1

Chart Slide Show

DISTRICT : KANCHEEPURAM

AREA (in Sq.km) 4307

POPULATION (in Numbers) (2001 census) 2877468

DENSITY OF POPULATION 647

LITERACY RATE (%) 76.85

2

FEMALES (Per 1000 Males) 975

URBAN POPULATION (%) 53.34

NET AREA SOWN (07-08) (in Hectares) 128584

NET AREA IRRIGATED (07-08) (in Hectares) 122298

HOUSEHOLDS (Numbers) (2001 Census) 653241

REVENUE VILLAGES (Numbers) 1214 Department of Economics and Statistics

Tamil Nadu at a Glance

( Source: Statistical Handbook of Tamil Nadu )

1. Geographical Position 19. Co-operative Societies

2. Demographic Information 20. Registrations

3. Vital Statistics 21. Commercial Taxes

4. Temperature 22. Housing

5. Rain Fall 23. Social Welfare

6. Agriculture 24. Nutritious Meal Programme

7. Irrigation 25. Revenue Administrative Divisions

8. Animal Husbandry 26. Local Bodies

3

9. Dairy Development 27. Community Development

10. Fisheries 28. Police and Prisons

11. Forests 29. Legislature

12. Electricity 30. Cinema Theatre

13. Industries 31. Banks and Insurance

14. Khadi and Village Industries 32. Index Numbers

15. Medical and Health 33. State Income

16. Education 34. State Finance

17. Road and Transport 35. Foreign Trade

18. Communication 36. Employment

37. Employment in Public Sector

Socio Economic Indicators of Tamil Nadu and India

Links to the websites of State Government Departments and Institutions

1 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION

North Latitude Between 8° 5' and 13° 35' East Longitude Between 76° 15' and 80° 20'

2 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

4

Ref. Year Unit Figure Area : Census 2011 Sq.Kms 130058

Population : ’’ Nos. 72138958

By Sex Male : ’’ ’’ 36158871 Female : ’’ ’’ 35980087By Area Rural : ’’ ’’ 37189229 Urban : ’’ ’’ 34949729Growth Rate of Population : ’’ in % 15.60

Density : ’’ Sq.Kms 555Literates : ’’ Nos. 52413116Sex Ratio : ’’ for 1000 males 995

Child (0-6 years) Sex Ratio : ’’ for 1000 male children 946

Population as per 2001 Census: 62405679Workers *

Total Workers : Census 2001 ’’ 27878282 Male : ’’ ’’ 18100397 Female : ’’ ’’ 9777885 Rural : ’’ ’’ 17559768 Urban : ’’ ’’ 10318514Main Workers : ’’ ’’ 23757783Marginal Workers : ’’ ’’ 4120499

5

Categories of Workers

Cultivators : ’’ ’’ 5116039

Agricultural Labourers : ’’ ’’ 8637630

Household Industry : ’’ ’’ 1499761

Other Workers : ’’ ’’ 12624852

Non-Workers : ’’ ’’ 34527397

* Workers as per 2001 Census

* 2011 Census data on workers yet to be released

3 VITAL STATISTICS

Ref. Year Unit Figure Births (CRS) (in Nos.) : 2008 Nos. 1053816 Deaths (CRS) (in Nos.) : ’’ ’’ 429981 Infant Deaths (CRS) (in Nos.) : ’’ ’’ 10432 Still Births : ’’ ’’ 8610 Maternal Deaths : ’’ ’’ 109 Birth Rate (per 1000) (SRS) : 2010 ’’ 15.9 Rural : ’’ ’’ 16.0 Urban : ’’ ’’ 15.8 Death Rate (per 1000) (SRS) : ’’ ’’ 7.6

6

Rural : ’’ ’’ 8.2 Urban : ’’ ’’ 6.9 Infant Mortality Rate

(per 1000 live Births) (SRS) : ’’ ’’ 24

Rural : ’’ ’’ 25 Urban : ’’ ’’ 22 Expectation of life at Birth Male : 2011-15 Age in Years 68.60 Female : 2011-15 Age in Years 71.80

4 TEMPERATURE

Plains

Maximum : 2010-11 Celsius 35.86

Minimum : ’’ ’’ 21.27

Hill Stations

Maximum : 2010-11 Celsius 24.86

Minimum : ’’ ’’ 10.46

5 RAINFALL

Normal : 2010-11 In mm. 908.6

7

Actual : ’’ ’’ 1165.1

6 AGRICULTURE

Ref. Year Unit Extent Total Cultivated Area : 2010-11 Ha. 5752664

Net Area Sown : ’’ ’’ 4953658

Area Sown more than once : ’’ ’’ 799006

Area and Production of Principal Crops 2007-08

Name of the

Crops

Area (Ha)

(in '000)

Production ('000 Tonnes)

Yield Rate (In Kg/Ha)

1. Paddy (Rice) 1906 5792 3039 2. Coconut (lakh Nuts)-

(Yield rate : nuts/ha.) 410 60 14545

3. Groundnut (Dry Pods) 386 896 2323 4. Sugarcane (Cane)

(Yield rate :tonnes / ha.) 316 34252 108

5. Blackgram 304 123 404 6. Cholam (Jowar) 243 247 1014 7. Maize 230 1028 4458

8

8. Greengram 172 58 336 9. Mango 139 958 6867 10. Cotton

(bales of 170 Kg. lint each)

(Yield rate : terms of lint)

121 248 349

11. Tapioca 120 3881 32449 12. Banana 107 4800 44700

7 IRRIGATION

Net Area Irrigated : 2010-11 Ha 2912129 Government Canals : ’’ ’’ 746728 Private Canals : ’’ ’’ 460 Tanks : ’’ ’’ 533214 Tube Wells and others : ’’ ’’ 403377 Open Wells : ’’ ’’ 1219282 Other Sources : ’’ ’’ 9068 Gross Area Irrigated : ’’ ’’ 3347557 Area Irrigated more than once : ’’ ’’ 435428

