences can persist in other ways for a longtime.Forthisreason,youshouldavoidtheseactionsatallcost.

13. What’s the best way to act if you know you’ve doneunskillfulthingsinthepast?

Firstoff, remember thateachmoment thatyou’re still alivegivesyoutheopportunity tochangeyourwaysandengage inskillfulactions.Andremember, too, that actions tend to give certain results, and that thesetendenciescanbestrengthenedorweakenedbyotheractions.Thismeansthat if you’ve been actingunskillfully but then, seeing the error of yourways, begin to act more skillfully, your newer actions will weaken theresultsofyourolder,unskillfulactions.Infact,theBuddhapointsoutthatsimply affirming the intention to act skillfully is already a positive firststep.

So if you’vedone somethingunskillful, recognize that the actionwasunskillful andwrong, but that feelings of remorse and guiltwon’t undowhatyou’vealreadydone—infact,toomuchremorseorguiltcanactuallysapyourconfidencethatyoucanchangeyourways.Thenresolvenevertorepeat that action again. To strengthen your resolve, both for your owngood and for the good of others, spread thoughts of goodwill andcompassion to yourself and to all beings [§32]. If you canmaintain anattitudeofgoodwill toall—wishing foreveryone toact inways thatwilllead them to true happiness, and being happy to help everyone in thatdirection—you’llbelesslikelytodothem,oryourself,anyfurtherharm.

14.Canyougetoutoftheconsequencesofunskillfulactionsbygettingotherpeopletodothemforyou?

No.Infact,oneoftheworstwaysyoucanharmothersistogetthemtoact in unskillful ways, because those actions then become their kamma.Andthefactthatyougotthemtoharmthemselveswouldbebadkamma

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foryou.

15. Is it possible to burn off old kamma—say, by simplyputtingupwithpain?

No. In the Buddha’s time, an ascetic group called the Nigaṇṭhasbelievedthattheycouldburnoffoldkammabynotreactingtothepainoftheirausterities,andtheBuddhareservedsomeofhissharpestridiculeforthat belief. As he said, theNigaṇṭhas shouldhavenoticed that the painthey experienced during their austerities ended when they stopped theausterities,whichmeant that the painwas the result not of old kammabeing burned off, but of their present kamma in undertaking theausterities[§4].

Still,itispossibletoweakentheresultsofbadpastkamma.TheBuddhacomparedpastbadkammatoabiglumpofsalt.Ifyouputthesaltintoasmallglassofwater,youcan’tdrinkthewaterbecauseit’stoosalty.Butifyoutoss it intoa large,cleanriver, itdoesn’tmakethewaterof therivertoosaltytodrink.Theriverherestandsforamindthathasdevelopedfourqualities:

•unlimitedgoodwillandequanimity:wishingforthehappinessofallbeings, and yet being equanimous when seeing that some beings arecurrently beyond help, in that they refuse to create the causes for truehappiness,sothatyoucanfocusyourenergies,notonthefutileattempttochangetheirways,butonareaswhereyoucanmakeadifference;

•maturevirtue:avoidingkilling,stealing, illicit sex, lying,andtakingintoxicants;

• mature discernment: understanding the causes for suffering andmasteringtheskillsneededtoputsufferingtoanend;and

•theabilitynottoallowpleasureorpaintooverwhelmthemind.Whenthemindhasstrengthenedthesefourqualities,thentheresults

ofpastbadkammahardlytouchitatall[§10].

16.Canritualsputanendtooldkamma?Canprayer?Cananawakenedbeingendmyoldkammaforme?

No, no, and no. The four qualities for weakening old kamma listedunderthepreviousquestionareskills.Skillsofthissortcan’tbemasteredsimplyby following a ritual formula,nor can anyone else—regardless ofthat person’s level of awakening—master them for you. You have tomasterthemyourself.

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As for prayer, you can—as away of focusing your intention—make adetermination to master these skills, but prayer on its own won’t beenough to do the job. As the Buddha said, if results could be obtainedsimply throughprayer,who in theworldwould be ugly, in pain, or dieyoung?[§§34–35]

17.Doesforgivenesshaveanyeffectonkamma?

Itcan’terasetheeffectsofoldbadkamma,butitcanhelppreventnewbadkamma.

When people wrong you, it’s always wise to forgive them. Althoughthiswon’tnegatethebadkammaoftheiractions,itdoesremoveyoufromwhattheBuddhacalledvera,oranimosity:thekammicmudfightoftryingto settle old scores. You console yourself with the thought that, if youdidn’thave thatkindofkamma inyourownbackground,youwouldn’thavebeenwrongedthatwayinthefirstplace.Infact,inlightofrebirth,youdon’tknowhowlongtheback-and-forthofthatkindofkammahasalready been going on. If you tried to get back at the people who’vewrongedyou,you’dsimplybecontinuingthemudfight,creatingmoreofthatkamma,whichwouldtendtoleadtoanotherroundofthesamesortof thing. Do you want that? If not, forgive the other side. This doesn’tmeanthatyouhaveto lovethem.Yousimplypromiseyourself thatyouwon’ttrytogetbackatthem.

Bybeinggenerouswithyourforgiveness,youposenodangertoothers,eventhosewhohavewrongedyou,andinthatwayyouposenodangertoyourself. And by setting a good example in this way, you might alsoinspireotherstobeforgivingaswell.Thiswillhelpthemposenodangerto themselves, either. In this way, you not only think thoughts ofgoodwill,butalsoshowgoodwillinactiontoallsides.AstheBuddhasaid,animosities aren’t ended by more animosity, but by putting animosityaside[§13].

18.Canweknowwhowe’vehadkammicrelationswithinpreviouslifetimes?

Therearesomepeoplewhocandevelopthatabilityintheirmeditation.However,theBuddhadidn’tencouragespeculationinthisarea,becauseitwouldgetinthewayoftryingtofreeyourselffromkamma,whichiswhathisteachingisallabout.Andhecommentedoncethat—givenhowvery,very long theprocessof rebirthhasbeengoingon—itwouldbehard tofindsomeonewhohadn’tbeenyourmother,yourfather,yoursister,your

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brother, your daughter, or your son in a previous life. Our roles haveswitched around that much. Hemade this comment, not to encouragesentimentalfeelingstowardeveryoneyoumeet,buttoencourageasenseofdismayoverhowephemeralour relationshipsare,andtoencourageadesiretobereleasedfromthewholeshow[§41].

19.Istheresuchathingasgroupkamma?

It’snotthecasethatfirstyou’rebornintoaparticulargroupofpeopleat a particular point in time and then, as a result of joining them, youassume the kamma committed by earlier members of that group. It’sactually the other way around: First, through your own individualintentions,youdevelopaparticulartypeofkamma.Thenyou’rebornintoa group of people who have similar kamma in their individualbackgrounds. In the Buddha’s terms, we’re “kamma-related,” or relatedthroughourkamma[§26].

What this means is that if a particular group—a family, a nation—suffers hardships, it’s not because earliermembers of that group createdbadkamma.It’sbecausetheindividualscurrentlyinthatgrouphavebadkamma in theirown individualbackgrounds.And remember:Peoplearenotalwaysreborn,lifeafterlife,inthesamefamily,ethnicgroup,nation,gender,orevenspecies.Sometimesapersongoesfromaclassofoppressorstoaclassoftheoppressed,andsometimesback.TheBuddha’simageisofastickthrownupintotheair:Sometimesitlandsonitsbase,sometimesonits tip, sometimes smack on its middle. We’re slippery characters,changingrolesallthetime[§41].

20. As a summary, what would be a good way to teachchildrensomehealthylessonsaboutkamma?

You might try the lessons the Buddha gave to his own son, Rāhula[§42].

Firsthe taughtRāhulahow important itwas to be truthful—and thismeans being truthful to yourself as well as to others. In the Buddha’swords, a person who feels no shame at telling a deliberate lie is totallyempty of goodness. Truth is the basis for all progress in the life of themind,andformsthebasisforalltheBuddha’sremaininginstructionsonhowtolearnfromyouractions.Youcan’tlearnfromyouractionsunlessyou’retruetoyourselfinadmittingwhatyoudidandwhy.

The Buddha then taught Rāhula to examine his actions as he wouldexaminehis face in amirror. Before acting—inbody, speech, ormind—

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Rāhulashouldaskhimselfifheforesawanyharmcomingfromtheaction,either forhimself or for others. If he foresawharm,he shouldn’t do theaction.Ifhedidn’tforeseeanyharm,hecouldgoaheadandact.

Whileacting,heshouldchecktheimmediateresultscomingfromhisaction. If anyharmcameup,he should stop theaction. Ifnot,hecouldcontinuewithit.

Aftertheactionwasdone,heshouldcheckthelong-termresultsoftheaction.Ifitactuallydidcauseharm,thenifitwasanactinbodyorspeech,heshouldtalkitoverwithsomeonemoreexperiencedonthepath.Forachildatpresent, thiswouldmeantalking itoverwithhisorherparents.Thisgivesthechildtheopportunitytolearnfromtheparents’experience—assumingthattheparentsarewiseenoughnottomakethechildregretbeingopenandhonestwiththem.

Iftheactionwassimplyamentalaction,theBuddhatoldRāhulathatheshouldfeelahealthysenseofshamearoundtheaction—shameinthesenseoftheoppositeofshamelessness—andresolvenottoengageinthatkindofthinkingagain.

If,however,theactioncausednoharm,Rāhulashouldtakedelightthathe was making progress, and continue training to become even moreskillfulinhisactions.

Theseinstructionsinhowtolearnfromyourmistakesgiveatleastthreesortsoflessonsaboutkamma:

A.First,theyteachsomeimportantlessonsaboutactioningeneral.•One,youhavetheabilitytochoosehowtoact.•Two,actionshaveresults.•Three,yourintentionsareimportantindeterminingresults,butgood

intentionsarenotenough.Youhavetolearnhowtomakeyourintentionsskillfulbylookingattheresultsyouractionsactuallygive,sothatyougetmore experienced in anticipating the results that will come from youractions.

• Four, the results coming fromyour actions followapattern. If theydidn’t,youwouldn’tbeabletolearnanylessonsfromactionstodaythatwouldapplytoactionstomorrow.

•Five, thispatterncanshow itselfboth in thepresentandover time.This relates to the two principles underlying actions. The Buddha’srecommendation to examine the results of actions while doing themrelates to the firstprinciple, thatactionscanshape thepresentmoment.

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Whenyou slam thedooronyour finger, youdon’thave towait for thenextlifetimetofeelthepain.TheBuddha’sinstructionstocheckthelong-termresultsof theactionrelate to thesecondprinciple, thatactionscantake time to show their results. When you plant a seed, it’ll take time,sometimesalotoftime,fortheplanttomature.

Keeping these two principles in mind as you look at your actionsteachesyoutoberesponsibleforwhatyoudo.Seeingresultsinthepresentshows you that you don’t have to be a passive victim of presentcircumstances.Youcantaketheinitiativetomakechanges.Seeingresultsthat take time to ripen teaches an important lesson in delayedgratification:Don’tmeasure your pleasures andpains only byhow theyfeel inthepresent.Thinkaboutthe long-termharmthatcancomefromindulging in some pleasures, and the long-term benefit that can comefromdoingdifficulttasks.

•Six,evenifyou’veactedunskillfullyinthepast,youcanchangeyouractionsnowandintothefuture.Thisisperhapsthemostimportantlessonofall.

B.Tocarry throughwith these instructionsdevelops some importantcharactertraits:

•Heedfulness, in realizing that your actions can mean the differencebetweenbenefitandharm.

•Compassion,innotwantingtodoharmtoanyone.•Truthfulness,inbeingwillingtoadmityourmistakes.•Integrity,intakingresponsibilityforanyharmyou’vedone.•Wisdom, in being able to convince yourself to choose your actions

basedonthe long-termresults they’llgive,andnotonyourmoodsas towhatyoulikeordon’tliketodo.

C. Finally, carrying throughwith these instructions alsodevelops thethree qualities, mentioned above under Question 8, needed to developmindfulnessandconcentration:

•Alertness, in clearly seeingwhat you’re doingwhile you’re doing it,alongwiththeresultsthatcomefromyouractions.

•Mindfulness,inrememberingtoexamineyourintentionsandactionsatalltimes,andinrememberinglessonsyou’velearnedfrompastactions;and

•Ardency,intryingtodoyourbesttoavoidharm.These are some of the ways in which the Buddha’s instructions to

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Rāhula provide an excellent introduction for children in how tounderstandtheprinciplesofkammaandmakegooduseofthemintheirlives.And,ofcourse,theselessonsaren’tmeantonlyforchildren.Adultscanbenefitfromfollowingthemaswell.

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Objections

21. Doesn’t the teaching on kamma teach people to becalloustowardthesufferingsofothers?

No.Knowingthatyouhavebothgoodandbadseedsinyourfieldthathaven’t yet matured, the teaching on kamma teaches you to ask thisquestion instead:What’s thewisestway toviewotherpeoplewhosebadseedsarecurrentlysprouting?Andtheansweris:withcompassion.Isyourcompassion so rarified that you give it only to people who have neverdoneanythingwrong?Ifitwere,youwouldn’tfindanyonetoreceiveit.

Sowhenyousee someonesuffering,youdon’t say,“Theydeserve it,”and leave them to their suffering. Actions yield results, but nobody“deserves”tosuffer.Thepathisforputtinganendtosuffering,“deserved”ornot.Youlookforthepotentialgoodseedsinotherpeople’sfieldsthatare about to mature, and try to give whatever help that will aid thosepeopleinnotsufferingfromthebadseeds.Afterall,that’showyou’dlikethemtotreatyouwhenyourbadseedsstarttomature.Andinactingthisway,youcreategoodkammaforyourself.

Whenyouseesomeonewho’ssuffering,theBuddharecommendsthatyoureflect:“I,too,haveexperiencedthatsortofsufferinginthecourseofmy many rebirths.” When you see someone who’s happy, he has youreflectinasimilarway,“I,too,haveexperiencedthatsortofhappinessinthe course of my many rebirths.” This reflection helps you not to bejealous of the happiness of others, or to look down on those who aresuffering.You’vebeenthere,too—andit’slikelythatyou’llreturnthereatsomepointifyoudon’tfindawayoutofrebirth.Sobecompassionatetoeveryoneyoumeet[§41].

Asforwhetheryourattemptstohelpanotherpersonwillbearfruit,it’suseful to remember the Buddha’s observation about the three groups ofsickpeople,mentioned inQuestion4: thosewhowill recover fromtheirillnesseveniftheydon’tgetmedicine,thosewhowillrecoveronlyiftheygetmedicine,andthosewhowon’trecovereveniftheygetmedicine.Ashenoted, it’sbecausethesecondgroupexiststhatdoctorsgivemedicinetoall threegroups,because it’s impossible toknowbeforehandtowhichgroupasickpersonbelongs.Inthesameway,theBuddhasaid,therearethosewhowillgainawakeningeveniftheydon’theartheteaching,thosewhowill gain awakeningonly if theyhear the teaching, and thosewho

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won’tgainawakeningeven if theydohear the teaching. It’sbecause thesecondgroupexiststhatheteacheseveryonewhocomestohim.

Thesameprinciplecanbeapplied tokamma ingeneral:Somepeoplebornwithbadkammawillseetheresultsofthatkammarunoutontheirowninthislifetimeeveniftheydon’tgethelpfromothers;somewillgetpastthatkammaonlyiftheygethelpfromothers;somewon’tgetpastitevenwiththehelpofothers.It’sbecausethesecondgroupexiststhatweshouldallhavecompassionandbehelpfultooneanother.

22.Butcan’tkammabeusedtojustifysocialinjustices?

Only by peoplewho don’t really understand or believe in kamma. Ifsomeonehasthekammathattendstopovertyorapainfuldeath,thereareplentyofnaturalcausesoraccidentsthatwillprovideanopportunityforthatkammatobearfruitwithoutyourgettinginvolved.Youdon’thavetoplaytheroleofkammic-lawenforcer.Ifyoudecidetooppressthatpersoneconomicallyorbringabouthispainfuldeath,youdon’tgetawaywithit.Thatbadkammanowbecomesyours.And if,unbeknownst toyou, thatpersonhashad a taste of awakening, your kammabecomesmany timesoverbad.

23.Don’t people believe inkamma just because theywanttheuniversetoseemjust?

Iftheydo,they’reinforadisappointment.Whenyousowseedsinyourkammafield,yougetthesamekindofplantwhoseseedyousow,but—aswenotedabove—thesizeofyourharvestwillvaryinlinewithmanyotherfactors:otheractionsyoudobeforeorafter,andyourstateofmindwhentheseedripens.Thismeansthataminoractionmightyieldhugeresults,oramajoraction,smallresults.

A long discourse [§11] tells of Aṅgulimāla, a bandit who murderedmany people but then had a total change of heart and became fullyawakened.Theonlyresultcomingfromthekammaofall thosemurderswasthatpeoplethrewthingsathimwhenhewasonhisalmsround.Therelativesof thosehekilledprobablydidn’t think that justicewas served,butthatwashowkammaworkedinhiscase.

Andwe’refortunatethatkammaisn’talwaysjust.AstheBuddhasaid,ifwe had to pay back all the bad kamma we’ve done in the past beforereachingawakening,noonewouldeverawaken[§10].

It’simportanttorememberthatourcommonideaofjusticerequiresastorythatbeginsataparticularpointintime.Onlythencanwedetermine

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whothrewthefirststoneandtallyupthescoreofwhodidwhatafterthatfirst provocation. But in theBuddha’s viewof theuniverse, a beginningpoint for the process of rebirth is inconceivable. Not just unknowable,inconceivable [§15].Thismeans that trying to tallyup the scoreofwhodidwhattowhomisfutile.Theonlywaytofindpeaceistogetoutoftheprocessentirely:That’showwestopdoingharmtooneanother,andhowwestopharmingourselves.

24.YousaythatIexperienceotherpeople’spresentactionsthroughmysenses,whicharemyoldkamma.Butyoualsosaythatthosepeoplehavethefreedomtochoosetheiractionsinthepresent.Isn’tthereaconflicthere?

Remember,theprinciplesofkammaexplainpleasureandpain.That’sit.Likeyou,otherpeoplearefreetochoosetheirintentionsinthepresent,butyoudon’tdirectlyexperiencetheirintentions.Youexperienceactionsinspiredbytheirintentions,andthepleasureorpainyoutakefromthoseactionswillbefilteredbyyourpastandpresentkamma.Yourgoodkammaseedsmay sprout in time to help younot to suffer from someone’s badintentionstowardyou,oryourbadseedsmaybesproutinginawaythatinterfereswiththeirwiseeffortstohelpyou.

25.CantheBuddha’steachingsonkammabedivorcedfromhisteachingsonrebirth?

Notreally.Iftherewerenolifebeforebirth,kammawouldhavenoroleinexplainingpleasureandpainearlyinlife.AndastheBuddhasaid,manypeopleare rewarded in this lifetime fordoingunskillful things—hecitedpeoplewhoarerewardedforkillingtheenemiesofaking,stealingfromanenemy of a king, or telling a lie that entertains a king—and you canprobablythinkofsimilarexamplesinmodernbusinessandpolitics[§12].Sometimes the results of those unskillful actions don’t even show untilmanylifetimeslater—becausethecausalprincipleunderlyingkammaissocomplex[§14].

26.Butkammaandrebirtharemetaphysical issues.Didn’ttheBuddhaavoidmetaphysicalissues?

There’s no word for “metaphysics” in ancient Indian languages. TheBuddhaavoidedtwosortsof issues thatwewouldcallmetaphysical—(1)the size and duration of the cosmos, and (2) the identity of the self—becausetheyweredistractionsonthepath.Butbecausehetaughtapath

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ofactiontoputanendtosuffering,hehadtoexplainthemetaphysicsofaction:whether it’s real,whether it gives results,what determines thoseresults,andhowfaractionsgoincausingsufferinginthefirstplace.Ifhehadn’t taken a stand on these matters, he wouldn’t have been able toexplainhowactionhadthepowertobringsufferingtoanend.

27.Ifthere’snoself,whatgetsreborn?

TheBuddhaneversaidthatthereisnoself.Heneversaidthatthereisaself.Thewholequestionofwhetherornottheselfexistswasoneheputaside.

There’s a common misconception that the Buddha started with theidea that there was no self and, in the context of no self, taught thedoctrineofkamma,whichmakesnosense:Ifthere’snoself,nobodydoesthe kamma andnobody receives the results, so actions and their resultswouldn’tmatter, because there’snoone choosing to act, andnoone tosuffer the results.But that’sputting thecontextbackwards.Actually, theBuddhastartedwiththerealityofkamma,andthenviewedideasof“self”and“not-self”astypesofkammawithinthatcontext.Thismeansthathefocusedonseeing thewaywedefineour senseof selfasanaction.Thenthequestionbecomes,whenistheactofidentifyingthingsasyourselfaskillfulaction,andwhenisitnot?Whenistheactofidentifyingthingsasnot-selfaskillfulaction,andwhenisitnot?Whenahealthysenseofselfisneeded to be responsible, self-reliant, and heedful of the future, it’s askillfulaction.Whentheperceptionofnot-selfhelpsyounotto identifywithdesiresthatwouldleadtoharm,it’saskillfulaction.

In other words, both “self” and “not-self” are strategies for achievinghappiness.Theyshouldbeused—andmastered—asneededforthesakeoftrue happiness, and abandoned when no longer needed. So instead ofgettinginvolvedinthetangleoftryingtodefinewhataselfisandwhetheritexists,theBuddhaadvisedtreating“self”and“not-self”asprocessestobemastered,astools.

Similarlywithrebirth:Heavoidedtalkingaboutwhat gets rebornandinstead focusedonhow ithappens, as aprocess.Because theprocess is atypeofkamma, it’s somethingyou’re responsible for,and it’salsoa skillyoucanmaster:eitherwithrelativeskill, reachingacomfortable rebirth,orwithconsummateskill,learninghownottoberebornatall.

28.Whatistheprocessbywhichrebirthhappens?

TheBuddha’sshortexplanationisthat,atthemomentofdeath,anact

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ofcravingheadstowardanewbirthinanewworldofexperience.Ifyoucling to that craving, you’re reborn. The analogy he gives is of a firejumpingfromonehousetoanother.Justasafiredependsonthewindtosustainandcarryitfromonehousetothenext,whenyouclingtocravinghereandnow,atthemomentofdeath, itsustainsandcarriesyoutothenextlife[§36].

Inalongerexplanation,theBuddhalistsfourstagestotheprocess:• First, based on ignorance, there’s craving, which can be for any of

threethings:—sensualfantasies;—becoming—aparticular identity inaparticularworldofexperience;

or—non-becoming, the desire to destroy a particular identity in a

particularworldofexperience.One of the Buddha’s discoveries is that this last craving, instead of

puttinganendtobecoming,actuallycreatesnewbecoming.This iswhythepathtotheendofkammaandrebirthhastodevelopdispassionforallthreeformsofcravingsoastoputthemaside.

• Next, based on craving, there’s clinging—you feedmentally off thecraving,inhopesthatitwilltakeyoutoevenmorefood.

• Then there’s becoming, in which a potential world of experience,togetherwithapotentialidentitywithinthatworld,appearstothemind.

Theseworldscanexistonanyofthreelevels:—the sensory level—ranging from the pains of hell and the animal

realm,throughthemixedpleasuresandpainsofthehumanworld,andonuptothepleasuresofthesensualheavens;

—the realm of form—heavens in which the inhabitants enjoy thepleasuresofpureform;

—the realmof formlessness—heavens inwhich the inhabitants enjoyformless pleasures, such as the pleasure of infinite space or of infiniteconsciousness.

Therangeofworldsandidentitiesthatwillappearinthiswayatyourdeath will come from your past actions—in body, speech, and mind.Unskillful actions will produce painful becomings; skillful actions,pleasant ones. This is why it’s important to develop skillful actionsthroughout life. In this way, such practices as generosity, virtue, andmeditationnotonlyleadtohappinessinthislifetime,butalsoprovidethepossibilityofhappyfuturelives.

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•Thenthere’sbirth,whenyoumoveintotakingonaroleinoneofthepotentialworldsofexperience[§37].

These four steps are the sameprocess you experiencewhen themindgoesforadistractingthoughtwhileyoumeditate—whichiswhylearninghow to keep the mind concentrated on a single object without gettingwaylaidbydistractingthoughtsisanexcellentpreparationinlearningtodieskillfully.

29. Didn’t the Buddha teach people to believe only thingstheycanseeforthemselves?Howcanpeopleseekammaandrebirthforthemselves?

The Buddha was very clear on the point that some of his teachingscouldn’tbeprovenuntilyouhadputthemintopractice.Thismeansthattheyhavetobeadoptedasworkinghypotheses.Adiscourseonthistopic[§39]includesteachingsontopicslikethese:

Istherekamma?Doeskammagiveresults?Arepleasureandpaintotallydeterminedfromthepast?Is it possible to experience formlessness?—in other words, does

awarenessneedabody,orcanitexistindependentlyofabody?Isnibbānaforreal?Ineachcase,ifyouwanttoputanendtosuffering,youneedtotakea

positionthatseemsmostconducivetofollowingthepathleadingtothatgoal.

Similarly, when the Buddha was teaching the Kālāmas [§38] to testviewsforthemselves,thetestwasthis:Whenthisviewisadopted,doesitleadtoskillfulorunskillfulactions?

Sothesameprincipleappliestotheteachingonkammaandrebirth:Ifyouadoptedtheseviewsasaworkinghypothesis,wouldtheyleadyoutobemore careful or less careful in trying to be skillful in your actions? Agood experiment would be to devote a year to living as if you reallybelievedinkammaandrebirth,andtoseehowthataffectedthewayyoubehavedandthoughtaboutyourbehavior.

30.Didn’t theBuddha simplypickuphis ideasonkammaandrebirthfromtheculturearoundhim?

It’struethattheword“kamma”alreadyexistedinhisculture,butthequestions of whether kamma was real, whether it bore results, and

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whether you had any control over your kammawere all hotly debated.Similarlywithrebirth:Somepeoplebelievedinit,othersdidn’t,andeventhose who did believe in it didn’t agree as to whether kamma had anyimpactonit.

Sogiventhattherewasnogeneralagreementonthesetopics,wecan’tsaythattheBuddhasimplyabsorbedhisteachingsonthemunthinkinglyfromhis environment. Aswith everything he taught, he chose to teachonlywhatwasrelevanttothepathofputtinganendtosuffering.Hesawonthenightofhisawakeningthatpeople’sintentionalactionsdohaveanimpact on their rebirth, and that if they don’t believe in kamma andrebirth, theytendtocreatebadkammathat leadstothesufferingofbadrebirths.That’swhyhetaughtkammaandrebirthasthemajorprinciplesofbasicrightview.

31. But how could a human mind possibly know thesethings?

There are twoways to answer this question: the typical way and theBuddha’s way. The typical way—which has been typical from ancientIndiauntilnow—istodefinewhatahumanbeingis,orwhatthemindis,andfromthatdefinitiontodecidewhatahumanmindcanknow.If, forinstance,youdefinethemindasjustabrain,andabrainisjustabunchofatoms, your definition of the mind prejudges what it can and cannotknow.

ButtheBuddha’sapproachwastheotherwayaround.Ashesaid,ifyoudefine yourself, youplace limitationsonyourself. So, insteadof startingout with a definition of themind, he explored the skills that themindcould develop, to see what those skills could enable it to realize. Inmastering those skills,he learned that therewas a lotmore to themindthanhehadoriginallythought,andthatitwascapableofknowingmanythings that he hadn’t imagined possible: all the way to a deathlesshappiness.Throughhisexample,he’sshowinghowtodropsomeofyourownculturalbaggage—suchasmaterialistic,Romantic,orJudeo-Christianviews of what you are—and to try on views that will allow you to testwhetherhewasright:bydevelopingthesameskillshedid.

32.Can’t I justbeagnosticaboutkammaandrebirth,andpracticewithouttakingapositionontheseissues?

Eventhoughyoucan’tknowthetruthofkammaandrebirthprior toyourfirsttasteofawakening,you’realreadyplacingbetsontheseissuesall

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thetime.Everytimeyouact,you’recalculatingwhethertheresultswillbeworththeeffort.Thefactthatyou’reexpectingresultsmeansyoubelievein the power of kamma to at least some extent. Even if you deny thatyou’re acting with any expectation of results, part of the mind iscalculatingthatyourdenialwillgivegoodresultsofonesortoranother.Ifyoudosomethingyouknowisunskillful,buttellyourselfitwon’tmatter,you’retakingapositionagainstkamma.Ifyourcalculationoftheresultsdoesn’tincludethepossibilitythattheycouldextendintofuturelifetimes,you’retakingapositionagainsttheideathatkammacaninfluencerebirth.So you’re taking positions on these issues all the time. The Buddha’ssimply pointing out that you’ll benefit from adopting his positionconsciouslyandconsistently:Kammaworks24/7,soit’sgoodtotakeitasaworkinghypothesis24/7.

33. But kamma and rebirth focus on past and future.Doesn’ttheDhammateachustofocustotallyonsimplybeingmindful—i.e.,fullypresent—inthepresentmoment?

The Buddha talks about the importance of focusing on the presentmomentonlyinthecontextofwhathetaughtonkamma:Youfocusonthepresentbecauseyouknowthatthere’sworktobedoneintrainingthemindindevelopingskillfulpresent intentions,andyoudon’tknowhowmuchmoretimeyouhavetoaccomplishthattraining.Ifyoudon’ttrainitnow,you’llsufferbothnowandonintothefuture.

And it’s important tonote thatmindfulnessdoesn’tmeanbeing fullypresent in the present moment. It means keeping something in mind.Rightmindfulnessmeanskeeping inmind lessons from thepast—eitherteachingsyou’velearnedfromothers,orlessonsyou’velearnedfromyourownexperience—sothatyoucanapplythemskillfully,byalsobeingalert,inshapingyourpresentintentions.

WhentheBuddha’sdiscussionsofkammatouchonthefarpastandthedistantfuture,healwaysconcludesbycomingbacktothepresent:Justasthepasthasbeenshapedbypreviouskamma,thefuturewillbeshapedbywhat you do now. He discourages people from asking what particularactions ledto theirpresentstate,orwhatparticular futurestate theycanexpect from their current actions. Instead, he asks them to keep thegeneralprinciple inmind—that skillful actions lead togood results, andunskillfulactions tobad—and to focusonbeingas skillfulaspossible inthepresentmoment, ideally for thesakeofreachingawakeningthroughthelevelofskillthatputsanendtokamma.

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Eventhehighest insights thatarise inmeditation focusonkamma inthe present moment. As the Buddha says, you develop discernment bynoticing which of your mind states are skillful actions, which areunskillful [§45]. Then you pay attention to how you can develop theskillfulonesandabandontheunskillfulones[§§20–21].Inthisway,youcome to see how you shape the presentmoment through your presentintentions—which, in the context of meditation, the Buddha calls“fabrications” (saṅkhāra). Even the highest states of bliss attained inmeditation are dependent on inconstant causes—your own actions—whichmeans that they, too, are inconstant. Seeing this, you arrive at awise value judgment: Youwant somethingmore dependable than that.That’swhenyourealizethatyouhavetoletgoofevenyourmostskillfulintentions:not staying in the state of bliss but alsonot going anywhereelse.Whenyoucandropthepresentintentionsthatkeepyourawarenessofspaceandtimegoing,theunfabricated—theexperienceofnibbāna—isfound.

So,inpractice,thepresentisn’tdivorcedfromthepastandfuture.It’stiedtothepastandfuturethroughthedynamicsofkamma,andthegoalofthepracticeistogetbeyondpast,present,andfutureentirely.

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TheEndofKamma

34.Whytrytogetoutofkammaandrebirth?

Becausetheunawakenedmindissoquicktochangethatitcan’treallytrustitselftoactconsistentlyonskillfulintentions.Afterworkinghardtodevelopgoodqualities,youcaneasilygetattachedtotheirresults.Ifthoseresults don’t lie outside the round of rebirth, they’re going to beimpermanent. Your efforts to hold on to them will likely develop intounskillful qualities—such as greed and possessiveness—leading tounskillfulkamma,whichwillpullyoubackdowntothesufferingyou’vebeen trying to escape. The only happiness that’s truly reliable andgenuinely harmless all around is the happiness of nibbāna: free fromimpermanence, free from attachment. Once it’s attained, it requires nokamma,goodorbad,atall.

35. Why focus on issues of skillful and unskillful actionswhen we can instead open up to the sense of non-dualemptinessorspacethatalreadysurroundsus?

That emptiness is conditioned. It, too, is the result of actions—subtleperceptions,butperceptionsareactionsnonetheless.The freedomthat’strulyunconditionedliesrightnexttoourfreedomofchoiceinthepresentmoment.Unconditionedfreedomdoesn’tcausefreedomofchoice,butit’srightnext to it. The onlyway to knowunconditioned freedom is to getmoresensitivetoourfreedomofchoice.Andwedothatbestbytryingtogetmoresensitivetowhat’sskillfulandwhat’sunskillfulinouractions.Asthissensitivitydevelops,we’llbeinabetterpositiontojudgewhenwe’restill making subtle choices, and when we’re experiencing something inwhichnoactofintentionisinvolvedatall[§46].

36. Does this mean that awakened people have nointentions?

There’s no intention at the moment of awakening. But when fullyawakenedpeople return to theworld of the senses, they still experienceoldkamma.Theyalsohavenewintentions,buttheydestroythepotentialforthoseintentionstoyieldresultsaskamma.IntheBuddha’simage,theydestroytheseedsastheycreatethem.Buttounderstandwhatthatmeans,

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youhavetogainawakeningyourself[§47].

37.Wheredofullyawakenedpeoplegoaftertheydie?

Nibbāna is not a place [§§50–51]. When there’s no more kamma,there’snomorebecoming, andeveryplace thatwe experience—both inbodyandmind—isatypeofbecoming.

TheBuddhadescribesnibbānaastheultimatehappinessandfreedom,andhestatesthatitreallyexists,butbeyondthat,hedoesn’tdefineit.Andbecausepeoplearedefinedbytheirkamma[§49],awakenedpeopleafterdeath—when there’s no more kamma at all—can’t be defined, even asexisting or not. But again: To know what that means—and to see ifnibbānareallyistheultimatehappinessandfreedom—youhavetofollowthepathofskillfulactiontofindoutforyourself.

• • •

Infact, theonlywaytoknowforsure if theprinciplesexplainedhereare true is togain the first stageof awakening,whenyouhaveyour firstglimpse of nibbāna, outside of time, outside of space, and free from allactivity. It’s only on returning from that experience that you can knowhowyouractionsshapeyourexperienceoftimeandspace.

Inthemeantime,though,astheBuddhapointedout,it’swisetotakeasworkinghypothesesthebasicprinciplesofkamma:

Youractionsarereal.Theycomefromyourchoices.Theyhaveresults.Thoseresultsaredeterminedbytheintentionbehindtheact.Those results follow patterns that shape both the presentmoment and the

future,evenbeyonddeath.Youcanlearnthepatternsunderlyingactionsandtheirresults.Havinglearnedthepatterns,youarefreetochoosetochangethewayyouact

soastogettheresultsyouwant.A central principle of those patterns is that your present actions determine

whetherornotyouwillsufferfromtheresultsofpastactions.Andyoucanactinsuchawaythatyoucanputanendtosuffering—andto

birth,aging,anddeath—altogether.

Ifyoudon’taccepttheseprinciples,thepathtotheendofsufferingis

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closedtoyou.Ifyoudoacceptthemandtrythemoutinyouractions,it’sopen.

Despitethecomplexityofkamma,thechoiceisassimpleasthat.

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Readings

WhatisKamma?

§1. “Intention, I tell you, is kamma. Intending,onedoeskammabywayofbody,speech,&intellect.

“Andwhatisthecausebywhichkammacomesintoplay?Contact.…“And what is the diversity in kamma? There is kamma to be

experienced in hell, kamma to be experienced in the realm of commonanimals, kamma to be experienced in the realm of the hungry ghosts,kammatobeexperiencedinthehumanworld,kammatobeexperiencedintheheavenlyworlds.[IntheBuddhistcosmology,sojournsinhellorinheaven, as in the other realms, are not eternal. After the force of one’skamma leading to rebirth in those levels has worn out, one is rebornelsewhere.]…

“Andwhatistheresultofkamma?Theresultofkammaisofthreesorts,I tell you: thatwhicharises righthere&now, thatwhicharises later [inthislifetime],andthatwhicharisesfollowingthat.…

“Andwhatisthecessationofkamma?Fromthecessationofcontactisthe cessation of kamma; and just this noble eightfold path—right view,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness, right concentration—is the path of practice leading to thecessationofkamma.

“Nowwhenadiscipleof thenobleonesdiscernskamma in thisway,the causebywhichkammacomes intoplay in thisway, thediversityofkamma in this way, the result of kamma in this way, the cessation ofkamma in this way, & the path of practice leading to the cessation ofkamma in this way, then he discerns this penetrative holy life as thecessationofkamma.—AN6:63

§ 2. “What is old kamma? The eye is to be seen as old kamma,fabricated & willed, capable of being felt. The ear… The nose… Thetongue…Thebody…Theintellectistobeseenasoldkamma,fabricated&willed,capableofbeingfelt.Thisiscalledoldkamma.

“Andwhat isnewkamma?Whatever kammaonedoesnowwith thebody,withspeech,orwiththeintellect.Thisiscallednewkamma.

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“And what is the cessation of kamma?Whoever touches the releasethatcomesfromthecessationofbodilykamma,verbalkamma,&mentalkamma.Thatiscalledthecessationofkamma.

“Andwhat is thepathofpractice leading to thecessationofkamma?Justthisnobleeightfoldpath.…Thisiscalledthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessationofkamma.”—SN35:145

PrinciplesofCausality

§3. “Monks, there are these three sectarian guilds that—when cross-examined, pressed for reasons,& rebuked bywise people—even thoughthey may explain otherwise, remain stuck in [a doctrine of] inactivity.Whichthree?

“There are contemplatives&brahmanswhohold this teaching,holdthis view: ‘Whatever a person experiences—pleasant, painful, or neitherpleasant nor painful—that is all caused by what was done in the past.’Therearecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold this teaching,hold thisview: ‘'Whatever a person experiences—pleasant, painful, or neitherpleasant nor painful—that is all caused by a supreme being’s act ofcreation.’Therearecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthis teaching,hold this view: 'Whatever a person experiences—pleasant, painful, orneither pleasant nor painful—that is all without cause & withoutcondition.'

“Havingapproachedthecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthat…whateverapersonexperiences…isallcausedbywhatwasdoneinthepast,I said to them: ‘Is it true that you hold that… whatever a personexperiences… isallcausedbywhatwasdone in thepast?’Thusaskedbyme,theyadmitted,‘Yes.’ThenIsaidtothem,‘Theninthatcase,apersonisakilleroflivingbeingsbecauseofwhatwasdoneinthepast.Apersonisa thief… unchaste… a liar… a divisive speaker… an abusive speaker… anidlechatterer…covetous…malevolent…aholderofwrongviewsbecauseofwhatwasdoneinthepast.’Whenonefallsbackonwhatwasdoneinthe past as being essential, monks, there is no desire, no effort [at thethought],‘Thisshouldbedone.Thisshouldn’tbedone.’Whenonecan'tpindownasatruthorrealitywhatshould&shouldn’tbedone,onedwellsbewildered & unprotected. One cannot righteously refer to oneself as acontemplative.…

“Havingapproachedthecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthat…whateverapersonexperiences…isallcausedbyasupremebeing’sactof

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creation,Isaidtothem:‘Isittruethatyouholdthat…whateverapersonexperiences… is all caused by a supreme being’s act of creation?’ Thusaskedbyme,theyadmitted,‘Yes.’ThenIsaidtothem,‘Theninthatcase,apersonisakilleroflivingbeings…aholderofwrongviewsbecauseofasupremebeing'sactofcreation.’Whenonefallsbackonasupremebeing’sactofcreationasbeingessential,monks,thereisnodesire,noeffort[atthethought],‘Thisshouldbedone.Thisshouldn’tbedone.’Whenonecan'tpindownasatruthorrealitywhatshould&shouldn’tbedone,onedwellsbewildered & unprotected. One cannot righteously refer to oneself as acontemplative…

“Havingapproachedthecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthat…whateverapersonexperiences…isallwithoutcause,withoutcondition,Isaid to them: ‘Is it true that you hold that… whatever a personexperiences…isallwithoutcause,withoutcondition?’Thusaskedbyme,theyadmitted,‘Yes.’ThenIsaidtothem,‘Theninthatcase,apersonisakiller of living beings without cause, without condition. A person is athief…unchaste…aliar…adivisivespeaker…anabusivespeaker…anidlechatterer… covetous… malevolent… a holder of wrong views withoutcause,withoutcondition.’Whenonefallsbackonlackofcauseandlackofcondition as being essential,monks, there is no desire, no effort [at thethought],'Thisshouldbedone.Thisshouldn’tbedone.'Whenonecan'tpindownasatruthorrealitywhatshould&shouldn’tbedone,onedwellsbewildered & unprotected. One cannot righteously refer to oneself as acontemplative.”—AN3:61

§4.TheBuddha:“SoIaskedtheNigaṇṭhasfurther,‘FriendNigaṇṭhas,whatdoyouthink?Whenthere is fiercestriving, fierceexertion,doyoufeelfierce,sharp,rackingpainsfromharshtreatment?Andwhenthereisnofiercestriving,nofierceexertion,doyoufeelnofierce,sharp,rackingpainsfromharshtreatment?’

“‘Yes,friend…’“‘… Then it’s not proper for you to assert that, “Whatever a person

experiences—pleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain—alliscausedbywhat was done in the past. Thus, with the destruction of old actionsthroughasceticism,andwiththenon-doingofnewactions,therewillbenoflowintothefuture.Withnoflowintothefuture,thereistheendingofaction.Withtheendingofaction,theendingofstress.Withtheendingofstress, the ending of feeling.With the ending of feeling, all suffering&stresswillbeexhausted.”

“‘Ifitwerethecasethatwhentherewasfiercestriving,fierceexertion,

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youfeltfierce,sharp,rackingpainsfromharshtreatment;andwhentherewasnofiercestriving,nofierceexertion,youstillfeltfierce,sharp,rackingpains from harsh treatment, then—that being the case—it would beproper foryou toassert that, “Whatever apersonexperiences—pleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain—alliscausedbywhatwasdoneinthepast. Thus, with the destruction of old actions through asceticism, andwiththenon-doingofnewactions,therewillbenoflowintothefuture.With no flow into the future, there is the ending of action. With theending of action, the ending of stress. With the ending of stress, theendingoffeeling.Withtheendingoffeeling,allsuffering&stresswillbeexhausted.”Butbecausewhenthereisfiercestriving,fierceexertion,youfeelfierce,sharp,rackingpainsfromharshtreatment;andwhentherewasno fierce striving, no fierce exertion, you feel no fierce, sharp, rackingpainsfromharshtreatment,then—thatbeingthecase—itisnotproperforyou to assert that, “Whatever a person experiences—pleasure, pain, orneither pleasure nor pain—all is caused by what was done in the past.Thus,withthedestructionofoldactionsthroughasceticism,andwiththenon-doingofnewactions,therewillbenoflowintothefuture.Withnoflow into the future, there is the ending of action.With the ending ofaction, the ending of stress. With the ending of stress, the ending offeeling. With the ending of feeling, all suffering & stress will beexhausted.”’ButwhenIsaidthis,IdidnotseethattheNigaṇṭhashadanylegitimatedefenseoftheirteaching.”—MN101

§ 5. As he was sitting there, Moḷiyasivaka the wanderer said to theBlessedOne,“MasterGotama[GotamaistheBuddha’sclanname],therearesomecontemplatives&brahmanswhoareofthisdoctrine,thisview:Whateveranindividualfeels—pleasure,pain,neither-pleasure-nor-pain—isentirelycausedbywhatwasdonebefore.NowwhatdoesMasterGotamasaytothat?”