8 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Ref. Year Unit Figure

9

Veterinary Institutions

Veterinary Hospitals : 2010-11 Nos. 139

Veterinary Dispensaries : ’’ ’’ 1207

Clinician Centres : ’’ ’’ 22

Livestock and Poultry Population

Cow : Census 2007 Nos. 11188709

Buffaloes : ’’ ’’ 2009002

Sheep : ’’ ’’ 7990587

Goat : ’’ ’’ 9274584

Poultry : ’’ ’’ 128108198

9 DAIRY DEVELOPMENT

Union Dairies : 2010-11 Nos. 16

Federation Dairies : ’’ ’’ 4

Milk Chilling Plants : ’’ ’’ 35

Automatic Vending Machine Units in Chennai : 2010-11 Nos. 157

Average Milk Collection Per day : 2009-10 LLPD 22.35

Flush Season : ’’ ’’ 23.34

Lean Season : ’’ ’’ 21.35

10

10 FISHERIES

Length of Coastal Line : 2010-11 KM 1076

Coastal Districts : ’’ Nos. 13

Marine Fishing Villages : ’’ ’’ 591

Estimated Marine Fish Production : 2010-11(P) Tonnes 424824

Inland Fish Production : ’’ ’’ 171786

Coastal Blocks : 2010-11 Nos. 25

11 FORESTS

Ref. Year Unit Figure

Forest Area : 2010-11 Sq.Km 25506.844

Reserved Forests : ’’ ’’ 18851.188

Reserved Lands : ’’ ’’ 1668.108

Unclassed Forests : ’’ ’’ 4987.548

Out-turn of Forest Produce 2010-11 Metric Tonnes -

Teak Wood : ’’ ’’ 6752.990

Firewood : ’’ ’’ 3060.850

11

Total Pulpwood : ’’ ’’ 7058.615

Sandalwood(Sapwood) : ’’ ’’ 2.068

Sandalwood (Heart Wood) : ’’ ’’ 185.668

Bamboo : ’’ ’’ 3625.730

Babul : ’’ ’’ 73479.850

Cashew : ’’ ’’ 49.844

Tamarind : ’’ ’’ 355.627

Other Minor Forest Produce : ’’ ’’ 7391.631

12 ELECTRICITY

Net Generation of Electricity : 2010-11 MUs 72999

Hydro : ’’ ’’ 5082

Wind Mill Generation : ’’ ’’ 13

Thermal : ’’ ’’ 17357

Power Purchased (Central+Private)+cpp : ’’ ’’ 49206

Gas Turbine : ’’ ’’ 1341

Consumption of Electricity : 2010-11 MUs 61897

Agriculture : ’’ ’’ 12625

12

Industry (Including Traction) : ’’ ’’ 25622

Commercial : ’’ ’’ 4586

Domestic : ’’ ’’ 16312

Public Lighting & Water works : ’’ ’’ 1592

Sales of Licenses, Sales to other States : ’’ ’’ 429

Miscellaneous : ’’ ’’ 731

Rural Electrification

Villages Electrified : 2009-10 Nos. 15400

Hamlets Electrified : ’’ ’’ 63956

Pumpsets Energised : 2010-11 ’’ 1984802

13 INDUSTRIES

Micro Small Medium Enterprises (MSME)

Micro Small Medium Enterprises : 2010-11 Nos. 689511 Employment : ’’ ’’ 4797494 Investment : ’’ Rs. in Lakhs 3200854 Value of Production : ’’ ’’ 15145519 Registered Factories : 2010 Nos. 38881 Working Factories : ’’ ’’ 32970 Estimated Workers : ’’ ’’ 1377130

13

Mandays Worked : ’’ ’’ 397990570 Labour

Registered Trade Unions during the year : As on 31.12.2010 No. 462 Strikes : ’’ ’’ 66 Mandays Lost : ’’ in Nos. 393349 Lockouts : ’’ Nos. 11 Mandays Lost : ’’ ’’ 122076

14 KHADI AND VILLAGE INDUSTRIES

(Value Rs. in Lakh)

Production Sales Khadi and Village

Industries 2010-11(P) 2010-11(P)

Khadi Industries Cotton & Muslin Khadi 3039.52 5118.54 Woollen Khadi - 143.59 Silk Khadi 3684.20 5106.88 Polyester - - Khadi - Total 6723.72 10369.01

Village Industries 124000.94 166912.74 Grand Total 130724.66 177281.75

15 MEDICAL AND HEALTH (Govt.)

Modern Medicine

14

Ref. Year Unit Figure Hospitals : 2010-11 Nos. 322+1* Dispensaries : ’’ ’’ 216 Mobile Medical Units : ’’ ’’ 19 Primary Health Centres : ’’ ’’ 1533 Health Sub Centres : ’’ ’’ 8706 Beds Strength : ’’ ’’ 60684 Doctors : ’’ ’’ 14113 Total Nurses : ’’ ’’ 26342 Nurses (DME) : ’’ ’’ 6282 Nurses (DMS & RHS) : ’’ ’’ 4106 Nurses (ESI) : ’’ ’’ 598 Nurses (DPH-Total) : ’’ ’’ 15356 (a). Nurses (PHC) : ’’ ’’ 3814 (b). Community Health Nurses : ’’ ’’ 349 (c). Sector Health Nurses : ’’ ’’ 1344 (d). Village Health Nurses, (Auxiliary and Midwives Nurses) : ’’ ’’ 9849

* ESI Hospital at K.K.Nagar, Chennai-78 is functioning under the Control of ESI Corporation, New Delhi.

15 MEDICAL AND HEALTH (Govt.) – Contd.

Indian Medicine

15

Ref. Year Unit Figure

Hospitals : As on 01.01.2011 Nos. 5

Dispensaries and Mobile Medical Units : ’’ ’’ 78

Wings attached to Medical College Hospitals, District Head Quarters Hospitals, Taluk and Non Taluk Hospitals : ’’ ’’ 286

Wings attached to Primary Health Centres : ’’ ’’ 473

Beds in Hospitals and Dispensaries ’’ ’’ 1160

Doctors (Sanctioned) : ’’ ’’ 911

Nurses : ’’ ’’ 92

Homoeopathy

Ref. Year Unit Figure

Hospitals : As on 01.01.2011 Nos. 1

Dispensaries and Mobile Medical Units : ’’ ’’ 5

Wings attached to Medical College Hospitals, District Head Quarters Hospitals, Taluk and Non-Taluk Hospitals : ’’ ’’ 37

Wings attached to PHCs : ’’ ’’ 6

Beds in Hospitals and Dispensaries : ’’ ’’ 50

16

Doctors : ’’ ’’ 58

Nurses : ’’ ’’ -

16 EDUCATION

Ref. Year Unit Figure Universities : 2010-11 Nos. 65

Arts and Science Colleges : 2010-11 ’’ 611 Colleges for Professional Education

Medicine (2010-11) Medical : 2010-11 Nos. 28 Dental : ’’ ’’ 18 Pharmacy : ’’ ’’ 36 Physiotherapy : ’’ ’’ 26 Nursing-B.Sc. : ’’ ’’ 137 Occupational Therapy : ’’ ’’ 2

Indian Medicine Institutions (D.Pharm to B.Pharm & Post Basic B.Sc. (Nursing) : ’’ ’’ 55

Engineering and Technology Institutions : 2010-11 ’’ 491 Polytechnic Colleges : ’’ ’’ 451 Agriculture : ’’ ’’ 11 Veterinary and Fisheries : ’’ ’’ 4 Law Colleges : ’’ ’’ 8

17

Colleges for Special Education : 2009-10 ’’ 668 College of Education : 2010-11 ’’ 660 Schools for Professional Education : 2010-11 ’’ 787 Schools for Special Education : ’’ ’’ 95 Institutions for Other Professional Education : ’’ ’’ 2168 Schools for General Education : 2010-11 ’’ 54914

Higher Secondary Schools : ’’ ’’ 5560 High Schools : ’’ ’’ 5185 Middle Schools : ’’ ’’ 9810 Primary Schools : ’’ ’’ 34359

17 ROAD AND TRANSPORT

Ref. Year Unit Figure 1. Road Length

National Highways : 2010-11 Kilo Metres 4861.000 State Highways : ’’ ’’ 56814.200 Corporation & Municipalities Roads : ’’ ’’ 18704.471 Panchayat Union and Village Panchayat

Roads : ’’ ’’ 173153.436

Town Panchayat Roads : ’’ ’’ 19151.753 Others (Forest Road) : ’’ ’’ 3342.423

2. Registered Motor Vehicles Commercial : 2010-11 Nos. 928539

18

Non-Commercial : ’’ ’’ 12732178 3. Railways Route Length : 2010-11 Kilo Metre 3880.90

Broad Gauge : ’’ ’’ 3054.73 1. Electrified : ’’ ’’ 1496.91 2. Non-Electrified : ’’ ’’ 1557.82 Metre Gauge : ’’ ’’ 826.17 1. Electrified : ’’ ’’ 0.00 2. Non-Electrified : ’’ ’’ 826.17