[TheBuddha:]“Therearecaseswheresomefeelingsarisebasedonbile[i.e.,diseasesandpainsthatcomefromamalfunctionofthegallbladder].Youyourselfshouldknowhowsomefeelingsarisebasedonbile.Eventheworld is agreed on how some feelings arise based on bile. So anycontemplatives&brahmanswhoareofthedoctrine&viewthatwhateveranindividualfeels—pleasure,pain,neither-pleasure-nor-pain—isentirelycaused bywhatwas done before—slip pastwhat they themselves know,slip past what is agreed on by the world. Therefore I say that thosecontemplatives&brahmansarewrong.”

“Therearecaseswheresomefeelingsarisebasedonphlegm…basedon

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internal winds… based on a combination of bodily humors… from thechange of the seasons… from uneven [‘out-of-tune’] care of the body…from harsh treatment… from the result of kamma. You yourself shouldknowhowsomefeelingsarisefromtheresultofkamma.Eventheworldisagreed on how some feelings arise from the result of kamma. So anycontemplatives&brahmanswhoareofthedoctrine&viewthatwhateveranindividualfeels—pleasure,pain,neitherpleasure-nor-pain—isentirelycaused bywhatwas done before—slip pastwhat they themselves know,slip past what is agreed on by the world. Therefore I say that thosecontemplatives&brahmansarewrong.”—SN36:21

§6.“Therearethesethreetypesofsickpeopletobefoundexistingintheworld.Whichthree?

“There is the case of the sick person who—regardless of whether hedoesordoesnotreceiveamenablefood,regardlessofwhetherhedoesordoesnotreceiveamenablemedicine,regardlessofwhetherhedoesordoesnotreceivepropernursing—willnotrecoverfromthatillness.Thereisthecase of the sick personwho—regardless ofwhether he does or does notreceiveamenable food,regardlessofwhetherhedoesordoesnotreceiveamenable medicine, regardless of whether he does or does not receivepropernursing—willrecoverfromthatillness.Thereisthecaseofthesickperson who will recover from that illness if he receives amenable food,amenablemedicine,&propernursing,butnotifhedoesn’t.

“Now,itisbecauseofthesickpersonwhowillrecoverfromthatillnessifhereceivesamenablefood,amenablemedicine,&propernursing—butnotifhedoesn’t—thatfoodforthesickhasbeenallowed,medicineforthesick has been allowed, nursing for the sick has been allowed. And it isbecausethereisthissortofsickpersonthattheothersortsofsickpersonsaretobenursedaswell[onthechancethattheymayactuallyturnouttoneedandbenefitfromsuchnursing].

“These are the three types of sick people to be found existing in theworld.

“In the sameway, these three types of people, like the three types ofsickpeople,aretobefoundexistingintheworld.Whichthree?

“Thereisthecaseofthepersonwho—regardlessofwhetherhedoesordoesn’tgettoseetheTathāgata{Buddha],regardlessofwhetherhedoesordoesn’tgettoheartheDhamma&Vinaya[Discipline]proclaimedbytheTathāgata—will not alight on the lawfulness, the rightness of skillfulqualities. There is the case of the personwho—regardless ofwhether he

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doesordoesn’tgettoseetheTathāgata,regardlessofwhetherhedoesordoesn’tgettoheartheDhamma&VinayaproclaimedbytheTathāgata—willalightonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualities.Thereisthecase of the person who will alight on the lawfulness, the rightness ofskillful qualities if he gets to see the Tathāgata and gets to hear theDhamma&VinayaproclaimedbytheTathāgata,butnotifhedoesn’t.

“Now,itisbecauseofthepersonwhowillalightonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesifhegetstoseetheTathāgataandgetstohearthe Dhamma & Vinaya proclaimed by the Tathāgata—but not if hedoesn’t—that the teaching of the Dhamma has been allowed. And it isbecausethereisthissortofpersonthattheothersortsofpersonsaretobetaught theDhamma aswell [on the chance that theymay actually turnouttoneedandbenefitfromtheteaching].

“Thesearethethreetypesofpeople,likethethreetypesofsickpeople,tobefoundexistingintheworld.”—AN3:22

§7.[Thisisthebasicprincipleofcausality,withthestatementsfallinginto two pairs: The first and third statements express causality in thepresentmoment.Thesecondandfourthexpresscausalityovertime.]

“Whenthisis,thatis.Fromthearisingofthiscomesthearisingofthat.Whenthisisn’t,thatisn’t.Fromthestoppingofthiscomesthestoppingofthat.”—AN10:92

§8.Phenomenaareprecededbytheheart,ruledbytheheart,madeoftheheart.

Ifyouspeakoractwithacorruptedheart,thensufferingfollowsyou—asthewheelofthecart,

thetrackoftheoxthatpullsit.

Phenomenaareprecededbytheheart,ruledbytheheart,madeoftheheart.

Ifyouspeakoractwithacalm,brightheart,

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thenhappinessfollowsyou,likeashadow

thatneverleaves.—Dhp1–2

§ 9. [Notice here that intention, under “name,” comes prior toexperienceofthesixsenses,whichpassage§2equateswitholdkamma.]

“Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications.“Fromfabricationsasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.“Fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-&-form.“Fromname-&-formasarequisiteconditioncomethesixsensemedia.“Fromthesixsensemediaasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.“Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling.“Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.“Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging/sustenance.“Fromclinging/sustenanceasarequisiteconditioncomesbecoming.“Frombecomingasarequisiteconditioncomesbirth.“From birth as a requisite condition, then aging & death, sorrow,

lamentation, pain, distress, & despair come into play. Such is theoriginationofthisentiremassofstress&suffering.…

“Andwhat isname-&-form? Feeling,perception, intention [=kamma],contact,&attention:This is calledname.The fourgreat elements& theformdependentonthefourgreatelements:Thisiscalledform.Thisname&thisformarecalledname-&-form.…

“And what are fabrications? These three are fabrications: bodilyfabrications, verbal fabrications, mental fabrications. These are calledfabrications.

“Andwhatisignorance?Notknowingintermsofstress,notknowingintermsoftheoriginationofstress,notknowingintermsofthecessationofstress,notknowingintermsofthewayofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstress:Thisiscalledignorance.”—SN12:2

§10.“Monks,foranyonewhosays,‘Inwhateverwayapersonmakeskamma, that ishow it is experienced,’ there isno livingof theholy life,thereisnoopportunityfortherightendingofstress.Butforanyonewhosays,‘Whenapersonmakeskammatobefeltinsuch&suchaway,thatishowitsresultisexperienced,’thereisthelivingoftheholylife,thereistheopportunityfortherightendingofstress.

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“Thereisthecasewhereatriflingevildeeddonebyacertainindividualtakeshimtohell.Thereisthecasewheretheverysamesortoftriflingdeeddonebyanotherindividualisexperiencedinthehere&now,andforthemostpartbarelyappearsforamoment.

“Now,atriflingevildeeddonebywhatsortofindividualtakeshimtohell? There is the case where a certain individual is undeveloped in[contemplating] thebody,undeveloped invirtue,undeveloped inmind,undeveloped in discernment: restricted, small-hearted, dwelling withsuffering.Atriflingevildeeddonebythissortof individualtakeshimtohell.

“Now,atriflingevildeeddonebywhatsortofindividualisexperiencedin thehere&now, and for themost part barely appears for amoment?There is the case where a certain individual is developed in[contemplating] the body, developed in virtue, developed in mind,developed indiscernment:unrestricted, large-hearted,dwellingwith theunlimited. A trifling evil deed done by this sort of individual isexperiencedinthehere&now,andforthemostpartbarelyappearsforamoment.

“Supposethatamanweretodropalumpofsaltintoasmallamountofwater inacup.Whatdoyouthink?Wouldthewater inthecupbecomesaltybecauseofthelumpofsalt,andunfittodrink?”

“Yes,lord.…”“Now suppose that amanwere to drop a lumpof salt into the River

Ganges.Whatdoyouthink?WouldthewaterintheRiverGangesbecomesaltybecauseofthelumpofsalt,andunfittodrink?”

“No,lord.…”“In the sameway, there is the casewherea triflingevildeeddoneby

oneindividual[thefirst]takeshimtohell;andthereisthecasewheretheverysamesortoftriflingdeeddonebytheotherindividualisexperiencedinthehere&now,andforthemostpartbarelyappearsforamoment.”—AN3:101

§11. Ihaveheard thatononeoccasion theBlessedOnewas stayingnearSāvatthīinJeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’smonastery.Andatthattimein King Pasenadi’s realm there was a bandit named Aṅgulimāla: brutal,bloody-handed,devotedtokilling&slaying,showingnomercytolivingbeings.Heturnedvillagesintonon-villages,townsintonon-towns,settledcountryside into unsettled countryside.Having repeatedly killedhumanbeings,heworeagarland[māla]madeoffingers[aṅguli].

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ThentheBlessedOne,earlyinthemorning,havingadjustedhisunderrobe and carrying his bowl & outer robe, went into Sāvatthī for alms.HavinggoneforalmsinSāvatthīandreturningfromhisalmsroundafterhismeal,he sethis lodging inorder.Carryinghisbowl& robe,hewentalongtheroadtowhereAṅgulimālawasstaying.Cowherds,shepherds,&farmers sawhimgoingalong the road towhereAṅgulimālawas staying,andonseeinghimsaidtohim,“Don’tgoalongthatroad,contemplative,foronthatroadisAṅgulimāla:brutal,bloody-handed,devotedtokilling&slaying,showingnomercytolivingbeings.Hehasturnedvillagesintonon-villages, towns into non-towns, settled countryside into unsettledcountryside.Having repeatedly killedhumanbeings,hewears a garlandmade of fingers. Groups of ten, twenty, thirty, & forty men have gonealong that road, and even they have fallen into Aṅgulimāla’s hands.”Whenthiswassaid,theBlessedOnekeptgoinginsilence.

Asecondtime.…Athirdtime,cowherds,shepherds,&farmerssaidtothe BlessedOne, “Don’t go along that road, contemplative.…Groups often,twenty,thirty,&fortymenhavegonealongthatroad,andeventheyhavefallenintoAṅgulimāla’shands.”Whenthiswassaid,theBlessedOnekeptgoinginsilence.

ThenAṅgulimālasawtheBlessedOnecomingfromafarandonseeinghim,thisthoughtoccurredtohim:“Isn’t itamazing!Isn’t itastounding!Groupsoften,twenty,thirty,&fortymenhavegonealongthisroad,andeven they have fallen into my hands, and yet now this contemplativecomesattacking,asitwere,aloneandwithoutacompanion.Whydon’tIkillhim?”SoAṅgulimāla, takinguphis sword& shield,bucklingonhisbow&quiver,followedrightbehindtheBlessedOne.

Then the Blessed One willed a feat of psychic power such thatAṅgulimāla,thoughrunningwithallhismight,couldnotcatchupwiththe BlessedOnewalking at normal pace. Then the thought occurred toAṅgulimāla:“Isn’titamazing!Isn’titastounding!InthepastI’vechased&seized even a swift-running elephant, a swift-running horse, a swift-runningchariot,aswift-runningdeer.Butnow,eventhoughI’mrunningwith allmymight, I can’t catch up with this contemplative walking atnormal pace.” So he stopped and called out to the Blessed One, “Stop,contemplative!Stop!”

“Ihavestopped,Aṅgulimāla.Youstop.”Then the thought occurred to Aṅgulimāla, “These Sakyan

contemplatives are speakers of the truth, asserters of the truths, and yetthiscontemplative,evenwhilewalking,says,‘Ihavestopped,Aṅgulimāla.

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Youstop.’Whydon’tIquestionhim?”SoAṅgulimālathebanditaddressedthisversetotheBlessedOne:

“Whilewalking,contemplative,yousay,’Ihavestopped.’ButwhenIhavestoppedyousayIhaven’t.Iaskyouthemeaningofthis:Howhaveyoustopped?Howhaven’tI?”

TheBuddha:

“Ihavestopped,Aṅgulimāla,once&forall,havingcastoffviolencetowardalllivingbeings.You,though,areunrestrainedtowardbeings.That’showI’vestoppedandyouhaven’t.”

Aṅgulimāla:

“Atlonglastagreatlyreveredgreatseerformysakehascometothegreatforest.HavingheardyourverseinlinewiththeDhamma,Iwillgoabouthavingabandonedevil.”Sosaying,thebandithurledhissword&weaponsoveracliffintoachasm,apit.ThenthebanditpaidhomagetothefeetoftheOneWell-Gone,andrightthererequestedtheGoing-forth.TheAwakenedOne,thecompassionategreatseer,theteacheroftheworld,alongwithitsdevas,

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saidtohimthen:“Come,bhikkhu.”Thatinitselfwasbhikkhuhoodforhim.

Then the Blessed One set out wandering toward Sāvatthī with Ven.Aṅgulimālaashisattendantmonk.AfterwanderingbystageshereachedSāvatthī,andtherehelivednearSāvatthīinJeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’smonastery.…

ThenVen.Aṅgulimāla,earlyinthemorning,havingadjustedhisunderrobeandcarryinghisbowl&outerrobe,wentintoSāvatthīforalms.Ashewas going from house to house for alms, he saw a woman suffering abreech birth. On seeing her, the thought occurred to him: “Howtormented are living beings! How tormented are living beings!” Then,havinggoneforalmsinSāvatthīandreturningfromhisalmsroundafterhismeal,hewenttotheBlessedOne.Onarrival,havingboweddowntohim,hesattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne,“Justnow,lord,earlyinthemorning,havingadjustedmyunderrobeandcarryingmy bowl & outer robe, I went into Sāvatthī for alms. As I wasgoing from house to house for alms, I saw a woman suffering a breechbirth. On seeing her, the thought occurred to me: ‘How tormented arelivingbeings!Howtormentedarelivingbeings!’”

“Inthatcase,Aṅgulimāla,gotothatwomanandonarrivalsaytoher,‘Sister,sinceIwasbornIdonotrecallintentionallykillingalivingbeing.Through this truth may there be wellbeing for you, wellbeing for yourfetus.’”

“But,lord,wouldn’tthatbealieforme?ForIhaveintentionallykilledmanylivingbeings.”

“Theninthatcase,Aṅgulimāla,gotothatwomanandonarrivalsaytoher,‘Sister,sinceIwasborninthenoblebirth,Idonotrecallintentionallykillingalivingbeing.Throughthistruthmaytherebewellbeingforyou,wellbeingforyourfetus.’”

Responding,“Asyousay,lord,”totheBlessedOne,Aṅgulimālawenttothat woman and on arrival said to her, “Sister, since I was born in thenoble birth, I donot recall intentionally killing a living being. Throughthismaytherebewellbeingforyou,wellbeingforyourfetus.”Andtherewaswellbeingforthewoman,wellbeingforherfetus.

Then Ven. Aṅgulimāla, dwelling alone, secluded, heedful, ardent, &resolute, innolongtimereached&remainedinthesupremegoaloftheholy life for which clansmen rightly go forth from home into

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homelessness, knowing& realizing it forhimself in thehere&now.Heknew: “Birth is ended, the holy life fulfilled, the task done. There isnothing further for the sake of this world.” And thus Ven. Aṅgulimālabecameanotheroneofthearahants.

ThenVen.Aṅgulimāla,earlyinthemorning,havingadjustedhisunderrobeandcarryinghisbowl&outerrobe,wentintoSāvatthīforalms.Nowat that time a clod thrown by one person hit Ven. Aṅgulimāla on thebody, a stone thrown by another person hit him on the body, and apotsherd thrown by still another person hit him on the body. So Ven.Aṅgulimāla—his head broken open and dripping with blood, his bowlbroken,andhisouterroberippedtoshreds—wenttotheBlessedOne.TheBlessedOne sawhim coming from afar and on seeing him said to him:“Bearwith it,brahman!Bearwith it!The fruitof thekammathatwouldhaveburnedyou inhell formanyyears,manyhundredsofyears,manythousandsofyears,youarenowexperiencinginthehere-&-now!”—MN86

§ 12. “There are, headman, some contemplatives & brahmans whohold a doctrine & view like this: ‘All those who kill living beingsexperiencepain&distress inthehere&now.Allthosewhotakewhatisnot given… who engage in illicit sex… who tell lies experience pain &distressinthehere&now.’

“Now there is the case where a certain person is seen garlanded &adorned,freshlybathed&groomed,withhair&beardtrimmed,enjoyingthe sensualitiesofwomenas ifhewereaking.Theyaskabouthim: ‘Mygood man, what has this man done that he has been garlanded &adorned… as if hewere a king?’ They answer: ‘My goodman, thismanattackedtheking’senemyandtookhislife.Theking,gratifiedwithhim,rewarded him. That is why he is garlanded& adorned… as if he were aking.’

“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen bound with astoutropewithhisarmspinnedtightlyagainsthisback,hisheadshavedbald,marchedtoaharsh-soundingdrumfromstreettostreet,crossroadstocrossroads,evictedthroughthesouthgate,andbeheadedtothesouthofthecity.Theyaskabouthim: ‘Mygoodman,whathasthismandonethat he is bound with a stout rope… and beheaded to the south of thecity?’Theyanswer: ‘Mygoodman, thisman, anenemyof theking,hastakenthelifeofamanorawoman.Thatiswhytherulers,havinghadhimseized,inflictedsuchapunishmentuponhim.’

“Now,what do you think, headman: have you ever seen or heard of

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suchacase?”“Ihaveseenthis,lord,haveheardofit,andwillhearofit[againinthe

future].”“So, headman, when those contemplatives & brahmans who hold a

doctrineandviewlikethissay:‘Allthosewhokilllivingbeingsexperiencepain&distressinthehere&now,’dotheyspeaktruthfullyorfalsely?”—”Falsely,lord.”

“Andthosewhobabbleemptyfalsehood:Aretheymoralorimmoral?”“Immoral,lord.”“Andthosewhoareimmoralandofevilcharacter:Aretheypracticing

wronglyorrightly?”—”Wrongly,lord.”“And thosewho arepracticingwrongly:Do theyholdwrongviewor

rightview?”—”Wrongview,lord.”“Andisitpropertoplaceconfidenceinthosewhoholdwrongview?”“No,lord.”“Then, headman, there is the case where a certain person is seen

garlanded&adorned…asifhewereaking.Theyaskabouthim:‘Mygoodman,whathasthismandonethathehasbeengarlanded&adorned…asifhewereaking?’Theyanswer:‘Mygoodman,thismanattackedtheking’senemyandstoleatreasure.Theking,gratifiedwithhim,rewardedhim.…’

“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen bound with astout rope…andbeheaded to the southof thecity.Theyaskabouthim:‘My goodman, what has this man done that he is bound with a stoutrope… and beheaded to the south of the city?’ They answer: ‘My goodman, this man, an enemy of the king, has committed a theft, stealingsomethingfromavillageorawilderness.…’

“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen garlanded &adorned…asifhewereaking.Theyaskabouthim:‘Mygoodman,whathasthismandonethathehasbeengarlanded&adorned…asifhewereaking?’ They answer: ‘My goodman, this man seduced the wives of theking’senemy.…’

“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen bound with astout rope…andbeheaded to the southof thecity.Theyaskabouthim:‘My goodman, what has this man done that he is bound with a stoutrope… and beheaded to the south of the city?’ They answer: ‘My goodman,thismanseducedwomen&girlsofgoodfamilies.…’

“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen garlanded &adorned…asifhewereaking.Theyaskabouthim:‘Mygoodman,what

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hasthismandonethathehasbeengarlanded&adorned…asifhewereaking?’Theyanswer:‘Mygoodman,thismanmadethekinglaughwithalie.…’

“Then there is the case where a certain person is seen bound with astout rope…andbeheaded to the southof thecity.Theyaskabouthim:‘My goodman, what has this man done that he is bound with a stoutrope… and beheaded to the south of the city?’ They answer: ‘My goodman,thismanhasbroughttheaimsofahouseholderorahouseholder’sson to ruin with a lie. That is why the rulers, having had him seized,inflictedsuchapunishmentuponhim.’

“Nowwhat do you think, headman:Have you ever seen or heard ofsuchacase?”

“Ihaveseenthis,lord,haveheardofit,andwillhearofit[againinthefuture].”

“So, headman, when those contemplatives & brahmans who hold adoctrine& view like this, say: ‘All thosewho tell lies experience pain&distress in the here & now,’ do they speak truthfully or falsely?… Is itpropertoplaceconfidenceinthosewhoholdwrongview?”—”No,lord.”—SN42:13

§13.‘Heinsultedme,hitme,beatme,robbedme’

—forthosewhobroodonthis,animosityisn’tstilled.

Heinsultedme,hitme,beatme,robbedme’—

forthosewhodon’tbroodonthis,animosityisstilled.

Animositiesaren’tstilledthroughanimosity,regardless.

Animositiesarestilled

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throughnon-animosity:this,anunendingtruth.

Unlikethosewhodon’trealizethatwe’rehereontheverge

ofperishing,thosewhodo:

theirquarrelsarestilled.—Dhp3–6

§14.“Therearefourkindsofpersontobefoundintheworld.Whichfour?Thereisthecasewhereacertainpersontakeslife,takeswhatisnotgiven[steals],engagesinillicitsex,lies,speaksdivisively,speaksabusively,engagesinidlechatter;iscovetous,malevolent,&holdswrongviews.Onthe break-up of the body, after death, he reappears in the plane ofdeprivation,thebaddestination,thelowerrealms,inhell.

“But there is also the case where a certain person takes life… holdswrongviews[yet],onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,hereappearsinthegooddestinations,intheheavenlyworld.

“Andthereisthecasewhereacertainpersonabstainsfromtakinglife,abstainsfromtakingwhatisnotgiven…isnotcovetous,notmalevolent,&holdsrightviews.Onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,hereappearsinthegooddestinations,intheheavenlyworld.

“Butthereisalsothecasewhereacertainpersonabstainsfromtakinglife, abstains from taking what is not given… is not covetous, notmalevolent,&holds rightviews [yet],on thebreak-upof thebody,afterdeath,he reappears in theplaneofdeprivation, thebaddestination, thelowerrealms,inhell.…

“Inthecaseofthepersonwhotakeslife…[yet]onthebreak-upofthebody, after death, reappears in the good destinations, in the heavenlyworld:eitherearlierheperformedfinekammathatistobefeltaspleasant,or laterheperformed finekamma that is tobe felt aspleasant,or at thetimeofdeathheadopted&carriedoutrightviews.Becauseofthat,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,hereappearsinthegooddestinations,intheheavenlyworld. But as for the results of taking life…holdingwrongviews,hewillfeelthemeitherrighthere&now,orlater[inthislifetime],orfollowingthat.…

“Inthecaseofthepersonwhoabstainsfromtakinglife…[yet]onthebreak-upof thebody, after death, reappears in theplaneofdeprivation,thebaddestination,thelowerrealms,inhell:eitherearlierheperformed

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evilkammathatistobefeltaspainful,orlaterheperformedevilkammathatistobefeltaspainful,oratthetimeofdeathheadopted&carriedoutwrongviews.Becauseofthat,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,hereappears in the plane of deprivation, the bad destination, the lowerrealms, in hell. But as for the results of abstaining from taking life…holdingrightviews,hewillfeelthemeitherrighthere&now,orlater[inthislifetime],orfollowingthat.”—MN136

§ 15. “There are these four inconceivables that are not to beconjecturedabout,thatwouldbringmadness&vexationtoanyonewhoconjecturedaboutthem.Whichfour?

“TheBuddha-rangeoftheBuddhas[i.e.,therangeofpowersaBuddhadevelopsasaresultofbecomingaBuddha]isaninconceivablethatisnottobeconjecturedabout,thatwouldbringmadness&vexationtoanyonewhoconjecturedaboutit.

“Thejhāna-rangeofapersoninjhāna[i.e.,therangeofpowersthatonemayobtainwhileabsorbedinjhāna].…

“The[preciseworkingoutofthe]resultsofkamma.…“Conjecture about [the origin, etc., of] theworld is an inconceivable

thatisnottobeconjecturedabout,thatwouldbringmadness&vexationtoanyonewhoconjecturedaboutit.

“Thesearethefourinconceivablesthatarenottobeconjecturedabout,thatwouldbringmadness&vexationtoanyonewhoconjecturedaboutthem.”—AN4:77

Skillful&UnskillfulKamma

§ 16. The Buddha: “Unflagging persistence was aroused in me, andunmuddledmindfulnessestablished.Mybodywascalm&unaroused,mymind concentrated & single. Quite secluded from sensuality, secludedfromunskillfulqualities,Ientered&remainedinthefirstjhāna:rapture&pleasure born of seclusion, accompanied by directed thought &evaluation.Withthestillingofdirectedthoughts&evaluations,Ientered& remained in the second jhāna: rapture & pleasure born ofconcentration, unification of awareness free from directed thought &evaluation—internal assurance. With the fading of rapture I remainedequanimous, mindful, & alert, and sensed pleasure with the body. Ientered&remained in the third jhāna,ofwhichthenobleonesdeclare,‘Equanimous&mindful,hehasapleasantabiding.’Withtheabandoning

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ofpleasure&pain—aswiththeearlierdisappearanceof joy&distress—Ientered & remained in the fourth jhāna: purity of equanimity &mindfulness,neitherpleasurenorpain.

“Whenthemindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridofdefilement,pliant,malleable,steady,&attainedtoimperturbability,I directed it to theknowledge of recollectingmy past lives. I recollectedmymanifold past lives, i.e., one birth, two… five, ten… fifty, a hundred, athousand,ahundredthousand,manyeonsofcosmiccontraction,manyeonsofcosmicexpansion,manyeonsofcosmiccontraction&expansion:‘There I had such a name, belonged to such a clan, had such anappearance. Suchwasmy food, suchmy experience of pleasure& pain,such the end of my life. Passing away from that state, I re-arose there.There too I had such a name, belonged to such a clan, had such anappearance. Suchwasmy food, suchmy experience of pleasure& pain,suchtheendofmylife.Passingawayfromthatstate,Ire-arosehere.’ThusIrememberedmymanifoldpastlivesintheirmodes&details.

“ThiswasthefirstknowledgeIattainedinthefirstwatchofthenight.Ignorancewasdestroyed;knowledgearose;darknesswasdestroyed; lightarose—ashappensinonewhoisheedful,ardent,&resolute.

“Whenthemindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridofdefilement,pliant,malleable,steady,&attainedtoimperturbability,Idirectedittotheknowledgeofthepassingaway&reappearanceofbeings. Isaw—by means of the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human—beingspassingaway&re-appearingandIdiscernedhowtheyareinferior&superior,beautiful&ugly,fortunate&unfortunateinaccordancewiththeir kamma: ‘These beings—whowere endowedwith bad conduct ofbody, speech, &mind, who reviled noble ones, held wrong views, andundertookactionsundertheinfluenceofwrongviews—withthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,havere-appearedintheplaneofdeprivation,thebad destination, the lower realms, in hell. But these beings—who wereendowedwithgoodconductofbody,speech,&mind,whodidnotrevilenoble ones, who held right views and undertook actions under theinfluenceofrightviews—withthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,havere-appeared in the good destinations, in the heavenly world.’ Thus—bymeansof thedivineeye,purified&surpassing thehuman—Isawbeingspassing away & re-appearing, and I discerned how they are inferior &superior, beautiful & ugly, fortunate & unfortunate in accordance withtheirkamma.

“ThiswasthesecondknowledgeIattainedinthesecondwatchofthenight.Ignorancewasdestroyed;knowledgearose;darknesswasdestroyed;

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lightarose—ashappensinonewhoisheedful,ardent,&resolute.“Whenthemindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,

ridofdefilement,pliant,malleable,steady,&attainedtoimperturbability,I directed it to the knowledge of the ending of the effluents [sensuality,becoming,& ignorance]. I discerned, as it had come to be, that ‘This isstress…This is the origination of stress…This is the cessation of stress…This is the way leading to the cessation of stress… These are effluents…This is theoriginationof effluents…This is the cessationof effluents…This is the way leading to the cessation of effluents.’ My heart, thusknowing,thusseeing,wasreleasedfromtheeffluentofsensuality,releasedfrom the effluent of becoming, released from the effluent of ignorance.Withrelease,therewastheknowledge,‘Released.’Idiscernedthat‘Birthisended, theholy life fulfilled, the taskdone. There isnothing further forthisworld.’

“This was the third knowledge I attained in the third watch of thenight.Ignorancewasdestroyed;knowledgearose;darknesswasdestroyed;lightarose—ashappensinonewhoisheedful,ardent,&resolute.”—MN4

§17. “These four typesof kammahavebeenunderstood, realized,&madeknownbyme.Whichfour?There iskammathat isdarkwithdarkresult; kamma that is bright with bright result; kamma that is dark &brightwithdark&brightresult;andkammathatisneitherdarknorbrightwithneitherdarknorbrightresult,leadingtotheendingofkamma.

“Andwhat is kamma that is dark with dark result? There is the casewhere a certain person fabricates an injurious bodily fabrication… aninjuriousverbalfabrication…aninjuriousmentalfabrication…Herearisesin an injurious world where he is touched by injurious contacts… Heexperiencesfeelingsthatareexclusivelypainful,likethoseofthebeingsinhell.…

“Andwhatiskammathatisbrightwithbrightresult?Thereisthecasewhere a certain person fabricates an uninjurious bodily fabrication… anuninjurious verbal fabrication… an uninjuriousmental fabrication…Herearises in an uninjurious world where he is touched by uninjuriouscontacts…Heexperiencesfeelingsthatareexclusivelypleasant,likethoseoftheEver-radiantDevas.…

“Andwhat is kamma that is dark&brightwithdark&bright result?Thereisthecasewhereacertainpersonfabricatesabodilyfabricationthatis injurious & uninjurious… a verbal fabrication that is injurious &

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uninjurious… a mental fabrication that is injurious & uninjurious… Herearises in an injurious & uninjurious world where he is touched byinjurious&uninjuriouscontacts…Heexperiencesinjurious&uninjuriousfeelings, pleasuremingled with pain, like those of human beings, somedevas,andsomebeingsinthelowerrealms.…

“Andwhatiskammathatisneitherdarknorbrightwithneitherdarknor bright result, leading to the ending of kamma? The intention rightthere toabandonthiskammathat isdarkwithdark result…thiskammathat is brightwithbright result… this kamma that is dark&brightwithdark&brightresult.”—AN4:232

§18.AN4:234 repeatsmostof theabove,definingdarkkammawithdarkresultwiththefollowingexample:“Thereisthecaseofacertainpersonwhokillslivingbeings,stealswhatisnotgiven,engagesinillicitsex,tellslies,and drinks fermented & distilled liquors that are the basis forheedlessness,” and bright kamma with bright result with the followingexample: “There is the caseof a certainpersonwhoabstains fromkillingliving beings, abstains from stealing what is not given, abstains fromengaging in illicit sex, abstains from telling lies, and abstains fromdrinkingfermented&distilledliquorsthatarethebasisforheedlessness.”

AN4:237equateskammathatisneitherdarknorbrightwiththefactorsofthenobleeightfoldpath:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. AN 4:238equates it with the seven factors for awakening: mindfulness, analysis ofdhammas,persistence,rapture,calm,concentration,andequanimity.

§19. “Justaswhenanimb-tree seed,abittercreeper seed,orabittermelon seed isplaced inmoist soil,whatevernutriment it takes fromthesoil&thewater,allconducesto itsbitterness,acridity,&distastefulness.Whyisthat?Becauseoftheevilnatureoftheseed.

“In the same way, when a person has wrong view, whatever bodilydeeds he undertakes in line with that view, whatever verbal deeds…whatever mental deeds he undertakes in line with that view, whateverintentions, whatever determinations, whatever vows, whateverfabrications, all lead to what is disagreeable, unpleasing, unappealing,unprofitable, & stressful.Why is that? Because of the evil nature of theview.…

“Justaswhenasugarcaneseed,aricegrain,oragrapeseedisplacedinmoist soil, whatever nutriment it takes from the soil & the water, all

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conduces to its sweetness, tastiness, & unalloyed delectability. Why isthat?Becauseoftheauspiciousnatureoftheseed.

“Inthesameway,whenapersonhasrightview,whateverbodilydeedshe undertakes in line with that view, whatever verbal deeds…whatevermentaldeedsheundertakes in linewith thatview,whatever intentions,whatever vows,whatever determinations,whatever fabrications, all leadto what is agreeable, pleasing, charming, profitable, & easeful. Why isthat?Becauseoftheauspiciousnatureoftheview.”—AN1:189–190

§ 20. Then Ven. Ānanda went to the Blessed One and, on arrival,havingboweddown tohim, sat toone side.Ashewas sitting there, theBlessed One said to him, “I say categorically, Ānanda, that bodilymisconduct, verbal misconduct, & mental misconduct should not bedone.”

“GiventhattheBlessedOnehasdeclared,lord,thatbodilymisconduct,verbal misconduct, & mental misconduct should not be done, whatdrawbackscanoneexpectwhendoingwhatshouldnotbedone?”

“Given that I have declared, Ānanda, that bodilymisconduct, verbalmisconduct, & mental misconduct should not be done, these are thedrawbacksonecanexpectwhendoingwhatshouldnotbedone:Onecanfaultoneself;observantpeople,oncloseexamination,criticizeone;one’sbadreputationgetsspreadabout;onediesconfused;and—onthebreak-upof the body, after death—one reappears in a planeof deprivation, a baddestination,alowerrealm,hell.GiventhatIhavedeclared,Ānanda,thatbodilymisconduct,verbalmisconduct,&mentalmisconductshouldnotbedone,thesearethedrawbacksonecanexpectwhendoingwhatshouldnotbedone.

“I say categorically, Ānanda, that good bodily conduct, good verbalconduct,&goodmentalconductshouldbedone.”

“Given that the Blessed One has declared, lord, that good bodilyconduct, good verbal conduct,& goodmental conduct should be done,whatrewardscanoneexpectwhendoingwhatshouldbedone?”

“Giventhat Ihavedeclared,Ānanda, thatgoodbodilyconduct,goodverbal conduct, & good mental conduct should be done, these are therewards one can expect when doingwhat should be done: One doesn’tfault oneself; observant people, on close examination, praise one; one’sgood reputation gets spread about; one dies unconfused; and—on thebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath—onereappearsinagooddestination,aheavenly world. Given that I have declared, Ānanda, that good bodily

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conduct, good verbal conduct,& goodmental conduct should be done,thesearetherewardsonecanexpectwhendoingwhatshouldbedone.”—AN2:18

§21. “Abandonwhat is unskillful,monks. It is possible to abandonwhat isunskillful. If itwerenotpossible toabandonwhat isunskillful, Iwould not say to you, ‘Abandon what is unskillful.’ But because it ispossible to abandon what is unskillful, I say to you, ‘Abandon what isunskillful.’ If this abandoning of what is unskillful were conducive toharmandpain,Iwouldnotsaytoyou,‘Abandonwhatisunskillful.’Butbecausethisabandoningofwhatisunskillfulisconducivetobenefitandpleasure,Isaytoyou,‘Abandonwhatisunskillful.’

“Develop what is skillful, monks. It is possible to develop what isskillful.Ifitwerenotpossibletodevelopwhatisskillful,Iwouldnotsaytoyou,‘Developwhatisskillful.’Butbecauseitispossibletodevelopwhatisskillful,Isaytoyou,‘Developwhatisskillful.’Ifthisdevelopmentofwhatis skillful were conducive to harm and pain, I would not say to you,‘Developwhatisskillful.’Butbecausethisdevelopmentofwhatisskillfulis conducive to benefit and pleasure, I say to you, ‘Develop what isskillful.’”—AN2:19

§22.“Justasthefootprintsofall leggedanimalsareencompassedbythefootprintoftheelephant,andtheelephant’sfootprintisreckonedtheforemost among them in terms of size; in the same way, all skillfulqualities are rooted in heedfulness, converge in heedfulness, andheedfulnessisreckonedtheforemostamongthem.”—AN10:15

§23. “Andhow isonemade impure in threewaysbybodily action?There is the case where a certain person takes life, is brutal, bloody-handed,devotedtokilling&slaying,showingnomercytolivingbeings.Hetakeswhatisnotgiven.Hetakes,inthemannerofathief,thingsinavillageorawilderness thatbelongtoothersandhavenotbeengivenbythem.He engages in sexualmisconduct.He gets sexually involvedwiththose who are protected by their mothers, their fathers, their brothers,theirsisters,theirrelatives,ortheirDhamma;thosewithhusbands,thosewhoentailpunishments,oreventhosecrownedwithflowersbyanotherman.Thisishowoneismadeimpureinthreewaysbybodilyaction.

“Andhowisonemadeimpureinfourwaysbyverbalaction?Thereisthe casewhere a certain person tells lies.When he has been called to a

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townmeeting,agroupmeeting,agatheringofhisrelatives,hisguild,orofthe royalty [i.e., a royal court proceeding], if he is asked as a witness,‘Come&tell,goodman,whatyouknow’: Ifhedoesn’tknow,hesays, ‘Iknow.’Ifhedoesknow,hesays,‘Idon’tknow.’Ifhehasn’tseen,hesays,‘Ihave seen.’ Ifhehas seen,he says, ’Ihaven’t seen.’ Thushe consciouslytells lies for his own sake, for the sake of another, or for the sake of acertainreward.Heengagesindivisivespeech.Whathehasheardherehetellstheretobreakthosepeopleapartfromthesepeoplehere.Whathehasheard there he tells here to break these people apart from those peoplethere. Thus breaking apart those who are united and stirring up strifebetween thosewhohavebrokenapart,he loves factionalism,delights infactionalism, enjoys factionalism, speaks things that create factionalism.He engages in harsh speech.He speakswords that are insolent, cutting,mean to others, reviling others, provoking anger and destroyingconcentration.Heengagesinidlechatter.Hespeaksoutofseason,speakswhatisn’tfactual,whatisn’tinaccordancewiththegoal,theDhamma,&theVinaya,wordsthatarenotworthtreasuring.Thisishowoneismadeimpureinfourwaysbyverbalaction.

“Andhowisonemadeimpureinthreewaysbymentalaction?Thereisthe casewhere a certainperson is covetous.He covets thebelongingsofothers,thinking,‘O,thatwhatbelongstootherswouldbemine!’Hebearsillwill,corruptintheresolvesofhisheart: ‘Maythesebeingsbekilledorcut apart or crushed or destroyed, ormay they not exist at all!’ He haswrongview,iswarpedinthewayheseesthings:‘Thereisnothinggiven,nothingoffered,nothingsacrificed.There isno fruitor resultofgoodorbadactions.Thereisnothisworld,nonextworld,nomother,nofather,no spontaneously reborn beings; no contemplatives or brahmans who,faring rightly & practicing rightly, proclaim this world & the next afterhaving directly known& realized it for themselves.’ This is how one ismadeimpureinthreewaysbymentalaction.

“These,Cunda,arethetencoursesofunskillfulaction.Whenapersonisendowedwiththesetencoursesofunskillfulaction,thenevenifhegetsup at the proper time from his bed and touches the earth, he is stillimpure. [This and the following actions are ancient Indian rituals forpurification.]Ifhedoesn’ttouchtheearth,heisstillimpure.Ifhetoucheswetcowdung,heisstill impure.Ifhedoesn’ttouchwetcowdung,heisstillimpure.Ifhetouchesgreengrass…Ifhedoesn’ttouchgreengrass…Ifheworshipsafire…Ifhedoesn’tworshipafire…Ifhepayshomagetothesunwithclaspedhands…Ifhedoesn’tpayhomagetothesunwithclasped

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hands… If he goes down into the water three times by nightfall… If hedoesn’tgodownintothewaterthreetimesbynightfall,heisstillimpure.Whyisthat?Becausethesetencoursesofunskillfulactionareimpureandcause impurity.And further,asa resultofbeingendowedwith these tencourses of unskillful action, (rebirth in) hell is declared, (rebirth in) ananimal womb is declared, (rebirth in) the realm of hungry ghosts isdeclared—thatoranyotherbaddestination.

“Now,Cunda,therearethreewaysinwhichoneismadepurebybodilyaction, fourways inwhichone ismadepurebyverbalaction,and threewaysinwhichoneismadepurebymentalaction.

“Andhowisonemadepureinthreewaysbybodilyaction?Thereisthecasewhereacertainperson,abandoningthetakingof life,abstains fromthe takingof life.Hedwellswithhis rod laiddown,hisknife laiddown,scrupulous,merciful, compassionate for the welfare of all living beings.Abandoningthetakingofwhatisnotgiven,heabstainsfromtakingwhatisnotgiven.Hedoesnottake,inthemannerofathief,thingsinavillageor awilderness thatbelong toothers andhavenotbeengivenby them.Abandoningsexualmisconduct,heabstains fromsexualmisconduct.Hedoes not get sexually involved with those who are protected by theirmothers, their fathers, theirbrothers, theirsisters, theirrelatives,ortheirDhamma; thosewith husbands, thosewho entail punishments, or eventhosecrownedwithflowersbyanotherman.Thisishowoneismadepureinthreewaysbybodilyaction.

“Andhowisonemadepureinfourwaysbyverbalaction?Thereisthecasewhereacertainperson,abandoningthetellingoflies,abstainsfromtellinglies.Whenhehasbeencalledtoatownmeeting,agroupmeeting,agathering of his relatives, his guild, or of the royalty, if he is asked as awitness,‘Come&tell,goodman,whatyouknow’:Ifhedoesn’tknow,hesays,‘Idon’tknow.’Ifhedoesknow,hesays,‘Iknow.’Ifhehasn’tseen,hesays,‘Ihaven’tseen.’Ifhehasseen,hesays,’Ihaveseen.’Thushedoesn’tconsciously tell a lie forhisown sake, for the sakeof another,or for thesakeofanyreward.Abandoningdivisivespeech,heabstainsfromdivisivespeech. What he has heard here he does not tell there to break thosepeopleapartfromthesepeoplehere.Whathehasheardtherehedoesnottell here to break these people apart from those people there. Thusreconciling those who have broken apart or cementing those who areunited, he loves concord, delights in concord, enjoys concord, speaksthings that create concord. Abandoning harsh speech, he abstains fromharsh speech. He speaks words that are soothing to the ear, that are

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affectionate,thatgototheheart,thatarepolite,appealing&pleasingtopeopleatlarge.Abandoningidlechatter,heabstainsfromidlechatter.Hespeaks in season, speakswhat is factual,what is in accordancewith thegoal, the Dhamma, & the Vinaya. He speaks words worth treasuring,seasonable, reasonable, circumscribed, connected with the goal. This ishowoneismadepureinfourwaysbyverbalaction.

“Andhow isonemadepure in threewaysbymentalaction?There isthe case where a certain person is not covetous. He does not covet thebelongingsofothers, thinking, ‘O, thatwhatbelongstootherswouldbemine!’Hebearsno illwilland isnotcorrupt in the resolvesofhisheart.(He thinks,) ‘May these beings be free from animosity, free fromoppression, free from trouble, andmay they look after themselves withease!’Hehasrightviewandisnotwarpedinthewayheseesthings:‘Thereiswhatisgiven,whatisoffered,whatissacrificed.Therearefruits&resultsof good & bad actions. There is this world & the next world. There ismother & father. There are spontaneously reborn beings; there arecontemplatives & brahmans who, faring rightly & practicing rightly,proclaimthisworld& thenextafterhavingdirectlyknown&realized itfor themselves.’ This is how one ismade pure in three ways bymentalaction.

“These,Cunda,arethetencoursesofskillfulaction.Whenapersonisendowedwiththesetencoursesofskillfulaction,thenevenifhegetsupatthepropertimefromhisbedandtouchestheearth,heisstillpure. Ifhedoesn’ttouchtheearth,heisstillpure.Ifhetoucheswetcowdung,heisstillpure.Ifhedoesn’ttouchwetcowdung,heisstillpure.Ifhetouchesgreengrass…Ifhedoesn’ttouchgreengrass…Ifheworshipsafire…Ifhedoesn’tworshipafire…Ifhepayshomagetothesunwithclaspedhands…Ifhedoesn’tpayhomagetothesunwithclaspedhands…Ifhegoesdowninto thewater three times bynightfall… If he doesn’t go down into thewaterthreetimesbynightfall,heisstillpure.Whyisthat?Becausethesetencoursesof skillful actionarepureandcausepurity.And further, as aresultofbeingendowedwiththesetencoursesofskillfulaction, (rebirthamong)thedevasisdeclared,(rebirthamong)humanbeingsisdeclared—thatoranyothergooddestination.”—AN10:165

§ 24. “There are these four qualities, TigerPaw, that lead to a layperson’s happiness and well-being in this life. Which four? Beingconsummate in initiative, being consummate in vigilance, admirablefriendship,andmaintainingone’slivelihoodintune.