Track Length (Incl. Sidings) : ’’ ’’ 5997.54 Broad Gauge : ’’ ’’ 5112.00 1. Electrified : ’’ ’’ 3081.74 2. Non-Electrified : ’’ ’’ 2030.26 Metre Gauge : ’’ ’’ 885.54 1. Electrified : ’’ ’’ 0.00 2. Non-Electrified : ’’ ’’ 885.54

Railway Stations : ’’ Nos. 536 Broad Gauge : ’’ ’’ 464 Metre Gauge : ’’ ’’ 71 Broad Gauge and Metre Gauge Combined : ’’ ’’ 1

4. Sea Ports : 2009-10 ’’ 18 Major Ports : ’’ ’’ 3 Minor Ports : ’’ ’’ 15

5. Air Ports : 2009-10 ’’ 5

19

18 COMMUNICATION

Ref. Year Unit Figure

1. Post and Telegraph

Post Offices doing postal business alone : 2010-11 Nos. 12065

2. Telephones*

Telephones in Use : 2010-11 Nos. 11783666

Public Call Offices : ’’ ’’ 230440

Local : ’’ ’’ 189479

STD : ’’ ’’ 40492

Highways : ’’ ’’ 469

Telephone Exchanges : ’’ ’’ 2339

3. No. of Cellular Phones in use* : ’’ ’’ 7975782

4.No. of WLL Phones in use* : ’’ ’’ 442809

5. Internet Service : ’’ ’’ 1468244

* Chennai Telephones and BSNL in Tamil Nadu Circle Only

19 CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

20

Ref. Year Unit Figure

T.N.State Apex Co-Operative Bank : 2010-11 Nos. 1

Federation of Co-Op Urban Banks : ’’ ’’ 1

T.N.C.State Agri. & Rural Dev. Banks : ’’ ’’ 1

State Co-Op Marketing Federation : ’’ ’’ 1

District Level Marketing Federation : ’’ ’’ 1

State Consumer Co-Op Federation : ’’ ’’ 1

State Co-Op Union : ’’ ’’ 1

Central Co-Op Banks : ’’ ’’ 23

Primary Agrl. Co-Op Credit Societies 4467

Rural Societies : 2010-11 Nos. 9

F.S.C.S. : ’’ ’’ 26

LAMPS : ’’ ’’ 19

Primary Co-Op Agri. & Rural Dev. Bank : ’’ ’’ 180

Co-Op Urban Banks : ’’ ’’ 120

Employees C.T. & Credit Societies : ’’ ’’ 1811

Urban Credit Societies : ’’ ’’ 42

Co-Op Wholesale stores : ’’ ’’ 34

21

Rural Stores : ’’ ’’ 47

Semi Urban Stores : ’’ ’’ 15

Urban Stores : ’’ ’’ 135

Employees Co-Op Stores : ’’ ’’ 196

Student Stores : ’’ ’’ 2798

Automobile Spare Parts Stores : ’’ ’’ 2

Co-Op Canteen : ’’ ’’ 35

Lift Irrigation Societies : ’’ ’’ 23

Land Colonisation Societies : ’’ ’’ 13

Tenant Farming Societies : ’’ ’’ 17

Agrl. Producers Co-Op Mktg. Societies : ’’ ’’ 110

Hill Tribes Co-Op Societies : ’’ ’’ 1

Fruits & Vegetables Growers Societies : ’’ ’’ 7

Labour Contract Co-Op Societies : ’’ ’’ 89

Stone Crushing Co-Op Societies : ’’ ’’ 2

Co-Op Printing Press : ’’ ’’ 26

Co-Op Training Institutions : ’’ ’’ 20

District Co-Op Union : 2010-11 Nos. 29

Salt Manufacturing Co-Op Societies : ’’ ’’ 11

22

Washerman Laundry Co-Op Societies : ’’ ’’ 1

Barber Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 5

Physically Handicapped Co-Op Societies : ’’ ’’ 2

Mahalir Co-op Credit Societies : ’’ ’’ 2

Multi Purpose Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 6

Modern Construction Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 3

Pearl Engg. Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 1

Waste Paper Sales Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 1

Health Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 1

Lawyer Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 4

Other type Co-op Societies : ’’ ’’ 17

Total 10368

20 REGISTRATIONS

Ref. Year Unit Figure District Registrar Offices : 2010-11 Nos. 50 Receipts (Stamp Duty+ Registration Fees and Other Receipts) : ’’ Rs.in Cr. 5020.50

23

21 COMMERCIAL TAXES

Ref. Year Unit Figure Registered Dealers : 2010-11 No. in Lakh 9.32 1. VAT ’’ ’’ 5.81 2. CST ’’ ’’ 3.51 Assessees : ’’ ’’ 3.12 1. VAT ’’ ’’ 2.38 2. CST ’’ ’’ 0.74 Percentage of Assessees to Dealers : ’’ % 1. VAT ’’ % 41 2. CST ’’ % 21

Revenue

GST : 2010-11 Rs. in Cr. 350 Value Added Tax (VAT) : ’’ ’’ 26558 CST : ’’ ’’ 2263 Entertainment Tax : ’’ ’’ 15 Entry Tax : ’’ ’’ 1708 Luxury Tax : ’’ ’’ 216 Others (Betting) ’’ ’’ 6

22 HOUSING

24

Residential houses constructed by

Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board : 2010-11 Nos. 1200

Police Housing Corporation Ltd. : ’’ ’’ 1415

Tamil Nadu Housing Board : ’’ ’’ 6039

Construction of Houses by DRDA ’’

1. Pucca : ’’ ’’ 61763

2. Kutcha : ’’ ’’ -

Construction of Houses for Tribals by AD & TW Dept : ’’ ’’ 22

23 SOCIAL WELFARE

Ref. Year Unit Figure

Old age Pensioners : 2010-11 Nos. 2371370

Marriage Assistance Schemes (as Beneficiaries)

Moovalur Ramamirtham Ammaiyar Ninaivu Thirumana Udhavi Thittam : ’’ ’’ 160228

25

EVR Maniammaiyar Ninaivu Poor Widow’s Daughter & Marriage Assistance Scheme : ’’ ’’ 7264

Dr. Dharmambal Ammaiyar Ninaivu Widow Re-Marriage Assistance Scheme : ’’ ’’ 154

Annai Therasa Ninaivu Marriage Assistance to Orphan Girls : ’’ ’’ 563

Anjugam Ammaiyar Ninaivu Intercaste Marriage Assistance Scheme : ’’ ’’ 2483

24 NUTRITIOUS MEAL PROGRAMME CENTRES

P.T.M.G.R – Noon Meal Scheme (Rural & Urban) : 2008-09 Nos. 42886 W.B. I.C.D.S.III Project (C.N.C.) : “ “ 54439

25 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

Revenue Districts : 2010-11 Nos. 32

Revenue Divisions : ’’ ’’ 76

Revenue Taluks : ’’ ’’ 220

Revenue Firkas : ’’ ’’ 1127

Revenue Villages : ’’ ’’ 16564

26

26 LOCAL BODIES

Ref. Year Unit Figure Corporations : 2010-11 Nos. 10 Municipalities : ’’ ’’ 150 Panchayat Unions : ’’ ’’ 385 Town Panchayats : ’’ ’’ 559 District Panchayats : ’’ ’’ 31 Village Panchayats : ’’ ’’ *12524 No. of Hamlets : ’’ ’’ **48452 No. of Habitations : ’’ ’’ 79394

* As per Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Policy Note 2011-12.