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“Andwhat ismeant by being consummate in initiative? There is thecase where a lay person, by whatever occupation hemakes his living—whetherby farmingor tradingorcattle tendingorarcheryorasaking’sman or by any other craft—is clever and untiring at it, endowed withdiscriminationinitstechniques,enoughtoarrangeandcarryitout.Thisiscalledbeingconsummateininitiative.

“Andwhat ismeant by being consummate in vigilance? There is thecasewherealaypersonhasrighteouswealth—righteouslygained,comingfrom his initiative, his striving, his making an effort, gathered by thestrengthofhisarm,earnedbyhissweat—hemanagestoprotectitthroughvigilance(withthethought),‘Howshallneitherkingsnorthievesmakeoffwiththispropertyofmine,norfireburnit,norwatersweepitaway,norhateful heirs make off with it?’ This is called being consummate invigilance.

“Andwhatismeantbyadmirablefriendship?Thereisthecasewherealay person, in whatever town or village he may dwell, associates withhouseholdersorhouseholders’ sons,youngorold,whoareconsummatein conviction, consummate in virtue, consummate in generosity,consummate in discernment. He talks with them, engages them indiscussions. He emulates consummate conviction in those who areconsummate in conviction, consummate virtue in those who areconsummate in virtue, consummate generosity in those who areconsummate in generosity, and consummate discernment in thosewhoareconsummateindiscernment.Thisiscalledadmirablefriendship.

“Andwhatismeantbymaintainingone’slivelihoodintune?Thereisthe case where a lay person, knowing the income and outflow of hiswealth,maintainsalivelihoodintune,neitheraspendthriftnorapenny-pincher, (thinking,) ‘Thus will my income exceedmy outflow, andmyoutflow will not exceed my income.’ Just as when a weigher or hisapprentice,whenholdingthescales,knows,‘Ithastippeddownsomuchorhastippedupsomuch,’inthesameway,thelayperson,knowingtheincomeandoutflowofhiswealth,maintainsalivelihoodintune,neithera spendthrift nor a penny-pincher, (thinking,) ‘Thus will my incomeexceedmyoutflow,andmyoutflowwillnotexceedmyincome.’ Ifa layperson has a small income but maintains a grand livelihood, it will berumoredofhim, ‘Thisclansmandevourshiswealth likea fruit-treeeater[Commentary:onewhoshakesmorefruitoffatreethanhecanpossiblyeat].’ If a lay person has a large income but maintains a miserablelivelihood, it will be rumored of him, ‘This clansman will die ofstarvation.’Butwhenalayperson,knowingtheincomeandoutflowofhis

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wealth,maintainsalivelihoodintune,neitheraspendthriftnorapenny-pincher, (thinking,) ‘Thus will my income exceedmy outflow, andmyoutflow will not exceed my income,’ this is called maintaining one’slivelihoodintune.

“Thesearethefourdrainsonone’sstoreofwealth:beingdebauchedinsex;beingdebauchedindrink;beingdebauchedingambling;andhavingevil people as friends, associates, & companions. Just as if there were agreatreservoirwithfourinletsandfourdrains,andamanweretoclosetheinlets and open the drains, and the sky were not to pour down propershowers, the depletion of that great reservoir could be expected, not itsincrease. In the same way, these are the four drains on one’s store ofwealth: being debauched in sex, being debauched in drink, beingdebauched in gambling, andhaving evil people as friends, associates,&companions.

“Thesearethefourinletstoone’sstoreofwealth:notbeingdebauchedinsex;notbeingdebauchedindrink;notbeingdebauchedingambling;andhavingadmirablepeopleasfriends,associates,&companions.Justasiftherewereagreatreservoirwithfourinletsandfourdrains,andamanwere to open the inlets and close the drains, and the sky were to pourdown proper showers, the increase of that great reservoir could beexpected,not itsdepletion. In the sameway, these are the four inlets toone’sstoreofwealth:notbeingdebauchedinsex,notbeingdebauchedindrink,notbeingdebauchedingambling,andhavingadmirablepeopleasfriends,associates,&companions.

“These, TigerPaw, are the four qualities that lead to a lay person’shappinessandwell-beinginthislife.

“Therearethesefourqualitiesthatleadtoalayperson’shappinessandwell-being in lives to come. Which four? Being consummate inconviction, being consummate in virtue, being consummate ingenerosity,beingconsummateindiscernment.

“Andwhatdoesitmeantobeconsummateinconviction?Thereisthecasewhereadiscipleofthenobleoneshasconviction,isconvincedoftheTathāgata’sawakening: ‘Indeed,theBlessedOneisworthy&rightlyself-awakened,consummateinclear-knowing&conduct,well-gone,anexpertwith regard to the cosmos, unexcelled trainer of people fit to be tamed,teacherofdevas&humanbeings,awakened,blessed.’Thisiscalledbeingconsummateinconviction.

“Andwhatdoesitmeantobeconsummateinvirtue?Thereisthecasewhereadiscipleofthenobleonesabstainsfromtakinglife,abstainsfrom

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stealing, abstains from sexualmisconduct, abstains from lying, abstainsfrom taking intoxicants that cause heedlessness. This is called beingconsummateinvirtue.

“Andwhatdoesitmeantobeconsummateingenerosity?Thereisthecaseofadiscipleofthenobleones,hisawarenesscleansedofthestainofmiserliness, living at home, freely generous, openhanded, delighting inbeingmagnanimous,responsivetorequests,delightinginthedistributionofalms.Thisiscalledbeingconsummateingenerosity.

“Andwhat does itmean to be consummate indiscernment?There isthe casewhere a disciple of thenoble ones is discerning, endowedwithdiscernmentof arisingandpassingaway—noble,penetrating, leading totherightendingofstress.Thisiscalledbeingconsummateindiscernment.

“These, TigerPaw, are the four qualities that lead to a lay person’shappinessandwell-beinginlivestocome.”—AN8:54

§ 25. “Monks, the taking of life—when indulged in, developed, &pursued—is something that leads to hell, leads to rebirth as a commonanimal, leads to the realmof thehungry shades. The slightest of all theresultscomingfromthetakingoflifeisthat,whenonebecomesahumanbeing,itleadstoashortlifespan.

“Stealing—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is somethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstotherealmofthehungryshades.Theslightestofalltheresultscomingfromstealingis that, when one becomes a human being, it leads to the loss of one'swealth.

“Illicit sexual behavior—when indulged in, developed,& pursued—issomethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstothe realm of the hungry shades. The slightest of all the results comingfromillicitsexualbehavior is that,whenonebecomesahumanbeing, itleadstorivalry&revenge.

“Telling falsehoods—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—issomethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstothe realm of the hungry shades. The slightest of all the results comingfromtellingfalsehoodsisthat,whenonebecomesahumanbeing,itleadstobeingfalselyaccused.

“Divisive tale-bearing—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—issomethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstothe realm of the hungry shades. The slightest of all the results comingfrom divisive tale-bearing is that,when one becomes a human being, it

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leadstothebreakingofone'sfriendships.“Abusive speech—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—is

somethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstothe realm of the hungry shades. The slightest of all the results comingfromabusivespeechisthat,whenonebecomesahumanbeing,itleadstounappealingsounds.

“Frivolous chattering—when indulged in, developed, & pursued—issomethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstothe realm of the hungry shades. The slightest of all the results comingfrom frivolous chattering is that, when one becomes a human being, itleadstowordsthataren'tworthtakingtoheart.

“The drinking of fermented & distilled liquors—when indulged in,developed,&pursued—issomethingthatleadstohell,leadstorebirthasacommonanimal,leadstotherealmofthehungryshades.Theslightestofalltheresultscomingfromdrinkingfermented&distilledliquorsisthat,whenonebecomes ahumanbeing, it leads tomentalderangement.”—AN8:40

§26.“Beingsareownersoftheiractions,heirsoftheiractions,bornoftheiractions,relatedthroughtheiractions,andhavetheiractionsastheirarbitrator. Action is what differentiates beings in terms of baseness &excellence.…

“There is the casewhere awomanorman is a killer of living beings,brutal, bloody-handed, given to killing& slaying, showing nomercy tolivingbeings.Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions,onthebreak-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a plane ofdeprivation,abaddestination,a lowerrealm,hell. If,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath—insteadofreappearinginaplaneofdeprivation,abad destination, a lower realm, hell—he/she comes to the human state,then he/she is short-livedwherever reborn. This is theway leading to ashort life: tobe a killer of livingbeings, brutal, bloody-handed, given tokilling&slaying,showingnomercytolivingbeings.

“Butthenthereisthecasewhereawomanorman,havingabandonedthekillingoflivingbeings,abstainsfromkillinglivingbeings,anddwellswith the rod laid down, the knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, &sympatheticforthewelfareofalllivingbeings.Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,he/shereappears inagooddestination,aheavenlyworld. If,onthebreak-upofthe body, after death—instead of reappearing in a good destination, a

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heavenlyworld—he/she comes to thehuman state, thenhe/she is long-lived wherever reborn. This is the way leading to a long life: to haveabandoned the killing of living beings, to abstain from killing livingbeings, to dwell with one’s rod laid down, one’s knife laid down,scrupulous,merciful,&sympatheticforthewelfareofalllivingbeings.

“Thereisthecasewhereawomanormanisonewhoharmsbeingswithhis/her fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives. Through havingadopted & carried out such actions, on the break-up of the body, afterdeath,he/shereappearsinaplaneofdeprivation…Ifinsteadhe/shecomestothehumanstate,thenhe/sheissicklywhereverreborn.Thisisthewayleading to sickliness: to be onewho harms beingswith one’s fists, withclods,withsticks,orwithknives.

“But then there is the case where a woman or man is not one whoharms beings with his/her fists, with clods, with sticks, or with knives.Throughhaving adopted& carried out such actions, on the break-up ofthebody,afterdeath,he/shereappears inagooddestination…If insteadhe/shecomestothehumanstate,thenhe/sheishealthywhereverreborn.This is theway leading tohealth:not tobeonewhoharmsbeingswithone’sfists,withclods,withsticks,orwithknives.

“There is the case, where a woman or man is ill-tempered & easilyupset; even when lightly criticized, he/she grows offended, provoked,malicious,&resentful;showsannoyance,aversion,&bitterness.Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions,onthebreak-upof thebody,afterdeath,he/shereappearsinaplaneofdeprivation…Ifinsteadhe/shecomestothehumanstate,thenhe/sheisuglywhereverreborn.Thisistheway leading to ugliness: to be ill-tempered & easily upset; even whenlightly criticized, to grow offended, provoked,malicious,& resentful; toshowannoyance,aversion,&bitterness.

“Butthenthereisthecasewhereawomanormanisnotill-temperedoreasilyupset;evenwhenheavilycriticized,he/shedoesn’tgrowoffended,provoked,malicious, or resentful; doesn’t show annoyance, aversion, orbitterness. Through having adopted & carried out such actions, on thebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,he/shereappearsinagooddestination…If instead he/she comes to the human state, then he/she is beautifulwhereverreborn.Thisisthewayleadingtobeauty:nottobeill-temperedoreasilyupset;evenwhenheavilycriticized,nottobeoffended,provoked,malicious,orresentful;nortoshowannoyance,aversion,&bitterness.

“There is the casewhere awoman orman is envious.He/she envies,begrudges, & broods about others’ gains, honor, respect, reverence,

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salutations, & veneration. Through having adopted & carried out suchactions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in aplaneofdeprivation… If insteadhe/she comes to thehuman state, thenhe/sheisnotinfluentialwhereverreborn.Thisisthewayleadingtobeinguninfluential: to be envious, to envy, begrudge, & brood about others’gains,honor,respect,reverence,salutations,&veneration.

“But then there is the case where a woman or man is not envious.He/she does not envy, begrudge, or brood about others’ gains, honor,respect,reverence,salutations,orveneration.Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,he/shereappears in a gooddestination… If insteadhe/she comes to thehumanstate, he/she is influential wherever reborn. This is the way leading tobeinginfluential:nottobeenvious;nottoenvy,begrudge,orbroodaboutothers’gains,honor,respect,reverence,salutations,orveneration.

“Thereisthecasewhereawomanormanisnotagiveroffood,drink,cloth,sandals,garlands,scents,ointments,beds,dwellings,orlightingtocontemplativesorbrahmans.Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions, on the break-up of the body, after death he/she reappears in aplaneofdeprivation…Ifinsteadhe/shecomestothehumanstate,he/sheis poorwherever reborn. This is theway leading to poverty: not to be agiver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, garlands, scents, ointments, beds,dwellings,orlightingtocontemplativesorbrahmans.

“But then there is the casewhere awomanorman is a giverof food,drink, cloth, sandals, scents, ointments, beds, dwellings, & lighting tocontemplatives&brahmans.Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in agood destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, thenhe/sheiswealthywhereverreborn.Thisisthewayleadingtogreatwealth:to be a giver of food, drink, cloth, sandals, garlands, scents, ointments,beds,dwellings,&lightingtocontemplatives&brahmans.

“There is the case where a woman or man is obstinate & arrogant.He/she does not pay homage to those who deserve homage, rise up forthose for whom one should rise up, give a seat to those to whom oneshouldgivea seat,makeway for those forwhomone shouldmakeway,worship thosewho should beworshipped, respect thosewho should berespected,reverethosewhoshouldberevered,orhonorthosewhoshouldbehonored.Throughhavingadopted&carriedout suchactions,on thebreak-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in a plane ofdeprivation…If insteadhe/shecomestothehumanstate, thenhe/she islow-bornwherever reborn. This is theway leading to a low birth: to be

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obstinate&arrogant,not topayhomage to thosewhodeservehomage,norriseupfor…norgiveaseatto…normakewayfor…norworship…norrespect…norrevere…norhonorthosewhoshouldbehonored.

“Butthenthere is thecasewhereawomanormanisnotobstinateorarrogant; he/she pays homage to those who deserve homage, rises up…gives a seat…makes way… worships… respects… reveres… honors thosewho should be honored. Through having adopted & carried out suchactions, on the break-up of the body, after death, he/she reappears in agood destination… If instead he/she comes to the human state, thenhe/she is highborn wherever reborn. This is the way leading to a highbirth:not toobstinateor arrogant; topayhomage to thosewhodeservehomage,toriseup…giveaseat…makeway…worship…respect…revere…honorthosewhoshouldbehonored.

“There is the case where a woman or man when visiting acontemplativeorbrahman,doesnotask: ‘What is skillful, venerable sir?What is unskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? Whatshouldbecultivated?Whatshouldnotbecultivated?What,havingbeendonebyme,willbeformylong-termharm&suffering?Orwhat,havingbeendonebyme,willbeformylong-termwelfare&happiness?’Throughhaving adopted& carried out such actions, Through having adopted&carriedoutsuchactions,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,he/shereappearsinaplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell.If, on thebreak-upof thebody, afterdeath—insteadof reappearing in aplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell—he/shecomestothehumanstate,thenhe/shewillbestupidwhereverreborn.Thisisthewayleadingtostupidity:whenvisitingacontemplativeorbrahman,nottoask: ‘What isskillful?…Orwhat,havingbeendonebyme,willbeformylong-termwelfare&happiness?’

“But then there is the case where a woman or man when visiting acontemplativeorbrahman,asks: ‘What is skillful, venerable sir?What isunskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? What should becultivated?What shouldnot be cultivated?What, having been done byme, will be for my long-term harm & suffering? Or what, having beendone by me, will be for my long-term welfare & happiness?’ Throughhavingadopted&carriedoutsuchactions,onthebreak-upof thebody,afterdeath,he/shereappears inagooddestination,aheavenlyworld. If,onthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath—insteadofreappearinginagooddestination, a heavenly world—he/she comes to the human state, thenhe/she is discerning wherever reborn. This is the way leading todiscernment:whenvisitingacontemplativeorbrahman,toask:‘Whatis

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skillful?… Or what, having been done byme, will be for my long-termwelfare&happiness?’

“So,student,thewayleadingtoshortlifemakespeopleshort-lived,theway leading to long life makes people long-lived. The way leading tosickliness makes people sickly, the way leading to health makes peoplehealthy.Thewayleadingtouglinessmakespeopleugly,thewayleadingto beautymakes people beautiful. The way leading to lack of influencemakes people uninfluential, the way leading to influencemakes peopleinfluential. The way leading to poverty makes people poor, the wayleading to wealth makes people wealthy. The way leading to low birthmakes people low-born, the way leading to high birth makes peoplehighborn. The way leading to stupidity makes people stupid, the wayleadingtodiscernmentmakespeoplediscerning.

“Beingsareownersoftheiractions,heirsoftheiractions,bornoftheiractions, related through their actions, and have their actions as theirarbitrator. Action is what differentiates beings in terms of baseness &excellence.”—MN135

§27. “Monks, endowedwith five qualities, even though listening totheTrueDhamma,oneisincapableofalightingontheorderliness,ontherightnessofskillfulqualities.Whichfive?

”Oneholdsthetalkincontempt.“Oneholdsthespeakerincontempt.“Oneholdsoneselfincontempt.“One listens to the Dhamma with a scattered mind, a mind not

gatheredintoone.“Oneattendsinappropriately.”“Endowedwiththese fivequalities,eventhoughlisteningtotheTrue

Dhamma,oneisincapableofalightingontheorderliness,ontherightnessofskillfulqualities.

“Endowed with (the) five (opposite) qualities when listening to theTrue Dhamma, one is capable of alighting on the orderliness, on therightnessofskillfulqualities.Whichfive?

“Onedoesn’tholdthetalkincontempt.“Onedoesn’tholdthespeakerincontempt.“Onedoesn’tholdoneselfincontempt.“One listens to the Dhamma with an unscattered mind, a mind

gatheredintoone.

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“Oneattendsappropriately.”“Endowed with these five qualities when listening to the True

Dhamma,oneiscapableofalightingontheorderliness,ontherightnessofskillfulqualities.”—AN5:151

§ 28. “Endowed with these six qualities, a person is incapable ofalightingon the lawfulness, the rightnessof skillfulqualities evenwhenlisteningtothetrueDhamma.Whichsix?

“He is endowed with a (present) kamma obstruction, a defilementobstruction,aresult-of-(past)-kammaobstruction;helacksconviction,hasnodesire(tolisten),andhasdulldiscernment.

“Endowedwiththesesixqualities,apersonisincapableofalightingonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesevenwhenlisteningtothetrueDhamma.

“Endowedwith these sixqualities,aperson iscapableofalightingonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesevenwhilelisteningtothetrueDhamma.Whichsix?

“Heisnotendowedwitha(present)kammaobstruction,adefilementobstruction, or a result-of-(past)-kamma obstruction; he has conviction,hasthedesire(tolisten),andisdiscerning.

“Endowedwith these sixqualities,aperson iscapableofalightingonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesevenwhilelisteningtothetrueDhamma.”—AN6:86

§ 29. “Endowed with these six qualities, a person is incapable ofalightingon the lawfulness, the rightnessof skillfulqualities evenwhenlisteningtothetrueDhamma.Whichsix?

“When the Dhamma & Vinaya declared by the Tathāgata is beingtaught,hedoesnotlistenwell,doesnotgiveear,doesnotapplyhismindtognosis,grabsholdofwhatisworthless,rejectswhatisworthwhile,andis not endowed with the patience [or: preference] to comply with theteaching.

“Endowedwiththesesixqualities,apersonisincapableofalightingonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesevenwhenlisteningtothetrueDhamma.

“Endowedwith these sixqualities,aperson iscapableofalightingonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesevenwhilelisteningtothetrueDhamma.Whichsix?

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“When the Dhamma & Vinaya declared by the Tathāgata is beingtaught,helistenswell,givesear,applieshismindtognosis,rejectswhatisworthless, grabs hold of what is worthwhile, and is endowed with thepatience[or:preference]tocomplywiththeteaching.

“Endowedwith these sixqualities,aperson iscapableofalightingonthelawfulness,therightnessofskillfulqualitiesevenwhilelisteningtothetrueDhamma.”—AN6:88

§ 30. “There are these five inhabitants of the states of deprivation,inhabitantsofhell,whoareinagony&incurable.Whichfive?Onewhohaskilledhis/hermother,onewhohaskilledhis/herfather,onewhohaskilledanarahant,onewho—withacorruptedmind—hascausedthebloodofaTathāgatatoflow,andonewhohascausedasplitintheSaṅgha.Theseare the five inhabitants of the states of deprivation, inhabitants of hell,whoareinagony&incurable.”—AN5:129

§31.“Monks,therearethesethreerootsofwhatisunskillful.Whichthree?Greed is a root ofwhat is unskillful, aversion is a root ofwhat isunskillful,delusionisarootofwhatisunskillful.

“Greed itself is unskillful. Whatever a greedy person fabricates bymeans of body, speech, or intellect, that too is unskillful. Whateversuffering a greedy person—his mind overcome with greed, his mindconsumed—wrongly inflicts on another person through beating orimprisonmentorconfiscationorplacingblameorbanishment,(withthethought,)‘Ihavepower.Iwantpower,’thattooisunskillful.Thusitisthatmany evil, unskillful qualities/events—born of greed, caused by greed,originatedthroughgreed,conditionedbygreed—comeintoplay.

[Similarlywithaversionanddelusion.]“And a person like this is called one who speaks at the wrong time,

speakswhatisunfactual,speakswhatisirrelevant,speakscontrarytotheDhamma, speaks contrary to the Vinaya. Why…? Because of havingwrongly inflicted suffering on another person through beating orimprisonmentorconfiscationorplacingblameorbanishment,(withthethought,) ‘I have power. I want power.’ When told what is factual, hedenies it and doesn’t acknowledge it. When told what is unfactual, hedoesn’tmake an ardent effort to untangle it (to see), ‘This is unfactual.Thisisbaseless.’That’swhyapersonlikethisiscalledonewhospeaksatthewrongtime,speakswhatisunfactual,speakswhatisirrelevant,speakscontrarytotheDhamma,speakscontrarytotheVinaya.

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“Aperson like this—hismindovercomewith evil, unskillful qualitiesbornofgreed…bornofaversion…bornofdelusion,hismindconsumed—dwellsinsufferingrightinthehere&now—feelingthreatened,turbulent,feverish—andat thebreak-upof thebody, after death, can expect a baddestination.

“Justasasaltree,abirch,oranaspen,whensmothered&surroundedbythreeparasiticvines,falls intomisfortune,falls intodisaster, falls intomisfortune & disaster, in the same way, a person like this—his mindovercomewithevil,unskillfulqualitiesbornofgreed…bornofaversion…born of delusion, his mind consumed—dwells in suffering right in thehere&now—feelingthreatened,turbulent,feverish—andatthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,canexpectabaddestination.

“Thesearethethreerootsofwhatisunskillful.“Now,therearethesethreerootsofwhatisskillful.Whichthree?Lack

of greed is a root ofwhat is skillful, lack of aversion is a root ofwhat isskillful,lackofdelusionisarootofwhatisskillful.

“Lackofgreeditselfisskillful…“Lackofaversionitselfisskillful…“Lackofdelusionitselfisskillful…“Andapersonlikethisiscalledonewhospeaksattherighttime,speaks

whatisfactual,speakswhatisrelevant,speaksinlinewiththeDhamma,speaks in line with the Vinaya.Why…? Because of not having wronglyinflictedsufferingonanotherpersonthroughbeatingorimprisonmentorconfiscationorplacingblameorbanishment,(withthethought,) ‘Ihavepower.Iwantpower.’Whentoldwhatisfactual,heacknowledgesitanddoesnotdenyit.Whentoldwhatisunfactual,hemakesanardenteffortto untangle it (to see), ‘This is unfactual. This is baseless.’ That’s why apersonlikethisiscalledonewhospeaksattherighttime,speakswhatisfactual,speakswhatisrelevant,speaksinlinewiththeDhamma,speaksinlinewiththeVinaya.

“Inaperson like this,evil,unskillfulqualitiesbornofgreed…bornofaversion…born of delusionhave been abandoned, their root destroyed,made like apalmyra stump,deprivedof the conditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.Hedwellsineaserightinthehere&now—feeling unthreatened, placid, unfeverish—and is unbound right in thehere&now.

“Just as if there were a sal tree, a birch, or an aspen, smothered &surroundedbythreeparasiticvines.Amanwouldcomealong,carryingaspade&abasket.Hewouldcutthevinesattherootand,havingcutthem

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attheroot,woulddigaroundthem.Havingdugaroundthem,hewouldpull themout,evendownto the rootlets.Hewouldcut the stalksof thevines.Havingcutthem,hewouldslicethemintosplinters.Havingslicedthem into splinters, he would pound them into bits. Having poundedthemintobits,hewoulddrytheminthewind&sun.Havingdriedtheminthewind&sun,hewouldburntheminafire.Havingburnedtheminafire, he would reduce them to powdered ash. Having reduced them topowderedash,hewouldwinnowthembeforeahighwindorletthembewashed away in a swift-flowing stream. In that way the parasitic vineswouldhavetheirrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.

“Inthesameway,inapersonlikethis,evil,unskillfulqualitiesbornofgreed…bornof aversion…bornof delusionhavebeen abandoned, theirrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.Hedwellsineaserightinthehere& now—feeling unthreatened, placid, unfeverish—and is unboundrightinthehere&now.

“Thesearethethreerootsofwhatisskillful.”—AN3:70

§32. “There’s the case, headman,where a certain teacher holds thisdoctrine,holdsthisview:‘Allthosewhotakelifearedestinedforaplaneofdeprivation, are destined for hell. All those who steal… All those whoindulge in illicit sex…All thosewho tell lies are destined for a plane ofdeprivation,aredestinedforhell.’Adisciplehasfaithinthatteacher,andthe thought occurs to him, ‘Our teacher holds this doctrine, holds thisview:“All thosewhotake lifearedestinedforaplaneofdeprivation,aredestined for hell.” There are living beings that I have killed. I, too, amdestinedforaplaneofdeprivation,amdestinedforhell.’Hefastensontothatview.Ifhedoesn’tabandonthatdoctrine,doesn’tabandonthatstateofmind,doesn’trelinquishthatview,thenasifheweretobecarriedoff,hewouldthusbeplacedinhell.

“(The thoughtoccurs tohim,) ‘Our teacherholds thisdoctrine,holdsthisview: ‘All thosewho steal…All thosewho indulge in illicit sex…Allthosewhotellliesaredestinedforaplaneofdeprivation,aredestinedforhell.’ There are lies that I have told. I, too, am destined for a plane ofdeprivation,amdestinedforhell.’Hefastensontothatview.Ifhedoesn’tabandon that doctrine, doesn’t abandon that state of mind, doesn’trelinquishthatview,thenasifheweretobecarriedoff,hewouldthusbeplacedinhell.

“There is thecase,headman,whereaTathāgataappears in theworld,

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worthy & rightly self-awakened, consummate in clear-knowing &conduct, well-gone, an expert with regard to the cosmos, unexcelledtrainer of people fit to be tamed, teacher of devas & human beings,awakened,blessed.He,invariousways,criticizes&censuresthetakingoflife,andsays, ‘Abstainfromtakinglife.’Hecriticizes&censuresstealing,and says, ‘Abstain from stealing.’ He criticizes & censures indulging inillicit sex,andsays, ‘Abstain fromindulging in illicit sex.’Hecriticizes&censuresthetellingoflies,andsays,‘Abstainfromthetellingoflies.’

“Adisciplehasfaithinthatteacherandreflects:‘TheBlessedOneinavarietyofwayscriticizes&censures thetakingof life,andsays,“Abstainfromtakinglife.”TherearelivingbeingsthatIhavekilled,toagreaterorlesser extent. That was not right. That was not good. But if I becomeremorsefulforthatreason,thatevildeedofminewillnotbeundone.’So,reflectingthus,heabandonsrightthenthetakingoflife,andinthefuturerefrainsfromtakinglife.Thisishowtherecomestobetheabandoningofthatevildeed.Thisishowtherecomestobethetranscendingofthatevildeed.

“(Hereflects:)‘TheBlessedOneinavarietyofwayscriticizes&censuresstealing… indulging in illicit sex… the telling of lies, and says, “Abstainfromthetellingoflies.”ThereareliesthatIhavetold,toagreaterorlesserextent.Thatwasnotright.Thatwasnotgood.ButifIbecomeremorsefulforthatreason,thatevildeedofminewillnotbeundone.’So,reflectingthus,heabandonsrightthenthetellingoflies,andinthefuturerefrainsfromtellinglies.Thisishowtherecomestobetheabandoningofthatevildeed.Thisishowtherecomestobethetranscendingofthatevildeed.

“Having abandoned the taking of life, he refrains from taking life.Havingabandonedstealing,herefrainsfromstealing.Havingabandonedillicit sex,he refrains from illicit sex.Having abandoned lies,he refrainsfrom lies. Having abandoned divisive speech, he refrains from divisivespeech.Having abandonedharsh speech,he refrains fromharsh speech.Having abandoned idle chatter, he refrains from idle chatter. Havingabandonedcovetousness,hebecomesuncovetous.Havingabandoned illwill & anger, he becomes one with a mind of no ill will. Havingabandonedwrongviews,hebecomesonewhohasrightviews.

“That disciple of the noble ones, headman—thus devoid ofcovetousness, devoid of ill will, unbewildered, alert, mindful—keepspervading the first direction [the east] with an awareness imbued withgoodwill,likewisethesecond,likewisethethird,likewisethefourth.Thusabove,below,&allaround,everywhere,initsentirety,hekeepspervadingtheall-encompassingcosmoswithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwill—

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abundant,enlarged,immeasurable,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Justasa strongconch-trumpetblowercannotify the fourdirectionswithoutany difficulty, in the same way, when the awareness-release throughgoodwill is thus developed, thus pursued, any deed done to a limitedextentnolongerremainsthere,nolongerstaysthere.

“Thatdiscipleofthenobleones—thusdevoidofcovetousness,devoidof ill will, unbewildered, alert, mindful—keeps pervading the firstdirectionwithanawarenessimbuedwithcompassion…empatheticjoy…equanimity, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth.Thus above, below, & all around, everywhere, in its entirety, he keepspervading the all-encompassing cosmoswith an awareness imbuedwithequanimity—abundant, enlarged, immeasurable, without hostility,withoutillwill.Justasastrongconch-trumpetblowercannotifythefourdirectionswithout anydifficulty, in the sameway,when the awareness-release through equanimity is thus developed, thus pursued, any deeddonetoa limitedextentnolongerremainsthere,nolongerstaysthere.”—SN42:8

§33.“Longlifeiswelcome,agreeable,pleasant,&hardtoobtainintheworld.

“Beautyiswelcome,agreeable,pleasant,&hardtoobtainintheworld.“Happiness is welcome, agreeable, pleasant, & hard to obtain in the

world.“Statusiswelcome,agreeable,pleasant,&hardtoobtainintheworld.“Rebirthinheaveniswelcome,agreeable,pleasant,&hardtoobtainin

theworld.“Now, I tellyou, these five thingsarenot tobeobtainedbyreasonof

prayers or wishes. If they were to be obtained by reason of prayers orwishes,whoherewouldlackthem?

“It’snotfittingforthediscipleofthenobleoneswhodesireslonglifetoprayforitortodelightindoingso.Instead,thediscipleofthenobleoneswhodesireslonglifeshouldfollowthepathofpracticeleadingtolonglife.Insodoing,hewillattainlonglife,eitherhumanordivine.

“…thediscipleofthenobleoneswhodesiresbeautyshouldfollowthepathofpracticeleadingtobeauty…thediscipleofthenobleoneswhodesireshappinessshouldfollowthepathofpracticeleadingtohappiness.Insodoing,hewillattainhappiness,eitherhumanordivine…thediscipleofthenobleones who desires status should follow the path of practice leading tostatus…

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“It’snotfittingforthediscipleofthenobleoneswhodesiresrebirthinheaventoprayforitortodelightindoingso.Instead,thediscipleofthenoble ones who desires rebirth in heaven should follow the path ofpracticeleadingtorebirthinheaven.Insodoing,hewillattainrebirthinheaven.”—AN5:43

§34.“Supposeamanweretothrowalargeboulderintoadeeplakeofwater,andagreatcrowdofpeople,gathering&congregating,wouldpray,praise,&circumambulatewith theirhandspalm-to-palmover theheart,(saying,)‘Riseup,Oboulder!Comefloatingup,Oboulder!Comefloattotheshore,Oboulder!’Whatdoyouthink?Wouldthatboulder—becauseoftheprayers,praise,&circumambulationofthatgreatcrowdofpeople—riseup,comefloatingup,orcomefloattotheshore?”

“No,lord.”“Soit iswithanymanwhotakeslife,steals, indulgesinillicitsex; isa

liar, one who speaks divisive speech, harsh speech, & idle chatter; isgreedy,bearsthoughtsofill-will,&holdstowrongviews.Eventhoughagreat crowd of people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, &circumambulatewiththeirhandspalm-to-palmovertheheart—(saying,)‘Maythisman,atthebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,reappearinagooddestination, a heavenly world!’—still, at the break-up of the body, afterdeath,hewould reappear in aplaneofdeprivation, abaddestination, alowerrealm,hell.…

“Supposeamanwere to throwa jarofgheeora jarofoil intoadeeplake of water, where it would break. There the shards & jar-fragmentswouldgodown,whilethegheeoroilwouldcomeup.Thenagreatcrowdof people, gathering & congregating, would pray, praise, &circumambulate with their hands palm-to-palm over the heart (saying,)‘Sink,Oghee/oil! Submerge,Oghee/oil!Godown,Oghee/oil!’Whatdoyou think? Would that ghee/oil, because of the prayers, praise, &circumambulation of that great crowd of people sink, submerge, or godown?”

“No,lord.”“So it iswithanymanwho refrains fromtaking life, fromstealing,&

from indulging in illicit sex; refrains from lying, from speaking divisivespeech, from harsh speech, & from idle chatter; is not greedy, bears nothoughtsof ill-will,&holds to rightview.Even thoughagreat crowdofpeople,gathering&congregating,wouldpray,praise,&circumambulatewiththeirhandspalm-to-palmovertheheart—(saying,)‘Maythisman,at

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thebreak-upofthebody,afterdeath,reappearinaplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination, a lower realm,hell!’—still, at the break-up of the body,afterdeath,hewouldreappear inagooddestination,aheavenlyworld.”—SN42:6

§35.“Andhowisoneanindividualwhopracticesforhisownbenefitbut not for that of others? There is the case where a certain individualhimself abstains from the taking of life but doesn’t encourage others inundertakingabstinence fromthe takingof life.Hehimselfabstains fromstealing but doesn’t encourage others in undertaking abstinence fromstealing. He himself abstains from sexual misconduct but doesn’tencourageothers inundertakingabstinence fromsexualmisconduct.Hehimselfabstains fromlyingbutdoesn’tencourageothers inundertakingabstinence from lying. He himself abstains from intoxicants that causeheedlessnessbutdoesn’tencourageothersinundertakingabstinencefromintoxicants thatcauseheedlessness. Such is the individualwhopracticesforhisownbenefitbutnotforthatofothers.”—AN4:99

§36.“Idesignatetherebirthofonewhohassustenance[or:clinging],Vaccha, and not of one without sustenance. Just as a fire burns withsustenanceandnotwithoutsustenance,evensoIdesignatetherebirthofonewhohassustenanceandnotofonewithoutsustenance.”

“But,MasterGotama,atthemomentaflameisbeingsweptonbythewind and goes a far distance, what do you designate as its sustenancethen?”

“Vaccha,when a flame is being swept on by thewind and goes a fardistance,Idesignateitaswind-sustained,forthewindisitssustenanceatthattime.”

“Andat themomentwhenabeingsets thisbodyasideand isnotyetreborninanotherbody,whatdoyoudesignateasitssustenancethen?”

“Vaccha, when a being sets this body aside and is not yet reborn inanother body, I designate it as craving-sustained, for craving is itssustenanceatthattime.”—SN44:9

§37.“Fromignoranceasarequisiteconditioncomefabrications.“Fromfabricationsasarequisiteconditioncomesconsciousness.“Fromconsciousnessasarequisiteconditioncomesname-&-form.“Fromname-&-formasarequisiteconditioncomethesixsensemedia.“Fromthesixsensemediaasarequisiteconditioncomescontact.

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“Fromcontactasarequisiteconditioncomesfeeling.“Fromfeelingasarequisiteconditioncomescraving.“Fromcravingasarequisiteconditioncomesclinging/sustenance.“Fromclinging/sustenanceasarequisiteconditioncomesbecoming.“Frombecomingasarequisiteconditioncomesbirth.“From birth as a requisite condition, then aging-&-death, sorrow,

lamentation, pain, distress, & despair come into play. Such is theoriginationofthisentiremassofstress&suffering.”

Whenthiswassaid,acertainmonksaidtotheBlessedOne:“Whichistheaging-&-death,lord,andwhoseistheaging-&-death?”

“Not a valid question,” the Blessed One said. “If one were to ask,‘Whichistheaging-&-death,andwhoseistheaging-&-death?’andifonewere to say, ‘Aging-&-death are one thing, and the aging-&-death aresomething/someoneelse’s,’bothofthemwouldhavethesamemeaning,even though theirwordswoulddiffer.Whenone isof theview that thesoul is thesameas thebody, there isno leadingtheholy life.Andwhenoneisoftheviewthatthesoulisonethingandthebodyanother,thereisno leading the holy life. Avoiding these two extremes, the Tathāgatateaches theDhammavia themiddle:Frombirthasa requisiteconditioncomesaging-&-death.”

[Andsimilarlywiththeremainingfactors.]—SN12:35

WorkingHypotheses

§38.As theywere sitting there, theKālāmasofKesaputta said to theBlessedOne,“Lord,therearesomecontemplatives&brahmanswhocometoKesaputta.Theyexpound&glorify theirowndoctrines,butas for thedoctrinesofothers,theydeprecatethem,disparagethem,showcontemptfor them, & pull them to pieces. And then other contemplatives &brahmans come to Kesaputta. They expound & glorify their owndoctrines, but as for the doctrines of others, they deprecate them,disparage them, show contempt for them, & pull them to pieces. Theyleave us absolutely uncertain & in doubt: Which of these venerablecontemplatives& brahmans are speaking the truth, andwhich ones arelying?”

“Of course you are uncertain, Kālāmas. Of course you are in doubt.When there are reasons for doubt, uncertainty is born. So in this case,Kālāmas, don’t go by reports, by legends, by traditions, by scripture, by

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logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, by agreement throughponderingviews,byprobability,orbythethought,‘Thiscontemplativeisour teacher.’ When you know for yourselves that, ‘These qualities areunskillful;thesequalitiesareblameworthy;thesequalitiesarecriticizedbytheobservant;thesequalities,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtoharm&tosuffering’—thenyoushouldabandonthem.

“Whatdoyou think,Kālāmas?Whengreedarises inaperson,does itariseforwelfareorforharm?”

“Forharm,lord.”“And this greedy person, overcome by greed, his mind possessed by

greed, kills living beings, takes what is not given, goes after anotherperson’swife,tellslies,andinducesotherstodolikewise,allofwhichisforlong-termharm&suffering.”

“Yes,lord.”[Similarlywithaversion&delusion.]“So what do you think, Kālāmas: Are these qualities skillful or

unskillful?”“Unskillful,lord.”“Blameworthyorblameless?”“Blameworthy,lord.”“Criticizedbytheobservantorpraisedbytheobservant?”“Criticizedbytheobservant,lord.”“Whenadopted&carriedout,dotheyleadtoharm&tosuffering,or

not?”“Whenadopted&carriedout,theyleadtoharm&tosuffering.Thatis

howitappearstous.”“So,asIsaid,Kālāmas: ‘Don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,

by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, byagreement through pondering views, by probability, or by the thought,“Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.”Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,“These qualities are unskillful; these qualities are blameworthy; thesequalitiesarecriticizedbytheobservant; thesequalities,whenadopted&carried out, lead to harm & to suffering”—then you should abandonthem.’Thuswasitsaid.Andinreferencetothiswasitsaid.

“Now, Kālāmas, don’t go by reports, by legends, by traditions, byscripture,by logicalconjecture,by inference,byanalogies,byagreementthrough pondering views, by probability, or by the thought, ‘Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.’Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘These

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qualities are skillful; these qualities are blameless; these qualities arepraisedbytheobservant;thesequalities,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtowelfare&tohappiness’—thenyoushouldenter&remaininthem.

“Whatdoyou think,Kālāmas?When lackofgreedarises inaperson,doesitariseforwelfareorforharm?”

“Forwelfare,lord.”“And this ungreedy person, not overcome by greed, his mind not

possessed by greed, doesn’t kill living beings, takewhat is not given, goafteranotherperson’swife,telllies,orinduceotherstodolikewise,allofwhichisforlong-termwelfare&happiness.”

“Yes,lord.”[Similarlywithlackofaversion&lackofdelusion.]“So what do you think, Kālāmas: Are these qualities skillful or

unskillful?”“Skillful,lord.”“Blameworthyorblameless?”“Blameless,lord.”“Criticizedbytheobservantorpraisedbytheobservant?”“Praisedbytheobservant,lord.”“Whenadopted&carriedout,dotheyleadtowelfare&tohappiness,

ornot?”“Whenadopted&carriedout,theyleadtowelfare&tohappiness.That

ishowitappearstous.”“So,asIsaid,Kālāmas: ‘Don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,

by scripture, by logical conjecture, by inference, by analogies, byagreement through pondering views, by probability, or by the thought,“Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.”Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,“These qualities are skillful; these qualities are blameless; these qualitiesarepraisedbytheobservant;thesequalities,whenadopted&carriedout,lead to welfare & to happiness”—then you should enter & remain inthem.’Thuswasitsaid.Andinreferencetothiswasitsaid.—AN3:66

§39. So thebrahmanhouseholders of Sālawent to theBlessedOne.Onarrival,someofthemboweddowntotheBlessedOneandsattooneside.Someofthemexchangedcourteousgreetingswithhimand,afteranexchangeoffriendlygreetings&courtesies,sattooneside.Someofthemsat to one side having saluted himwith their hands palm-to-palm overtheirhearts.Someofthemsattoonesidehavingannouncedtheirname&

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clan.Someofthemsattoonesideinsilence.Astheyweresittingthere,theBlessedOneaskedthem,“Householders,

isthereanyteacheragreeabletoyou,inwhomyouhavefoundgroundedconviction?”

“No,lord,thereisnoteacheragreeabletous,inwhomwehavefoundgroundedconviction.”

“As you have not found an agreeable teacher, you should adopt andpractice this safe-bet teaching, for this safe-bet teaching—whenacceptedandadopted—willbetoyourlong-termwelfare&happiness.

“Andwhatisthesafe-betteaching?

Existence&Non-existence

A.“Therearesomecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthisdoctrine,hold this view: ‘There is nothing given, nothing offered, nothingsacrificed.Thereisnofruitorresultofgoodorbadactions.Thereisnothisworld, no next world, no mother, no father, no spontaneously rebornbeings;nocontemplativesorbrahmanswho,faringrightlyandpracticingrightly,proclaimthisworldandthenextafterhavingdirectlyknownandrealizeditforthemselves.’1

B.“Somecontemplatives&brahmans,speakingindirectoppositiontothosecontemplatives&brahmans,saythis:‘Thereiswhatisgiven,whatisoffered,whatissacrificed.Therearefruits&resultsofgood&badactions.Thereisthisworld&thenextworld.Thereismother&father.Therearespontaneouslyrebornbeings;therearecontemplatives&brahmanswho,faring rightly & practicing rightly, proclaim this world & the next afterhavingdirectlyknown&realizeditforthemselves.’

“What do you think, householders? Don’t these contemplatives &brahmansspeakindirectoppositiontoeachother?”