96 Village Panchayats were merged with Corporations / Municipalities.

** Asper TNEB Report

27 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Covered by SGSY

Total No. of Self Help Groups : 31.03.2011 Nos. 491311

Total No. of Members : ’’ In Lakhs 76.60

27

Total No. of Rural Self Help Groups : ’’ Nos. 332092

Total No. of Members of Rural SHG : ’’ In Lakhs 51.77

Total No. of Urban Self Help Groups : ’’ Nos. 159219

Total No. of Members of Urban SHG : ’’ In Lakhs 24.82

Total Savings : ’’ Rs. In Lakhs 2973

28 POLICE AND PRISONS

Police Police Force Sanctioned Strength of Police : 2010 Nos. 109525 Police Stations : ’’ ’’ 1492 All Women Police Stations : ’’ ’’ 196 Police Outposts : ’’ ’’ 59

Prisons

Central Prisons : 2010-11 ’’ 9

Special Prisons for Women : ’’ ’’ 3

Other Prisons : ’’ ’’ 122

29 LEGISLATURE

Ref. Year Unit Figure

28

Members of the Legislative Assembly

Elected : 2011 Nos. 234 Nominated (Anglo-IndianMember) : ’’ ’’ 1 Members of Parliament (Lok Sabha) : 2009 ’’ 39 Members of Rajya Sabha : ’’ ’’ 18

30 CINEMA THEATRES

Permanent : 2010-11 Nos. 1085

Open Air Theatres : ’’ ’’ 5

Semi Permanent : ’’ ’’ 75

Touring Theatres : ’’ ’’ 32

31 BANKS AND LIFE INSURANCE

Bank Offices : 2010-11 Nos. 6601

State Bank Group : ’’ ’’ 986

Nationalised Banks : ’’ ’’ 3690

Other Scheduled Banks (Commercial) : ’’ ’’ 1597

Regional Rural Banks : ’’ ’’ 298

Foreign Banks : ’’ ’’ 30

29

Life Insurance Corporation of India in Tamil Nadu Offices (Branch) : 2010-11 Nos. 176 Policies Issued : ’’ ’’ 2635663 Sum Assured : ’’ Rs. in Cr. 31756.78 First Premium Income : ’’ ’’ 3480.13

32 INDEX NUMBERS

Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (Base Year 2001=100) Chennai : 2011 Index No. 171 Tiruchirappalli : ’’ ’’ 184 Madurai : ’’ ’’ 174 Coimbatore : ’’ ’’ 176 Coonoor : ’’ ’’ 182 Salem : ’’ ’’ 172 All India : ’’ ’’ 192

Wholesale Price Index Number for all Commodities (1970-71=100) : 2011 Index No. 2025.75

Consumer Price Index Number for Urban Tamil Nadu (1970-71=100) Composite Index : ’’ ’’ 2368.77

Consumer Price Index Number for Rural Tamil Nadu (1970-71=100) Composite Index : ’’ ’’ 2492.17

Index Nos. of Industrial Production (Base Year 2004-05 =100) 2010-11 ’’ 145.8

Index Nos. of Building Construction Cost 2010-11 (Base year 1999-00=100)

30

Building Material Cost : 2010-11 Index No. 210.23 Labour Cost : ’’ ’’ 289.57 Other Charges Cost : ’’ ’’ 227.69 Building Cost Index : ’’ ’’ 236.49

33 STATE INCOME (A.E.)

(Base Year 2004-05) (Rs in Lakh)

Ref. Year Unit Figure

Gross State Domestic Product at Current Prices : 2010-11

(AE) Rs. in Lakhs 54726662

Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Prices : ’’ ’’ 39137245

Percapita Income(NSDP)

At Current Price : ’’ In Rupee 72993

At Constant Price : ’’ ’’ 51928

34 STATE FINANCE BUDGET ESTIMATE

Revenue Account

Receipts : 2011-12 (RE) Rs. in Lakhs 8555285 Disbursement : ’’ ’’ 8501631 Surplus (+) or Deficit (-) : ’’ ’’ +53654

Capital Account ’’ ’’

31

Receipts : ’’ ’’ 2050516 Disbursement : ’’ ’’ 2476455 Surplus (+) or Deficit (-) : ’’ ’’ -425939

Total Transaction (Net) : ’’ ’’ -372285 Receipt on Revenue Account by Principal Heads Tax Revenue : ’’ ’’ 7264726

Share from Central Taxes : ’’ ’’ 1300441 State Own Tax Revenue : ’’ ’’ 5964285

Non-Tax Revenue : ’’ ’’ State Own Non Tax Revenue : ’’ ’’ 554258 Grants in Aid from Central : ’’ ’’ 736301 Total Revenue Receipts : ’’ ’’ 8555285

Expenditure on Revenue Account by Principal Heads Development Expenditure : ’’ ’’ 4899704

Social Services : ’’ ’’ 3403279 Economic Services : ’’ ’’ 1496425

Non-Development Expenditure : 2011-12(RE) Rs. in Lakhs 2853637

Compensation & Assignments to Local Bodies and Panchayat Raj : ’’ ’’ 748290

Total Revenue Expenditure : ’’ ’’ 8501631

35 FOREIGN TRADE

32

Exports : 2009-10 Rs. in Cr. 113093 By Sea : ’’ ’’ 101731 By Air : ’’ ’’ 11362

Imports : ’’ ’’ 289066 By Sea : ’’ ’’ 230787 By Air : ’’ ’’ 58279

36 EMPLOYMENT

Working of Employment Exchanges

Employment Exchange Offices : 2011 Nos. 37 Registration during the year : ’’ ’’ 1164227 Placements during the year : ’’ ’’ 27705 Nos. on the Live Register : ’’ ’’ 6805248

37 EMPLOYMENT IN PUBLIC SECTOR

Central Government : 31.03.2011 Nos. 215545

State Government : ’’ ’’ 549200

Central Quasi Government : ’’ ’’ 178589

State Quasi Government : ’’ ’’ 320634

Local Bodies : ’’ ’’ 175840

33

SELECT SOCIO ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TAMIL NADU AND INDIA

Sl. No. Economic Indicators Tamil Nadu India

1. Area ('000' Sq.Kms) (2011 Census) 130 3287

2. Population ( in Crores) (2011 Census(P)) 7.21 121.0

Rural (2011 Census) 3.72 83.30

Urban (2011 Census) 3.49 37.70

3. Density (Population per Sq.Kms) (2011 Census) 555 382

Decadal Growth Rate (2011 Census) 15.60 17.64

4. Sex Ratio ( Females per 1000 Males) (2011 Census) 995 940

Child ( 0-6 years ) Sex Ratio (2011 Census) 946 914

5. Urban Population Percentage (2011 Census) 48.45 31.80

6. Scheduled Caste Population as Percentage of Total Population (2001 Census) 19.0 16.2

34

7. Scheduled Tribe Population as Percentage of Total Population (2001 Census) 1.0 8.2

8. Birth Rate – 2010 (SRS) 15.9 22.1

9. Death rate – 2010 (SRS) 7.6 7.2

10. Infant Mortality Rate – 2010 (SRS) 24 47

11. Literacy Rate - 2011

Persons * 80.3 74.0

Male * 86.8 82.1

Female * 73.9 65.4

12. Area under Rice - 2010-11 ('000 Ha) 1906 #45537

13. Production of Rice 2010-11 ('000 Tonnes) 5792 #99182

14. Average Yield of Rice 2010-11 (Kg / Ha.) 3039

#2180

15. Total Livestock – 2007 (P) (in Lakh Nos.) 307.59 5297.06

35

16. Poultry – 2007 (P) (in Lakh Nos.) 1281.08 6486.99

17. Production of Milk 2008-09 ( '000 Tonnes) ( Cow, Buffalo and Goat ) 5673 108532

18. Production of Eggs 2008-09 (in Cr) 881.0 5563.8

19. Annual Survey of Industries (Factory Sector) No. of Factories (2007-08) 21042 146385

20. No. of Reporting Mines (All Minerals) 2008-09(P) 153 2991

21. Total Applicants on Employment Live Register-2008 ('000 Nos.) 5272.6 39114.9

* Literacy rate is the percentage of literates to total population aged 7 years and above.