“Yes,lord.”A1. “Now, householders, of those contemplatives & brahmans who

hold this doctrine, hold this view—’There is nothing given, nothingoffered, nothing sacrificed. There is no fruit or result of good or badactions.There isno thisworld,nonextworld,nomother,no father,nospontaneouslyrebornbeings;nocontemplativesorbrahmanswho,faringrightly and practicing rightly, proclaim this world and the next afterhavingdirectlyknownandrealizeditforthemselves’—itcanbeexpectedthat, shunning these three skillfulactivities—goodbodilyconduct,goodverbal conduct, goodmental conduct—theywill adopt& practice thesethree unskillful activities: bad bodily conduct, bad verbal conduct, bad

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mentalconduct.Whyis that?Becausethosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmans do not see, in unskillful activities, the drawbacks, thedegradation, and the defilement; nor in skillful activities the rewards ofrenunciation,resemblingcleansing.

A2. “Because there actually is the next world, the view of one whothinks,‘Thereisnonextworld’ishiswrongview.Becausethereactuallyisthenextworld,whenhe is resolvedthat ‘There isnonextworld,’ that ishiswrongresolve.Becausethereactuallyisthenextworld,whenhespeaksthestatement,‘Thereisnonextworld,’thatishiswrongspeech.Becausethereactuallyisthenextworld,whenhesaysthat‘Thereisnonextworld,’he makes himself an opponent to those arahants who know the nextworld. Because there actually is the next world, when he persuadesanotherthat‘Thereisnonextworld,’thatispersuasioninwhatisnottrueDhamma.AndinthatpersuasioninwhatisnottrueDhamma,heexaltshimselfanddisparagesothers.Whatevergoodhabituationhepreviouslyhad is abandoned,while badhabituation ismanifested.And thiswrongview,wrongresolve,wrongspeech,oppositiontothearahants,persuasioninwhatisnottrueDhamma,exaltationofself,&disparagementofothers:Thesemany evil, unskillful activities come into play, in dependence onwrongview.

A3.“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Ifthereisno next world, then—with the breakup of the body, after death—thisvenerable person hasmade himself safe. But if there is the next world,thenthisvenerableperson—onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—willreappearinaplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell.Even if we didn’t speak of the next world, and there weren’t the truestatementofthosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmans,thisvenerablepersonisstillcriticizedinthehere-&-nowbytheobservantasapersonofbadhabits&wrongview2:onewhoholdstoadoctrineofnon-existence.’Iftherereallyisanextworld,thenthisvenerablepersonhasmadeabadthrowtwice: inthathe iscriticizedbytheobservanthere-&-now,andinthat—with the breakup of the body, after death—he will reappear in aplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell.Thusthissafe-betteaching,whenpoorlygrasped&poorlyadoptedbyhim,covers(only)oneside,andleavesbehindthepossibilityoftheskillful.

B1. “Now, householders, of those contemplatives & brahmans whoholdthisdoctrine,holdthisview—’Thereiswhatisgiven,whatisoffered,whatissacrificed.Therearefruits&resultsofgood&badactions.Thereisthis world & the next world. There is mother & father. There arespontaneouslyrebornbeings;therearecontemplatives&brahmanswho,

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faring rightly & practicing rightly, proclaim this world & the next afterhaving directly known& realized it for themselves’—it can be expectedthat, shunning these threeunskillfulactivities—badbodilyconduct,badverbal conduct, bad mental conduct—they will adopt & practice thesethree skillful activities: goodbodily conduct, good verbal conduct, goodmentalconduct.Whyis that?Becausethosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmanssee inunskillfulactivitiesthedrawbacks,thedegradation,andthe defilement; and in skillful activities the rewards of renunciation,resemblingcleansing.

B2. “Because there actually is the next world, the view of one whothinks,‘Thereisanextworld’ishisrightview.Becausethereactuallyisthenextworld, when he is resolved that ‘There is a nextworld,’ that is hisrightresolve.Becausethereactuallyisthenextworld,whenhespeaksthestatement, ‘There is anextworld,’ that ishis right speech.Because thereactually is thenextworld,whenhe says that ‘There is anextworld,’ hedoesn’tmakehimselfanopponenttothosearahantswhoknowthenextworld. Because there actually is the next world, when he persuadesanother that ‘There is a next world,’ that is persuasion in what is trueDhamma. And in that persuasion in what is true Dhamma, he doesn’texalthimselfordisparageothers.Whateverbadhabituationhepreviouslyhad is abandoned,while goodhabituation ismanifested. And this rightview, right resolve, right speech, non-opposition to the arahants,persuasion in what is true Dhamma, non-exaltation of self, & non-disparagementofothers:Thesemanyskillfulactivitiescomeintoplay,independenceonrightview.

B3.“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Ifthereisthenextworld,thenthisvenerableperson—onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—willreappearinagooddestination,aheavenlyworld.Evenifwedidn’tspeakofthenextworld,andthereweren’tthetruestatementofthosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmans,thisvenerablepersonisstillpraisedinthehere-&-nowbytheobservantasapersonofgoodhabits&right view: onewhoholds to a doctrine of existence.’ If there really is anextworld, then thisvenerablepersonhasmadeagood throw twice, inthat he is praised by the observant here-&-now; and in that—with thebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—hewillreappearinagooddestination,aheavenlyworld.Thusthissafe-betteaching,whenwellgrasped&adoptedby him, covers both sides, and leaves behind the possibility of theunskillful.

Action&Non-action

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A.“Therearesomecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthisdoctrine,holdthisview:‘Inactingorgettingotherstoact,inmutilatingorgettingothers tomutilate, in torturing or getting others to torture, in inflictingsorrow or in getting others to inflict sorrow, in tormenting or gettingothers to torment, in intimidating or getting others to intimidate, intaking life, taking what is not given, breaking into houses, plunderingwealth,committingburglary,ambushinghighways,committingadultery,speakingfalsehood—onedoesnoevil.Ifwitharazor-edgeddiskoneweretoturnallthelivingbeingsonthisearthtoasingleheapofflesh,asinglepile of flesh, therewouldbeno evil from that cause,no comingof evil.Even if one were to go along the right bank of the Ganges, killing andgettingotherstokill,mutilatingandgettingotherstomutilate,torturingandgettingothers to torture, therewouldbenoevil fromthatcause,nocomingofevil.EvenifoneweretogoalongtheleftbankoftheGanges,givingandgettingothers togive,makingsacrificesandgettingothers tomake sacrifices, therewould benomerit from that cause, no coming ofmerit. Through generosity, self-control, restraint, and truthful speechthereisnomeritfromthatcause,nocomingofmerit.’

B.“Somecontemplatives&brahmans,speakingindirectoppositiontothosecontemplatives&brahmans,saythis:‘Inactingorgettingotherstoact, in mutilating or getting others to mutilate, in torturing or gettingotherstotorture,ininflictingsorroworingettingotherstoinflictsorrow,in tormenting or getting others to torment, in intimidating or gettingotherstointimidate,intakinglife,takingwhatisnotgiven,breakingintohouses, plundering wealth, committing burglary, ambushing highways,committing adultery, speaking falsehood—onedoes evil. Ifwith a razor-edgeddiskoneweretoturnall thelivingbeingsonthisearthtoasingleheapof flesh, a single pile of flesh, therewouldbe evil from that cause,therewouldbeacomingofevil.IfoneweretogoalongtherightbankoftheGanges,killingandgettingotherstokill,mutilatingandgettingotherstomutilate, torturing and getting others to torture, there would be evilfromthatcause,therewouldbeacomingofevil.Ifoneweretogoalongthe left bank of the Ganges, giving and getting others to give, makingsacrificesandgettingotherstomakesacrifices,therewouldbemeritfromthat cause, there would be a coming ofmerit. Through generosity, self-control,restraint,andtruthfulspeechthereismeritfromthatcause,thereisacomingofmerit.’

“What do you think, householders? Don’t these contemplatives &brahmansspeakindirectoppositiontoeachother?”

“Yes,lord.”

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A1. “Now, householders, of those contemplatives & brahmans whohold thisdoctrine,hold thisview—’Inactingorgettingothers toact, inmutilatingorgettingothers tomutilate, in torturingorgettingothers totorture… one does no evil … Through generosity, self-control, restraint,and truthful speech there is no merit from that cause, no coming ofmerit’—it canbeexpected that, shunning these three skillful activities—good bodily conduct, good verbal conduct, goodmental conduct—theywilladopt&practicethesethreeunskillfulactivities:badbodilyconduct,bad verbal conduct, bad mental conduct. Why is that? Because thosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmansdonotsee, inunskillfulactivities,the drawbacks, the degradation, and the defilement; nor in skillfulactivitiestherewardsofrenunciation,resemblingcleansing.

A2.“Becausethereactuallyisaction,theviewofonewhothinks,‘Thereisnoaction’ishiswrongview.Becausethereactuallyisaction,whenheisresolvedthat‘Thereisnoaction,’thatishiswrongresolve.Becausethereactuallyisaction,whenhespeaksthestatement,‘Thereisnoaction,’thatis hiswrong speech. Because there actually is action,when he says that‘Thereisnoaction,’hemakeshimselfanopponenttothosearahantswhoteachaction.Becausethereactuallyisaction,whenhepersuadesanotherthat ‘There isnoaction,’ that ispersuasioninwhat isnottrueDhamma.AndinthatpersuasioninwhatisnottrueDhamma,heexaltshimselfanddisparages others. Whatever good habituation he previously had isabandoned, while bad habituation is manifested. And this wrong view,wrong resolve, wrong speech, opposition to the arahants, persuasion inwhat isnot trueDhamma,exaltationof self,&disparagementofothers:Thesemany evil, unskillful activities come into play, in dependence onwrongview.

A3.“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Ifthereisno action, then—with the breakup of the body, after death—thisvenerable personhasmadehimself safe. But if there is action, then thisvenerableperson—onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—willreappearinaplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell.Evenifwedidn’t speak of action, and there weren’t the true statement of thosevenerable contemplatives & brahmans, this venerable person is stillcriticizedinthehere-&-nowbytheobservantasapersonofbadhabits&wrongview:onewhoholdstoadoctrineofnon-action.’Iftherereallyisaction,thenthisvenerablepersonhasmadeabadthrowtwice:inthatheiscriticizedbytheobservanthere-&-now;andinthat—withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—hewillreappearinaplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell.Thusthissafe-betteaching,whenpoorly

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grasped & poorly adopted by him, covers (only) one side, and leavesbehindthepossibilityoftheskillful.

B1. “Now, householders, of those contemplatives & brahmans whohold thisdoctrine,hold thisview—’Inactingorgettingothers toact, inmutilatingorgettingothers tomutilate, in torturingorgettingothers totorture…onedoes evil.…Throughgenerosity, self-control, restraint, andtruthfulspeechthereismeritfromthatcause,thereisacomingofmerit’—it can be expected that, shunning these three unskillful activities—badbodilyconduct,badverbalconduct,badmentalconduct—theywilladopt&practicethesethreeskillfulactivities:goodbodilyconduct,goodverbalconduct, good mental conduct. Why is that? Because those venerablecontemplatives&brahmansseeinunskillfulactivitiesthedrawbacks,thedegradation, and the defilement; and in skillful activities the rewards ofrenunciation,resemblingcleansing.

B2.“Becausethereactuallyisaction,theviewofonewhothinks,‘Thereis action’ is his right view. Because there actually is action, when he isresolved that ‘There is action,’ that is his right resolve. Because thereactuallyisaction,whenhespeaksthestatement, ‘Thereisaction,’thatishisrightspeech.Becausethereactuallyisaction,whenhesaysthat‘Thereis action,’ he doesn’tmake himself an opponent to those arahantswhoteachaction.Becausethereactuallyisaction,whenhepersuadesanotherthat ‘There isaction,’ that ispersuasioninwhat is trueDhamma.Andinthat persuasion in what is true Dhamma, he doesn’t exalt himself ordisparage others. Whatever bad habituation he previously had isabandoned, while good habituation is manifested. And this right view,rightresolve,rightspeech,non-oppositiontothearahants,persuasioninwhat is true Dhamma, non-exaltation of self, & non-disparagement ofothers: Thesemany skillful activities come into play, in dependence onrightview.

B3.“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Ifthereisaction, then this venerable person—on the breakup of the body, afterdeath—willreappear inagooddestination,aheavenlyworld.Evenifwedidn’t speak of action, and there weren’t the true statement of thosevenerable contemplatives & brahmans, this venerable person is stillpraisedinthehere-&-nowbytheobservantasapersonofgoodhabits&rightview:onewhoholdstoadoctrineofaction.’Iftherereallyisanextworld,thenthisvenerablepersonhasmadeagoodthrowtwice,inthatheispraisedbytheobservanthere-&-now;andinthat—withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—hewillreappearinagooddestination,aheavenlyworld.Thusthissafe-betteaching,whenwellgrasped&adoptedbyhim,

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coversbothsides,andleavesbehindthepossibilityoftheunskillful.

Causality&Non-causality

A.“Therearesomecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthisdoctrine,hold this view: ‘There is no causality, no requisite condition, for thedefilement of beings. Beings are defiled without causality, withoutrequisite condition.There isnocausality,no requisite condition, for thepurification of beings. Beings are purified without causality, withoutrequisitecondition.Thereisnostrength,noeffort,nohumanenergy,nohuman endeavor. All living beings, all life, all beings, all souls arepowerless,devoidof strength,devoidofeffort. Subject to thechangesoffate,serendipity,andnature,theyexperiencepleasureandpaininthesixgreatclassesofbirth.’4

B.“Somecontemplatives&brahmans,speakingindirectoppositiontothose contemplatives & brahmans, say this: ‘There is causality, there isrequisite condition, for thedefilementof beings.Beings aredefiledwithcausality, with requisite condition. There is causality, there is requisitecondition,forthepurificationofbeings.Beingsarepurifiedwithcausality,withrequisitecondition.Thereisstrength,thereiseffort,thereishumanenergy,thereishumanendeavor.It’snotthecasethatalllivingbeings,alllife,allbeings,allsoulsarepowerless,devoidofstrength,devoidofeffort;or that subject to the changes of fate, serendipity, and nature, theyexperiencepleasureandpaininthesixgreatclassesofbirth.’

“What do you think, householders? Don’t these contemplatives &brahmansspeakindirectoppositiontoeachother?”

“Yes,lord.”A1. “Now, householders, of those contemplatives & brahmans who

hold this doctrine, hold this view—’There is no cause, no requisitecondition, for thedefilementofbeings.…Subject to the changesof fate,serendipity,andnature,theyexperiencepleasureandpaininthesixgreatclasses of birth’—it can be expected that, shunning these three skillfulactivities—good bodily conduct, good verbal conduct, good mentalconduct—theywill adopt&practice these threeunskillfulactivities:badbodily conduct, bad verbal conduct, badmental conduct.Why is that?Because those venerable contemplatives & brahmans do not see, inunskillful activities, thedrawbacks, thedegradation,and thedefilement;norinskillfulactivitiestherewardsofrenunciation,resemblingcleansing.

A2. “Because there actually is causality, the view of one who thinks,‘Thereisnocausality’ishiswrongview.Becausethereactuallyiscausality,

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whenheisresolvedthat‘Thereisnocausality,’thatishiswrongresolve.Becausethereactuallyiscausality,whenhespeaksthestatement,‘Thereisnocausality,’thatishiswrongspeech.Becausethereactuallyiscausality,whenhesaysthat‘Thereisnocausality,’hemakeshimselfanopponenttothose arahants who teach causality. Because there actually is causality,whenhepersuadesanotherthat‘Thereisnocausality,’thatispersuasioninwhat isnot trueDhamma.And in thatpersuasion inwhat isnot trueDhamma, he exalts himself and disparages others. Whatever goodhabituation he previously had is abandoned, while bad habituation ismanifested. And this wrong view, wrong resolve, wrong speech,opposition to the arahants, persuasion in what is not true Dhamma,exaltationofself,&disparagementofothers:Thesemanyevil,unskillfulactivitiescomeintoplay,independenceonwrongview.

A3.“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Ifthereisno causality, then—with the breakup of the body, after death—thisvenerablepersonhasmadehimselfsafe.Butifthereiscausality,thenthisvenerableperson—onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath—willreappearinaplaneofdeprivation,abaddestination,alowerrealm,hell.Evenifwedidn’t speak of causality, and there weren’t the true statement of thosevenerable contemplatives & brahmans, this venerable person is stillcriticizedinthehere-&-nowbytheobservantasapersonofbadhabits&wrongview:onewhoholdstoadoctrineofnon-causality.’Iftherereallyisanextworld, thenthisvenerablepersonhasmadeabadthrowtwice: inthathe is criticizedby theobservanthere-&-now,and in that—with thebreakup of the body, after death—he will reappear in a plane ofdeprivation, a bad destination, a lower realm, hell. Thus this safe-betteaching, when poorly grasped& poorly adopted by him, covers (only)oneside,andleavesbehindthepossibilityoftheskillful.

B1. “Now, householders, of those contemplatives & brahmans whohold this doctrine, hold this view—’There is causality, there is requisitecondition, for thedefilementofbeings.… It’snot the case that all livingbeings, all life, all beings, all souls are powerless, devoid of strength,devoid of effort; or that subject to the changes of fate, serendipity, andnature, they experience pleasure and pain in the six great classes ofbirth’—itcanbeexpectedthat,shunningthesethreeunskillfulactivities—badbodily conduct, badverbal conduct, badmental conduct—theywilladopt&practicethesethreeskillfulactivities:goodbodilyconduct,goodverbal conduct, good mental conduct. Why is that? Because thosevenerable contemplatives & brahmans see in unskillful activities thedrawbacks, thedegradation,and thedefilement; and in skillful activities

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therewardsofrenunciation,resemblingcleansing.B2. “Because there actually is causality, the view of one who thinks,

‘There is causality’ is his right view. Because there actually is causality,when he is resolved that ‘There is causality,’ that is his right resolve.Because thereactuallycausality,whenhe speaks the statement, ‘There iscausality,’thatishisrightspeech.Becausethereactuallyiscausality,whenhesaysthat ‘Thereiscausality,’hedoesn’tmakehimselfanopponenttothose arahants who teach causality. Because there actually is causality,whenhepersuadesanotherthat ‘There iscausality,’ that ispersuasioninwhatistrueDhamma.AndinthatpersuasioninwhatistrueDhamma,hedoesn’t exalt himself or disparage others.Whatever bad habituation hepreviouslyhad isabandoned,whilegoodhabituationismanifested.Andthisrightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,non-oppositiontothearahants,persuasion in what is true Dhamma, non-exaltation of self, & non-disparagementofothers:Thesemanyskillfulactivitiescomeintoplay,independenceonrightview.

B3.“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Ifthereiscausality, then this venerableperson—on thebreakupof thebody, afterdeath—willreappear inagooddestination,aheavenlyworld.Evenifwedidn’t speak of causality, and there weren’t the true statement of thosevenerable contemplatives & brahmans, this venerable person is stillpraisedinthehere-&-nowbytheobservantasapersonofgoodhabits&right view: one who holds to a doctrine of causality.’ If there really iscausality,thenthisvenerablepersonhasmadeagoodthrowtwice,inthatheispraisedbytheobservanthere-&-now;andinthat—withthebreakupof the body, after death—he will reappear in a good destination, aheavenlyworld.Thusthissafe-betteaching,whenwellgrasped&adoptedby him, covers both sides, and leaves behind the possibility of theunskillful.

Formlessness

“Thereare somecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,hold this view: ‘There is no total formlessness.’ Some contemplatives &brahmans, speaking in direct opposition to those contemplatives &brahmans, say this: ‘There is total formlessness.’ What do you think,householders? Don’t these contemplatives & brahmans speak in directoppositiontoeachother?”

“Yes,lord.”“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Asforthose

venerablecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,hold this

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view—“There isno total formlessness”—Ihaven’t seen that.As for thosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,hold thisview—“There is total formlessness”—I haven’t known that. If I, notknowing,notseeing,weretotakeonesideanddeclare,“Onlythisistrue,anythingotherwiseisworthless,”thatwouldnotbefittingforme.Asforthosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmanswhoholdthisdoctrine,holdthis view—“There is no total formlessness”: If their statement is true,there’s the safe-bet possibility that I might reappear among the mind-madedevasof form.As for thosevenerable contemplatives&brahmanswhohold this doctrine, hold this view—“There is total formlessness”: Iftheirstatementistrue,there’sthesafe-betpossibilitythatImightreappearamong the perception-made devas of no form. The taking up of rods&weapons, quarrels, contention, disputes, recrimination, divisiveness, &falsespeechareseentoarisefromform,butnotfromtotalformlessness.’Reflecting thus, he practices for disenchantment toward forms, fordispassiontowardforms,andforthecessationofforms.

CessationofBecoming

“Thereare somecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,hold this view: ‘There is no total cessation of becoming.’ Somecontemplatives & brahmans, speaking in direct opposition to thosecontemplatives & brahmans, say this: ‘There is total cessation ofbecoming.’Whatdoyouthink,householders?Don’tthesecontemplatives&brahmansspeakindirectoppositiontoeachother?”