Sl. No. Economic Indicators Tamil Nadu

India

22. Percapita Consumption of Electricity (KWH.) – 2007-08 1144.9 717.0

23. Rural Electrification - As on 31.03.2008

Villages Electrified 15400 488439

Pumpsets Energised (2005-06)

(in '000)

1886 14803

36

24. No. of Students from Primary to Higher Secondary Schools per 1000 Population (2004-05) 209 213

25. Total No. of Motor Vehicles registered– 2006 (P) in ‘000’ 10054 89618

26. No. of Bank Offices of Scheduled Commercial Banks – 31.03.2011 6601 89110

Deposit (Rs in Cr) 343635 5426510

Credit (Rs in Cr) 392128 4076868

Credit – Deposit Ratio (%) 114.10 75.10

27. Budgetary Position – 2011-12 (R.E.) (Rs in Cr)

Revenue Account

Receipts 85552 923119

Disbursement 85016 1318362

Capital Account

. Receipts 20505 4113817

. Disbursement 24765 3696556

37

28. Actual Strength of Police Force – 2010 (Civil and Armed) 109525 *1473595

29. No. of Policemen per100 sq.km. of Area –2010 80.68 *46.5

30. No. of Policemen per 1000 population –2010 1.76 *1.10

31. No. of IPC cases per Policemen –2008 2.9 2.4

32. No. of Newspapers and Periodicals – 2007-08 4015 69323

33. TV Homes (2010-11) in millions 17.3 254.3

34. Home Viewers (2010-11) in millions 58.6 885.1

35. Marine Products Exports

a. Quantity (in Tonnes)

2010-11 86181 @ 678436

b. Value (Rs. in Crores)

2010-11 2860.19 @10048.53

36. Coastal Length (Kms) 1076 8041

37. No. of Census Houses (in Crores) 2011 Census (P) 2.32 33.08

38. No. of Households (in Crores) 2011 Census (P) 1.85 24.67

* 2008 data for All India

@ 2009-10 data for All India

38

Source:Statistical Abstract of India – 2008 India Statistics-2012 Reserve Bank of India Audience Research Officer, Prasar Bharathi AIR, Chennai-4 Tamil Nadu Electricity Board Commercial Taxes At a Glance – 2010-11 Marine Product Export Development Authority, Cochin

[Statistical Tables] [Economic Indicators] [Hand Book Main Page] [TN Home Page]

DAY 01- CHENNAI - KANCHIPURAM – MAHABALIPURAM Leave Chennai for Mahabalipuram by road. Enroute visit Kanchipuram.Kanchipuram is a Spectacular Temple city known as city of thousand temples which reflects the Glorious Traditions of South India with its noted temples.Arrive Mahabalipuram and check in at the hotel. Overnight at the hotel.

DAY 02- MAHABALIPURAM

Breakfast at the hotel. Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) also close to Chennai (Madras) is on the shores of the Bay of Bengal, along the eastern coast. Mamallapuram known for its rocks carvings and monolithic sculptures has the famous shore temple, the only one to have survived the ravages of nature. Also known as the Seven Pagodas (temples), six now lie submerged in the sea.Today you will be given the city tour of Mahabalipuram.Overnight at the hotel.

DAY 03- MAHABALIPURAM-CHENNAI Breakfast at the hotel.Leave Mahabalipuram for Chennai by road.Arrive Chennai .

39

PANCHA BHUTHA STHALAS: Lingams representing five elements Kanchipuram (Prithvi Lingam -- Earth) Tiruvannamalai (Jyothir Lingam -- Fire) Tiruvanaikkaval (Appu Lingam -- Water) Sri Kalahasti (Vayu Lingam -- Wind) Chidambaram (Akash Lingam -- Ether)

108 TIRUPATIS: These Vishnu shrines, situated all over India, are revered highly by Vaishnavites.

NAVA GRAIL A STHALAS: Temples representing the nine planets Suryanarcoil -- Surya Tirupati and Thingalore -- Chandra Palani & Vaitheeswarancoil -- Angaraha Madurai & Tiruvengadu -- Budha Tiruchendur & Alangudi -- Guru Srirangam & Kanchanur -- Shukra Thirunallar & Kuchanur -- Sani Sri Kalahasti & Tirunageswaram -- Rahu Sri Kalahasti & Kizhaperumpallam -- Kethu

ARUPADAI VEEDU: Six abodes of Lord Muruga Thirupparankundram Tiruchendur

40

Palani Swamimalai Tiruthani Pazhamudircholai

SIX THANDAVA STHALAS: Where Siva performed different dances Chidambaram -- Urdhwa Thandavam Perur -- Ananda Thandavam Thiruvarur -- Ajabha Thandavam Madurai -- Gnanasundara Thandavam Pukkoliyur -- Urdhwa Thandavam Thirumurugan Poondi -- Bhrama Thandavam

ASHTA VEERATTANAM: Eight places where Siva punished asuras Thirukkandiyur -- Siva pinched off the fifth head of Brahma Thirukkovilur -- Anthakasura was killed Thiruvathigai -- Thripuram was burnt Thiruppariyalur -- Dakshan's head was pinched off Thiruvirkudi -- Jalandarasura was killed Vazhuvur -- Gajasura was annihilated Thirukurukkai -- Kaman was burnt Thirukadayur -- Yama was punished

SAPTHA VIDANGA STHALAS: Swayambu Lingams not chisselled by any instrument. The processional deities perform unique dances.

41

Thiruvarur -- Veedhi Vidangar -- Asaba Natanam Thirunallar -- Nagara Vidangar -- Unmatha Natanam Nagapattinam -- Sundara Vidangar--Paaraavaara Tharanga Natanam Thirukarayil -- Adi Vidangar -- Kukkuda Natanam Thirukkolili -- Avani Vidangar -- Bringa Natanam Thiruvoimur -- Neela Vidangar -- Kamala Natanam Thirumaraikadu (Vedaranyam) -- Bhuvani Vidangar Hamsa Paada Natanam

PANCHA SABHA: Where Lord Siva performed different dances Thiruvalankadu -- Rathna Sabha Chidambaram -- Kanaka Sabha or Ponnambalam Madurai -- Rajatha Sabha or Velliambalam Tirunelveli -- Thambra Sabha Courtallam -- Chitra Sabha

PANCHA ARANYAM: Forests where Lord Siva appeared as Swayambu Lingam Naimisaranyam (Thiruverkolam) Vataranyam (Thiruvelankadu) Veeksharanyam (Thiruvallur) Vamsaranyam (Thiruppasur) Badrikaranyam (Thiruvenbakkam)

42

PANCHA NATHAM: Lord Siva's names ending with `Natham' Viswanatham Somanatham Jagannatham Ramanatham Vaidyanatham

PLACES WHICH CONFER MUKTI Thiruvarur -- by being born there Kanchipuram -- by residing there Tiruvannamalai -- by mere thinking of the place Kashi -- by dying there

Pre-history Archaeological researches have brought into light evidences about people inhabiting many places of Kanchipuram district during the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic phases of the Stone Age. So far 32 Paleolithic sites have been found in the district and 4 among them are in the Kanchipuram taluk itself. Sangam Age (600 BC – 300 AD) This is the ancient period in the history of Tamil Nadu. The high standard Tamil literary works written during this period, called as Sangam literature, is classical in content and form and treated on par with the ancient Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, Sanskrit and Chinese literature. Except for a few Brahmi stone inscriptions no physical monuments are available belonging to that period. Sangam literature is the only source – but a rich source - to know about that period. It is classified in to two broad categories. The first category consists of eight volumes of collected poems written by many poets. The second category consists of ten long poems each written by a different poet. All the literary works contained in these two category deal with two main themes. The first one is internal, that is, all the intricacies of intimate love between a man and a woman. The second one is external, that is, all that are outside the purview of the first theme, such as valor etc. Chola King Karikal Valavan or Karikalan -This ancient Chola king is supposed to have ruled Thondai Nadu during the second century BC. The wild forests and original inhabitants of the region came under the control. He cleared the forests into cultivable agricultural land; dug many lakes for irrigation; and even brought many agricultural families from his Chola Nadu to settle here

43

permanently. Karikalan fortified the city of Kanchipuram with huge walls and made it the head-quarters of Thondai Nadu. The ancient Sangam Tamil literature ‘Pattinappalai’ (one of the long ten poems) and the medieval Tamil literature ‘Periya Puranam’ have references about Karikalan’s rule in Kanchi. Medieval period Chola copper plate inscriptions also mention that Karikalan renovated Kanchi and built a wall around it. Thondai Nadu with Kanchi at its helm was made a buffer zone by king Karikalan to withstand the surge of invasions in the northern border of his Chola kingdom. There is an interesting legendary story related to Karikalan’s presence in Kanchi. In the Kanchi Kamakshi Amman temple, there is a small Sannidhi in the inner Prakaram. The figure in that Sannidhi is called ‘Meichathan’. He is a tutelary deity. Here a song has been written. Actually this song was quoted by scholar Adiyarkku Nallar in his narrative to the Tamil epic Silappadikaram. Interestingly it mentions about king Karikalan. It says that when Karikalan traveled towards north India, he came to Kanchi and worshipped Kamakshi Amman. While leaving, he took the whip named ‘Chendu’held by Meichathan. With its power, he defeated all the kings who opposed him in the north. Upon reaching Himalayas, he inscribed on the top of the hill, the figure of tiger – the royal symbol of his kingdom. Thondaiman Ilantirayan - He is considered as a descendant of the original clans who inhabited Thondai Nadu. He could have ruled the region during the first century BC. Probably, after Karikalan, the Chola rulers could have appointed the native Ilantirayan as their deputy in Kanchi. The Sangam Tamil literature Perumpanatruppadai records the fact that King Ilanthirayan ruled Thondai Nadu with Kanchi as its headquarters. But, it has no reference at all about the Karikalan’s rule in Kanchi. There is a lake near Kanchipuram named ‘Tirayaneri’ bearing the name of the king Ilan Tirayan. Some legendary accounts relate Ilantirayan as descendant of Chola lineage. The epic Manimekalai has a story about the birth of Ilantirayan. Once the Chola king Killi went to Naga kingdom. He married Naga princess Peelivalai and gave birth to a son. While returning back, the ship in which he traveled along with his son drowned due to storm. Luckily his son escaped the tragedy and washed ashore alive. The Cholas identified the child to be their own from the peculiar jewels it wore. As the child was brought back to shores by sea waves, they named him ‘Tirayan’. Tirai in Tamil means ‘wave’. The young Tirayan was made a ruler of Thondai Nadu. The Sangam Tamil literature Perumpanatruppadai is the earliest literary source to provide an elaborate description of Kanchi. According to it, the city was beautiful, well planned and well protected. It was located in the southern bank of the Kambai river. Apart from the huge walls, it was also naturally protected by thick forests in the outer. Heavy chariots often plied through its streets. Business was very brisk in its busy markets and people most of the time engaged themselves in festivities. The city of Kanchi resembled the shape of the lotus issuing out of the navel of God Vishnu. The Yathothkari Perumal temple has also been referred to by the author of this work. Interregnum - The Kalabhras (300 AD – 600 AD) The earlier Chola kingdom was constantly attacked by Pandiyas in the south and Cheras in the west. In the north, the Satavahanas of Andhra Pradesh were posing a threat. The alliance of Pandiyas and Cheras weakened the Chola rule drastically. The Thondai Nadu

44

became the entry point for invasions from the north. Thus the Kalabras entered into Tamil Nadu somewhere around from north Karnataka and south Maharashtra regions. Later, they fully occupied the Chola and Pandiya regions. They followed the non-Vedic religions such as Buddhism and Jainism. It is opined by historians that they have filled a certain vacuum that had emerged after Sangam period in the political, economic, cultural and religious spheres of Tamil society. There is nothing significant to say about the Kalabras’ presence in Kanchipuram. The Pallava Kingdom (550 AD – 906 AD) There is no consensus among historians about the origin of Pallavas. Some say they were the original inhabitants of the Thondai Nadu and descendants of the ancient ruler Ilantirayan. One earlier Pallava inscription at Talavanur hails Mahendra Varman I as the king of Thondai Nadu clan. But others say they were outsiders as they issued edicts mostly in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The Pallavas too called themselves as Brahma-Kshatriyas and proclaimed their mythical lineage from Brahma. The Velurpalayam Copper plate inscriptions of 9th Century AD and the Vayalur stone inscriptions mention the real lineage of Pallava kings. The vast sculptures inside the Vaikunda Perumal temple visually depict the ancestry of Pallava dynasty. Period of Turbulence and Transition - Whatever might be the origin of the Pallavas, but after coming into the Tamil region they fully merged themselves with its society. The Kalabras’ rule did not satisfy the Tamils’ aspiration for change. The then official religions like Buddhism and Jainism too supported status quo in society and aligned with the trading community. The vast majority of peasants and ordinary people were waiting for change. The powerful religious movements of Saivite Nayanmars and Vaishnavite Azhwars were gaining ground and catching people’s imagination. Exactly at this juncture the Pallavas entered into Tamil Nadu. Their rule in Kanchipuram coincided with the turbulent transitional phase of Tamil society. No wonder, some of the Pallava kings and their chiefs are included among the 63 Saivite Nayanmars. Pallava rule is classified into earlier phase and later phase. The earlier period Pallava kings ruled mostly outside Kanchi even though they claimed to have issued their royal edicts from Kanchi. As per the Velurpalayam and Vayalur inscriptions, Vira Kurchan, Skanda Varman, Kumara Vishnu and Buddha Varman are the Pallava ancestors – in chronological order. The Velurpalayam inscriptions mention that Kumara Vishnu, the son of Skanda Varman, attacked the Gathika in Kanchi and occupied the city. Gathika was the college for rulers and administrators. Especially, the Kanchi Gathika was very famous in south India. There could have been one or more Gathikas in Kanchi. Control over them symbolized the control over the city. Even though the earlier Pallavas occupied Kanchi, they could not enjoy stability due to constant outside attacks. The later period Pallava rule was stable and closely associated with the history of Kanchi. In this lineage Simha Varman was the first king (550-560 AD). His Pallan Koil copper plate edict is very important. This is the first among the copper plate edicts in Tamil Nadu to have a royal order issued in Tamil language. Its Sanskrit part starts with the sacred word ‘Swarga’. But its Tamil part starts, replacing the usual ‘Swasthi Sree’ with ‘Kovisaya’ – pure Tamil word. It says about the land grants made by the king to the Jain temples in Tirupparuthi Kundram near Kanchipuram. This grant was given under supervision of Saint Vajra Nandhi of Nandhi