“Yes,lord.”“Withregardtothis,anobservantpersonconsidersthus:‘Asforthose

venerablecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,hold thisview—“There isnototalcessationofbecoming”—Ihaven’t seenthat.Asfor thosevenerable contemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,holdthisview—“Thereistotalcessationofbecoming”—Ihaven’tknownthat.IfI,notknowing,notseeing,weretotakeonesideanddeclare,“Onlythisistrue,anythingotherwiseisworthless,”thatwouldnotbefittingforme. As for those venerable contemplatives & brahmans who hold thisdoctrine, hold this view—“There is no total cessation of becoming”: Iftheirstatementistrue,there’sthesafe-betpossibilitythatImightreappearamong the perception-made devas of no form. As for those venerablecontemplatives & brahmans who hold this doctrine, hold this view—“There is total cessation of becoming”: If their statement is true, it ispossible that I will be totally unbound in the here-&-now. As for thosevenerablecontemplatives&brahmanswhohold thisdoctrine,hold this

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view—“There is no total cessation of becoming”: This view of theirsbordersonpassion,bordersonfettering,bordersonrelishing,bordersongrasping, borders on clinging. As for those venerable contemplatives &brahmans who hold this doctrine, hold this view—“There is totalcessation of becoming”: This view of theirs borders on non-passion,borders on non-fettering, borders on non-relishing, borders on non-grasping, borders on non-clinging.’ Reflecting thus, he practices fordisenchantmenttowardbecomings,fordispassiontowardbecomings,andforthecessationofbecomings.”—MN60

§40.“Now,basedonwhatlineofreasoningshouldoneoftenreflect…that‘Iamtheownerofmyactions,heirtomyactions,bornofmyactions,related through my actions, and have my actions as my arbitrator.WhateverIdo,forgoodorforevil,tothatwillIfallheir’?Therearebeingswhoconductthemselvesinabadwayinbody…inspeech…andinmind.Butwhentheyoftenreflectonthatfact,thatbadconductinbody,speech,&mindwilleitherbeentirelyabandonedorgrowweaker.…

“Adiscipleofthenobleonesconsidersthis:‘Iamnottheonlyonewhoistheownerofmyactions,heirtomyactions,bornofmyactions,relatedthrough my actions, and have my actions as my arbitrator; who—whateverIdo,forgoodorforevil,tothatwillIfallheir.Totheextentthattherearebeings—past&future,passingaway&re-arising—allbeingsarethe owners of their actions, heir to their actions, born of their actions,related through their actions, and have their actions as their arbitrator.Whatever theydo, forgoodor for evil, to thatwill they fallheir.’Whenhe/she often reflects on this, the [factors of the] path take birth.He/shestickswith thatpath,develops it, cultivates it.Ashe/she stickswith thatpath,developsit,&cultivatesit,thefettersareabandoned,theobsessionsdestroyed.”—AN5:57

§41.“Longhaveyou(repeatedly)experiencedthedeathofamother…thedeathofafather…thedeathofabrother…thedeathofasister…thedeathof a son… thedeathof adaughter… losswith regard to relatives…losswithregardtowealth…losswithregardtodisease.Thetearsyouhaveshed over [each of these losses] while transmigrating & wandering thislong, long time—crying & weeping from being joined with what isdispleasing, being separated fromwhat is pleasing—are greater than thewaterinthefourgreatoceans.

“Whyisthat?Fromaninconceivablebeginningcomesthewandering-on. A beginning point is not discernible, though beings hindered by

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ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on.Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experiencedloss, swelling the cemeteries—enough to become disenchanted with allfabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to bereleased.”…

“Just as a stick thrown up in the air lands sometimes on its base,sometimes on its side, sometimes on its tip; in the same way, beingshindered by ignorance and fettered by craving, transmigrating &wanderingon,sometimesgofromthisworldtoanotherworld,sometimescomefromanotherworldtothis.”…

“Whenyousee someonewhohas fallenonhard times,overwhelmedwithhardtimes,youshouldconclude:‘We,too,haveexperiencedjustthissortofthinginthecourseofthatlong,longtime.’”…

“When you see someone who is happy & well-provided in life, youshouldconclude:‘We,too,haveexperiencedjustthissortofthinginthecourseofthatlong,longtime.’”…

“Abeingwhohasnotbeenyourmotheratonetimeinthepastisnoteasy to find.… A beingwho has not been your father.… your brother.…yoursister.…yourson.…yourdaughteratonetimeinthepastisnoteasytofind.

“Whyisthat?Fromaninconceivablebeginningcomesthewandering-on. A beginning point is not discernible, though beings hindered byignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on.Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experiencedloss, swelling the cemeteries—enough to become disenchanted with allfabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to bereleased.”—SN15:3,9,11–12,15–19

DiscernmentinAction

§42.TheBuddha:“Whatdoyouthink,Rāhula:Whatisamirrorfor?”Rāhula[hisson,whowassevenatthetime]:“Forreflection,sir.”TheBuddha:“Inthesameway,Rāhula,bodilyactions,verbalactions,

&mentalactionsaretobedonewithrepeatedreflection.“Wheneveryouwanttoperformabodilyaction,youshouldreflecton

it:‘ThisbodilyactionIwanttoperform—woulditleadtoself-affliction,to

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theafflictionofothers,or toboth? Is itanunskillfulbodilyaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’ If,onreflection,youknowthat itwouldleadtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwouldbeanunskillfulbodilyactionwithpainfulconsequences,painfulresults,thenanybodilyactionofthatsortisabsolutelyunfitforyoutodo.Butifonreflectionyouknowthat itwouldnotcauseaffliction…itwouldbeaskillful bodily actionwithhappy consequences, happy results, then anybodilyactionofthatsortisfitforyoutodo.[Similarlywithverbalactions&mentalactions.]

“While you are performing a bodily action, you should reflect on it:‘This bodily action I am doing—is it leading to self-affliction, to theaffliction of others, or to both? Is it an unskillful bodily action, withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’If,onreflection,youknowthatitisleadingtoself-affliction,toafflictionofothers,orboth…youshouldgiveitup.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitisnot…youmaycontinuewithit.[Similarlywithverbalactions&mentalactions.]

“Having performed a bodily action, you should reflect on it.… If, onreflection,youknowthatitledtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,or toboth; itwasanunskillfulbodilyactionwithpainfulconsequences,painful results, then you should confess it, reveal it, lay it open to theTeacher or to a knowledgeable companion in the holy life. Havingconfessed it… you should exercise restraint in the future. But if onreflection you know that it did not lead to affliction… it was a skillfulbodily actionwithhappy consequences,happy results, thenyou shouldstaymentally refreshed& joyful, trainingday&night in skillfulmentalqualities.[Similarlywithverbalactions.]

“Havingperformed amental action, you should reflect on it.… If, onreflection,youknowthatitledtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwasanunskillfulmentalactionwithpainfulconsequences,painful results, then you should feel horrified, humiliated, & disgustedwithit.Feelinghorrified…youshouldexerciserestraintinthefuture.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitdidnotleadtoaffliction…itwasaskillfulmentalactionwithhappyconsequences,happyresults, thenyoushouldstaymentally refreshed& joyful, trainingday&night in skillfulmentalqualities.

“Rāhula, all thecontemplatives&brahmans in thecourseof thepastwhopurifiedtheirbodilyactions,verbalactions,&mentalactions,diditthrough repeated reflection on their bodily actions, verbal actions, &mentalactionsinjustthisway.

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“All the contemplatives& brahmans in the course of the future…Allthe contemplatives & brahmans at present who purify their bodilyactions,verbalactions,&mentalactions,doitthroughrepeatedreflectionontheirbodilyactions,verbalactions,&mentalactionsinjustthisway.

“So,Rāhula,youshouldtrainyourself:‘Iwillpurifymybodilyactions…verbal actions… my mental actions through repeated reflection.’ That’showyoushouldtrainyourself.”

That iswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Gratified,Ven.Rāhuladelighted intheBlessedOne’swords.—MN61

§43. “As for the course of action that is unpleasant to do but that,whendone,leadstowhatisprofitable,it’sinlightofthiscourseofactionthat onemay be known… as a fool or a wise person. For a fool doesn’treflect,‘Eventhoughthiscourseofactionisunpleasanttodo,stillwhenitisdoneitleadstowhatisprofitable.’Sohedoesn’tdoit,andthusthenon-doingofthatcourseofactionleadstowhatisunprofitableforhim.Butawisepersonreflects,‘Eventhoughthiscourseofactionisunpleasanttodo,stillwhenitisdoneitleadstowhatisprofitable.’Sohedoesit,andthusthedoingofthatcourseofactionleadstowhatisprofitableforhim.

“Asforthecourseofactionthatispleasanttodobutthat,whendone,leadstowhatisunprofitable,it’sinlightofthiscourseofactionthatonemaybeknown…asafoolorawiseperson.Forafooldoesn’treflect,‘Eventhoughthiscourseofactionispleasanttodo,stillwhenitisdoneitleadstowhatisunprofitable.’Sohedoesit,andthusthedoingofthatcourseofaction leads to what is unprofitable for him. But a wise person reflects,‘Eventhoughthiscourseofactionispleasanttodo,stillwhenitisdoneitleadstowhatisunprofitable.’Sohedoesn’tdoit,andthusthenon-doingofthatcourseofactionleadstowhatisprofitableforhim.”—AN4:115

§44.“Nowwhat,monks,isthenobleeightfoldpath?Rightview,rightresolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.

“And what, monks, is right view? Knowledge with regard to [or: interms of] stress, knowledge with regard to the origination of stress,knowledgewithregardtothestoppingofstress,knowledgewithregardtothewayofpracticeleadingtothestoppingofstress:This,monks,iscalledrightview.

“Andwhat,monks, is right resolve?Resolve for renunciation, resolvefor non-ill will, resolve for harmlessness: This, monks, is called right

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resolve.“Andwhat,monks, is rightspeech?Abstainingfromlying,abstaining

fromdivisivespeech,abstainingfromharshspeech,abstainingfromidlechatter:This,monks,iscalledrightspeech.

“And what, monks, is right action? Abstaining from taking life,abstaining from stealing, abstaining from sexual intercourse [MN 141replaces“sexualintercourse”with“illicitsex”]:This,monks,iscalledrightaction.

“And what, monks, is right livelihood? There is the case where adiscipleofthenobleones,havingabandoneddishonestlivelihood,keepshislifegoingwithrightlivelihood.This,monks,iscalledrightlivelihood.

“Andwhat,monks, is right effort? (i)There is thecasewhereamonkgenerates desire, endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts hisintentforthesakeofthenon-arisingofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavenot yet arisen. (ii) He generates desire, endeavors, activates persistence,upholds & exerts his intent for the sake of the abandoning of evil,unskillful qualities that have arisen. (iii) He generates desire, endeavors,activatespersistence,upholds&exertshisintentforthesakeofthearisingof skillful qualities that have not yet arisen. (iv) He generates desire,endeavors, activates persistence, upholds & exerts his intent for themaintenance, non-confusion, increase, plenitude, development, &culmination of skillful qualities that have arisen. This, monks, is calledrighteffort.

“Andwhat,monks, is rightmindfulness? (i)There is thecasewhereamonkremainsfocusedonthebodyin&ofitself—ardent,alert,&mindful—subduing greed&distresswith reference to theworld. (ii)He remainsfocused on feelings in & of themselves—ardent, alert, & mindful—subduing greed & distress with reference to the world. (iii) He remainsfocused on themind in& of itself—ardent, alert,&mindful—subduinggreed&distresswith reference to theworld. (iv)He remains focusedonmentalqualities in&ofthemselves—ardent,alert,&mindful—subduinggreed&distresswith reference to theworld.This,monks, is called rightmindfulness.

“Andwhat,monks,isrightconcentration?(i)Thereisthecasewhereamonk—quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulqualities—enters&remainsinthefirstjhāna:rapture&pleasurebornofseclusion,accompanied by directed thought& evaluation. (ii)With the stilling ofdirectedthoughts&evaluations,heenters&remainsinthesecondjhāna:rapture & pleasure born of concentration, unification of awareness free

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from directed thought & evaluation—internal assurance. (iii) With thefading of rapture, he remains equanimous,mindful, & alert, and sensespleasurewiththebody.Heenters&remainsinthethirdjhāna,ofwhichthe noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasantabiding.’(iv)Withtheabandoningofpleasure&pain—aswiththeearlierdisappearance of elation & distress—he enters & remains in the fourthjhāna: purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain.This,monks,iscalledrightconcentration.”—SN45:8

§ 45. “And what is the food for the arising of unarisen analysis ofqualitiesasafactorforawakening[amongthefactorsforawakening,thisisthe discernment factor], or for the growth & increase of analysis ofqualities as a factor for awakeningonce ithasarisen?Therearequalitiesthat are skillful& unskillful, blameworthy& blameless, gross& refined,sidingwithdarkness&withlight.Tofosterappropriateattentiontothem:Thisisthefoodforthearisingofunarisenanalysisofqualitiesasafactorforawakening,orforthegrowth&increaseofanalysisofqualities…onceithasarisen.”—SN46:51

§46.“Apersonimmersed in ignorance: Ifhe fabricatesameritoriousfabrication, his consciousness goes on to merit. If he fabricates ademeritorious fabrication, his consciousness goes on to demerit. If hefabricatesan imperturbable fabrication,hisconsciousnessgoeson to theimperturbable.

“Whenignoranceisabandonedbyamonk,clearknowingarises.Fromthe fading of ignorance and the arising of clear knowing, he neitherfabricatesameritoriousfabricationnorademeritoriousfabricationnoranimperturbable fabrication. Neither fabricating nor willing, he is notsustainedby[doesnotclingto]anythingintheworld.Unsustained,heisnotagitated.Unagitated,he is totallyunboundrightwithin.Hediscernsthat‘Birthisended,theholylifefulfilled,thetaskdone.Thereisnothingfurtherforthisworld.’”—SN12:51

§ 47. “Monks, these three are causes for the origination of actions.Whichthree?Greedisacausefortheoriginationofactions.Aversionisacausefortheoriginationofactions.Delusionisacausefortheoriginationofactions.

“Any action performed with greed—born of greed, caused by greed,originating from greed: Wherever one’s selfhood [attabhāva] turns up,there that action will ripen. Where that action ripens, there one will

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experienceitsfruit,eitherinthisverylifethathasarisenorfurtheralonginthesequence.

[Similarlywithaversion&delusion.]“Justaswhenseedsarenotbroken,notrotten,notdamagedbywind&

heat,capableofsprouting,well-buried,plantedinwell-preparedsoil,andthe rain-god would offer good streams of rain: Those seeds would thuscome to growth, increase, & abundance. In the same way, any actionperformed with greed… performed with aversion… performed withdelusion—born of delusion, caused by delusion, originating fromdelusion:Whereverone’s selfhoodturnsup, there thatactionwill ripen.Wherethatactionripens,thereonewillexperienceitsfruit,eitherinthisverylifethathasarisenorfurtheralonginthesequence.

“Thesearethreecausesfortheoriginationofactions.“Now, these three are (further) causes for the origination of actions.

Which three? Non-greed is a cause for the origination of actions. Non-aversionisacausefortheoriginationofactions.Non-delusionisacausefortheoriginationofactions.

“Anyactionperformedwithnon-greed—bornofnon-greed,causedbynon-greed,originatingfromnon-greed:Whengreedisgone,thatactionisthusabandoned,itsrootdestroyed,madelikeapalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.

[Similarlywithnon-aversion&non-delusion.]“Justaswhenseedsarenotbroken,notrotten,notdamagedbywind&

heat,capableofsprouting,well-buried,plantedinwell-preparedsoil,anda man would burn them with fire and, burning them with fire, wouldmakethemintofineashes.Havingmadethemintofineashes,hewouldwinnow thembefore ahighwindorwash themaway in a swift-flowingstream. Those seeds would thus be destroyed at the root, made like apalmyrastump,deprivedoftheconditionsofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.

“In the sameway, any actionperformedwithnon-greed…performedwith non-aversion… performed with non-delusion—born of non-delusion,causedbynon-delusion,originating fromnon-delusion:Whendelusionisgone,thatactionisthusabandoned,itsrootdestroyed,madelike a palmyra stump, deprived of the conditions of development, notdestinedforfuturearising.”—AN3:34

§ 48. “If one stays obsessed with form, monk, that’s what one ismeasured/limited by. Whatever one is measured by, that’s how one is

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classified.“Ifonestaysobsessedwithfeeling.…“Ifonestaysobsessedwithperception.…“Ifonestaysobsessedwithfabrications.…“Ifonestaysobsessedwithconsciousness,that’swhatoneismeasured

by.Whateveroneismeasuredby,that’showoneisclassified.“Butifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithform,monk,that’snotwhatone

ismeasured by.Whatever one isn’tmeasured by, that’s not how one isclassified.

“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithfeeling.…“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithperception.…“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithfabrications.…“Ifonedoesn’tstayobsessedwithconsciousness,that’snotwhatoneis

measured/limitedby.Whateveroneisn’tmeasuredby,that’snothowoneisclassified.”—SN22:36

§49.Ashewassittingthere,Ven.RādhasaidtotheBlessedOne:“‘Abeing,’lord.‘Abeing,’it’ssaid.Towhatextentisonesaidtobe‘abeing’?”

“Anydesire,passion,delight,orcravingfor form,Rādha:whenone iscaught up [satta] there, tied up [visatta] there, one is said to be ‘a being[satta].’

“Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for feeling… perception…fabrications…

“Any desire, passion, delight, or craving for consciousness, Rādha:whenoneiscaughtupthere,tiedupthere,oneissaidtobe‘abeing.’

“Justaswhenboysorgirlsareplayingwith little sandcastles (lit:dirthouses):aslongastheyarenotfreefrompassion,desire,love,thirst,fever,&cravingforthoselittlesandcastles,that’showlongtheyhavefunwiththosesandcastles,enjoythem,treasurethem,feelpossessiveofthem.Butwhentheybecomefreefrompassion,desire,love,thirst,fever,&cravingforthoselittlesandcastles,thentheysmashthem,scatterthem,demolishthemwiththeirhandsorfeetandmakethemunfitforplay.

“In the sameway,Rādha, you too should smash, scatter,&demolishform, andmake it unfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving forform.

“Youshouldsmash,scatter,&demolish feeling,andmake itunfit forplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforfeeling.

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“Youshouldsmash,scatter,&demolishperception,andmakeitunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforperception.

“You should smash, scatter,&demolish fabrications, andmake themunfitforplay.Practicefortheendingofcravingforfabrications.

“You should smash, scatter, & demolish consciousness and make itunfit for play. Practice for the ending of craving for consciousness—becausetheendingofcraving,Rādha,isunbinding.”—SN23:2

§50. “But, Master Gotama, themonk whosemind is thus released:Wheredoeshereappear?”

“‘Reappear,’Vaccha,doesn’tapply.”“Inthatcase,MasterGotama,hedoesnotreappear.”“‘Doesnotreappear,’Vaccha,doesn’tapply.”“…bothdoes&doesnotreappear.”“…doesn’tapply.”“…neitherdoesnordoesnotreappear.”“…doesn’tapply.”“Howisit,MasterGotama,whenMasterGotamaisaskedifthemonk

reappears…doesnot reappear…bothdoes&doesnot reappear…neitherdoesnordoesnotreappear,hesays,‘…doesn’tapply’ineachcase.Atthispoint, Master Gotama, I am befuddled; at this point, confused. Themodicumof clarity coming tome fromyour earlier conversation isnowobscured.”

“Ofcourseyou’rebefuddled,Vaccha.Ofcourseyou’reconfused.Deep,Vaccha,isthisphenomenon,hardtosee,hardtorealize,tranquil,refined,beyondthescopeofconjecture,subtle,to-be-experiencedbythewise.Forthose with other views, other practices, other satisfactions, other aims,other teachers, it isdifficult toknow.Thatbeingthecase, Iwillcounter-question you on thismatter. Answer as you see fit.What do you think,Vaccha?Ifafirewereburninginfrontofyou,wouldyouknowthat‘Thisfireisburninginfrontofme’?”

“…yes…”“Andifsomeoneweretoaskyou,Vaccha,‘Thisfireburninginfrontof

you, dependent on what is it burning?’: Thus asked, how would youreply?”

“…Iwouldreply,‘Thisfireburninginfrontofmeisburningdependentongrass&timberasitssustenance.’”

“If the fire burning in front of youwere to go out, would you know

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that,‘Thisfireburninginfrontofmehasgoneout’?”“…yes…”“Andifsomeoneweretoaskyou,‘Thisfirethathasgoneoutinfrontof

you, in which direction from here has it gone? East? West? North? Orsouth?’:Thusasked,howwouldyoureply?”

“Thatdoesn’tapply,MasterGotama.Anyfireburningdependentonasustenanceofgrass&timber,beingunnourished—fromhavingconsumedthat sustenance andnot being offered any other—is classified simply as‘out’[unbound].”

“In the same way, Vaccha, any form by which one describing theTathāgatawoulddescribehim:ThattheTathāgatahasabandoned,itsrootdestroyed, made like a palmyra stump, deprived of the conditions ofdevelopment,notdestinedforfuturearising.Freedfromtheclassificationofform,Vaccha,theTathāgataisdeep,boundless,hardtofathom,likethesea. ‘Reappears’ doesn’t apply. ‘Does not reappear’ doesn’t apply. ‘Bothdoes&doesnotreappear’doesn’tapply. ‘Neitherreappearsnordoesnotreappear’doesn’tapply.

“Anyfeeling.…Anyperception.…Anyfabrication.…“Any consciousness by which one describing the Tathāgata would

describehim:ThattheTathāgatahasabandoned,itsrootdestroyed,madelike a palmyra stump, deprived of the conditions of development, notdestinedforfuturearising.Freedfromtheclassificationofconsciousness,Vaccha, the Tathāgata is deep, boundless, hard to fathom, like the sea.‘Reappears’doesn’tapply.‘Doesnotreappear’doesn’tapply.‘Bothdoes&does not reappear’ doesn’t apply. ‘Neither reappears nor does notreappear’doesn’tapply.”—MN72

§51.Inonewhohasgonethefulldistance,isfreefromsorrow,iseverywhere

fullyreleased,hasabandonedallbonds:

Nofeverisfound.—Dhp90

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FurtherReadings

Thefollowingbooksandarticlesareavailableondhammatalks.org:

OntheplaceofkammaintheBuddha’steachingsasawhole:TheBuddha’sTeaching:AnIntroduction

Onskillfulkamma:Merit;Discernment;“TheHealingPowerofthePrecepts”; “Getting the Message”; “The Integrity ofEmptiness”; “The Lessons of Gratitude”; “No StringsAttached”;OpeningtheDoortotheDhamma”

Onkamma andmeditation:The Karma ofMindfulness; The FiveFaculties;RightMindfulness

On kamma and goodwill: The Sublime Attitudes; “EducatingCompassion”

On kamma andnot-self: Selves&Not-self; “TheWisdom of theEgo”

Onrebirth:TheTruthofRebirth;“Saṁsāra”Onkammaandbecoming:TheParadoxofBecomingOnthepath to theendofkamma:TheNobleEightfoldPath;On

the Path; The Wings to Awakening; The Shape of Suffering;“SaṁsāraDividedbyZero”

Onnibbāna:TheMindLikeFireUnbound;“AVerbforNirvāṇa”

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Note 4Introduction 5BasicPrinciples 6Objections 23TheEndofKamma 32Readings 35WhatisKamma? 35PrinciplesofCausality 36Skillful&UnskillfulKamma 50WorkingHypotheses 75

Existence&Non-existence 78Action&Non-action 80Causality&Non-causality 84Formlessness 86CessationofBecoming 87

DiscernmentinAction 89FurtherReadings 98

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