45

Sangam. Simha Varman had two sons, namely, Simha Vishnu and Bheema Varman. After his demise, Simha Vishnu (560 – 590 AD) came to power. Simultaneously, Simha Vishnu’s brother Bheema Varman and his descendants were in-charge of some remote parts of Pallava kingdom about which not much is known. After Simha Vishnu, his son Mahendra Varman I ascended to throne. From his time onwards, the Pallavas ruled the north, central and western parts of Tamil Nadu for 300 years until 900 AD. In governance, trade, economy, religion, literature, art and architecture Tamil Nadu witnessed distinct progress during the Pallava rule. As centre of all these developments, the capital city Kanchi reached zenith of its glory.

• Mahendra Varman I (590 – 630 AD) • Narasimha Varman I (630 – 668 AD) • Mahendra Varman II (668 – 670 AD) • Parameswara Varman I (670 – 700 AD) • Narasimha Varman II or Rajasimhan (695 – 728 AD) • Mahendra Varman III (720 – 728 AD) • Parameswara Varman II (728 – 731 AD) • Nandi Varman II or Pallava Mallan (731 – 796 AD) • Danti Varman (796 – 847 AD) • Nandi Varman III (846 – 869 AD) • Nirupathunga Varman (865 – 906 AD) • Aparajitha Varman (870 – 890 AD)

Since the days of Nirupatunga Varman the Pallava dynasty gradually became weak due to infighting and external invasions. Pandiyas and Cholas attacked from the south; Gangas from the west; Rashtrakutas and Telugu Cholas from the north. After 900 AD the Pallava Kingdom became extinct.

The Chola Empire (850 AD – 1279 AD)

After the 6th Century AD, the ancient Sangam-period Tamil kingdoms lost their significance in the political map of south India. Even though the Pandiyas and the Cheras continuously registered their presence in their respective territories, the Cholas could not be traced. But their descents somehow survived and silently waited for the right time to rise above. After a gap of nearly 600 years, during the 9th Century AD they emerged like a phoenix in the political horizon. The circumstances were conducive and their innate

46

urge was exemplary, both of which took them to greater heights. The Cholas of the medieval period established the most powerful of all empires in south India. They extended their northern border up to Orissa and even once touched the banks of Ganges. The southern most Ceylon, Kerala and the western coast were controlled by them. They had a strong sea army with which they occupied the South-East Asian countries like Malaysia and Indonesia. After the fall of Pallavas, the history of Kanchipuram was inter-twined associated with the Cholas

Kanchi Conquered - By the end of the 9th Century AD, The Pallavas and the Pandiyas often clashed for supremacy, the then major powers of Tamil region at that time. But the Pallava kingdom was already losing ground due to the in-fight between the last of the Pallava kings Nirupathunga Varman and Aparajtha Varman. The battle at Tiruppurambiyam in 895 AD was important in this regard and paved the way for rise of Chola power. In this battle Nirupatungan was supported by Pandiya King Varagunan II and Aparajithan was supported by Chola king Adithan I (871 – 907 AD) and Ganga king Prithvipathi I. After fierce battle Aparajithan won and ruled for another 18 years. But eventually the Chola king Adithan subdued Aparajithan and annexed the Thondai Nadu with the Chola kingdom. Hence he got the title, ‘Thondai Nadu Paavina Cholan’ (meaning the Chola king who occupied Thondai Nadu). The Kanyakumari inscription mentions, ‘ Adithan won the Pallava king seated on the elephant’. This Adithan was the son of Vijayalayan (850 – 871 AD), the first Chola king of medieval period. This marks the descent of Pallavas and the ascent of Cholas. This victory of Thondai Nadu was very crucial for their future prospects of Cholas in the ensuing years. To signify this, they thereafter called Thondai Nadu as ‘Jayam Konda Chola Mandalam’ (meaning the victorious Chola region).

Kanchi Lost - The first Chola king Vijayalayan’s inscription issued during the fourth year of his rule refers to the first entry of Cholas in to Kanchi. While his son Adithan defeated the Pallavas in the north, his grandson Paranthakan I defeated the Pandiyas and Sinhalese in the south and expanded the Chola kingdom. He stationed his elder son Rajadhithan in Kanchipuram to guard the northern borders. The chieftains in the Nellore region who did not accept the might of the Cholas sought the help of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. In a war at Takkolam near Kanchipuram the Chola prince Rajadhithan was killed during action. In a dramatic turn of events the city of Kanchi fell into the hands of Rashtrakuta king. Thus the northern region of the Chola kingdom was under his control for 25 years. Thus the Rashtrakuta king obtained the title ‘Kachium Thanjayum Konda Kannara Devan’ (occupier of Kanchipuram and Thanjavur). The inscriptions of Paranthakan have been found in the Kailasa Nathar temple. They term this temple as ‘Tirukkatrali (meaning holy stone temple). He gave many gifts to this temple and the Ekambara Nathar temple.

Kanchi Regained - The Thondai Nadu and Kanchipuram were again won over by Rajarajan I who expanded his empire up to Orissa in the north and down to Sri Lanka in the south. His son Rajendran I took the mighty of the Chola power to unprecedented heights. He won regions up to the Ganges in the north and accordingly got the title ‘Gangai Kondan’ (meaning one won the regions of Ganges

47

river belt). Further with his strong naval forces he also won the kingdoms in South-East Asia. The inscriptions of Rajarajan and Rajendran can be seen in the Kanchi Kamakshi Amman temple and the Kachapeswarar temple who patronized these temples. Kanchi became an important seat of political power during the reign of Kulothungan I. He made many architectural additions and improvements in the existing temples of Kanchipuram and made many land donations to them.

Kanchi Lost Forever - Most of the Chola inscriptions found in Kanchipuram were issued by Rajaraja III. During his reign Kanchi became an important place of power equations. Because in this period, the Cholas, Pandiyas, Hoysalas of Karnataka, Kakatiyas of Andhra and the Kadavarayas struggled for power; aligned and realigned with each other to gain supremacy. All these activities occurred around the Kanchipuram region. In the end the Cholas lost the game, lost Kanchi and the stage set for the final demise of Chola stronghold. Due to internal struggles the Cholas had only weak authority in the northern Thondai Nadu region. In 1219 AD, the Pandiya king Maravarman invaded the Chola kingdom and put into fire its cities Thanjavur and Uraiyur. But restored the regions he won to Cholas as Rajarajan III aligned with the formidable Hoysala king Veerasimhan. In 1231 AD, the Hoysalas again saved the Chola kingdom from the threats of Pandiyas but in turn they stationed a huge army of them near Kanchipuram and virtually took over the northern regions of Chola empire. In 1257 AD, the Pandiya king Jatavarman invaded the Chola country defeated Rajendran III and dealt the final blow to the Chola power in Tamil soil. This Pandiya king took over kanchi and assumed the titles ‘Kanchi Kondan’ and ‘Kanchi Varadeeswara’ (meaning the occupation of Kanchipuram). He even issued coins from Kanchi in his names.

Interregnum – Mixed Rule (1279 – 1336 AD) Kanchi under the Kakatiyas-After the weakening of the Chola Empire in the late 13th Century, Kanchipuram came under the sway of the Kakatiya rulers of Andhra Pradesh. But the exact period during which it passed into their hands and the particular circumstances which favored their entry have to be determined. The existence of an inscription in Kanchipuram issued by the Kakatiya King Ganapati in 1249 AD points to the fact that already during the reign of Kopperunjingan (who claimed himself to be the descendant of Pallavas) the town had been included in the territories of the Kakatiya kings and was ruled by their governors. Kanchi under the Pandiyas-In the south, the Pandiyas were making vigorous attempts to extend their kingdom. The Pandiya King Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251 to 1271 AD) defeated the Kakatiya king Ganapati and performed the coronation ceremony at Kanchipuram and Nellore where his inscriptions have been found. Thus the Kanchi was snatched from the Kakatiyas by the Pandiyas. The Pandiya King also issued coins form Kanchipuram in under the title of ‘Kacchi Vazhangum Perumal’.The same Pandiya king also defeated Gandagopala, a chief of Tondai Nadu whose accession took place in A.D. 1250. Concurrently, Kopperunjiuga's sway was also acknowledged in Kanchipuram up to A.D. 1279 and then it passed into the hands of Kakatiya King Prataparudra, who held it till the memorable invasion of Malik Kafur in A.D. 1310.

48

Kanchi under the Cheras-Malik Kafur’s capture of Madurai created lot of confusion in Pandiya Kingdom. Using this instability in the southern region, the Kerala King Ravivarman Kulasekharan defeated Pandiya King Vira Pandiyan and established his authority all over Kerala, Tamil Nadu and some parts of Andhra Pradesh. He triumphantly entered into Kanchipuram and was crowned on the banks of the river Vegavati in 1313 AD. But he did not rule there for long, for in 1316 AD Kanchipuram again came under the control of Kakatiya King Prataparudra who installed one by name Manavlra as governor of the city. place '.The rule of Manavira also lasted only for a short time. Kanchi under the Sambuvarayas-The Sambuvarayas who were vassals of the Chola kings have already asserted their independence. They were the earliest among the subordinates of Cholas to throw off their yoke. Vendrumankonda Sambuvarayar had accession in the year 1332 AD. He ruled until 1339 AD for 18 years. After him Rajanarayana Sambuvarayar ruled until 1367 AD. . One of his inscriptions dated 1346 AD has been found in the Ulagalanda Perumal temple at Kanchipuram. During this period Kanchipuram fell under the rule of Sambuvarayas. About this time Kanchipuram passed into the hands of the Vijayanagar kings and remained under them till almost the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th and was greatly benefited by their rule.

The Vijayanagar Empire (1336 – 1675 AD)

The Rise of the Empire - The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau of South India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers against Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646 although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose impressive ruins surround modern Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in modern Karnataka, India. Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empire's power and wealth.

There is no unanimous opinion among historians regarding the origins of the Vijayanagar empire. Some claim that Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, the founders of the empire took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. Other historians propose they were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from the Northern India. Irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India. Writings by foreign travelers during the late medieval era combined with recent excavations in the Vijayanagar principality have uncovered much-needed information about the empire's history, fortifications, scientific developments and architectural innovations.

49

Before the rise of the Vijayanagar Empire in the early 14th Century, the Hindu kingdoms of the Deccan, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, the Pandyan Empire of Madurai, and the tiny kingdom of Kampili had been repeatedly invaded by Muslims from the north, and by 1336 they had all been defeated by Alla-ud-din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultans of Delhi. The Hoysala Empire was the sole remaining Hindu kingdom in the path of the Muslim invasion. After the death of Hoysala Veera Ballala III during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala empire merged with the growing Vijayanagar empire.

Krishnadevaraya (1509 – 1529 AD) - The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishnadevaraya. Krishnadevaraya was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530 and in 1542 by Sadashiva Raya while the real power lay with Aliya Rama Raya, the son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya, whose relationship with the Deccan Sultans who allied against him has been debated.

Decline of the Empire - The sudden capture and killing of Rama Raya in 1565 at the Battle of Talikota, against an alliance of the Deccan sultanates, after a seemingly easy victory for the Vijayanagara armies, created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army later plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains; it was never re-occupied. Tirumala Raya, the sole surviving commander, left Vijayanagara for Penukonda with vast amounts of treasure on the back of 550 elephants.

The empire went into a slow decline regionally, although trade with the Portuguese continued, and the British were given a land grant for the establishment of Madras. Tirumala Deva Raya was succeeded by his son Sriranga I later followed by Venkata II who made Chandragiri his capital, repulsed the invasion of the Bahmani Sultanate and saved Penukonda from being captured. His successor, Ramadeva, took power and ruled till 1632 after whose death, Venkata III became king and ruled for about ten years after which Vellore was made the capital. The empire was finally conquered by the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda. The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagar empire — the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee — declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries. These Nayaka kingdoms lasted into the 18th century while the Mysore Kingdom remained a princely state until Indian Independence in 1947 although they came under the British Raj in 1799 after the death of Tipu Sultan.

50

Architecture - The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known at Hampi which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagar style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. Secular royal structures show the influence of the Northern Deccan Sultanate architecture. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandiya and Chola styles. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapam (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapam (open pillared halls) and the Rajagopuram (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion.

Kanchipuram and Vijayanagar Empire - After Harihara I, his brother Bukka I ruled the empire. He sent armies under the command of his son Kumara Kambana to Madurai in Tamil Nadu to terminate the rule of Sultans there. Thereafter Kumara Kampana was appointed as the royal representative to Kolar and the Tamil regions. He defeated the Sambuvarayas and occupied Kanchipuram. During 1361 AD to 1374 AD, 15 stone inscriptions of Kampana have been found in Kanchi. Apart from the many land grants made by the royal authority, the inscriptions give information about the administration of Kanchi. Six stone inscriptions of Devaraya II have been found in the Kanchi Kamakshi Amman temple. One of them reveals the fact that the king made corrective measures to stop the misuse of temple funds by local authorities.

Bahmani Sultans (1347 – 1527 AD)

When already Kanchipuram become part of the Vijayanagar Empire by the end of the 14th Century, for a short while it came under the occupation of Bahmani Sultans. Bahmani Sultanate was one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms and was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India which ruled the Deccan region. It was founded in1347 AD by Alauddin Hassan Bahman Shah who was possibly of Tajik-Persian descent. He revolted against the Sultans of Delhi. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state in Deccan within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad (present day Gulbarga of Karnataka state). Then it was moved to Bidar. The Bahmanis contested with the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire to control the south. The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate of Mahmud Gawan (1466–1481). After 1518 the Sultanate broke up into five states: Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda collectively known as the Deccan Sultanates. The Bahmani dynasty believed that they descended from Bahman, the legendary king of Iran. They were patrons of the Persian language, culture and literature, and some members of the dynasty were well-versed in that language and composed verses.

51

Kanchi under Bahmani SultansBahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah II (1463-1482 AD) assisted by his able minister Khwaja Mahmud Gawan engaged in a series of conquests in the south. In one among these raids Kanchipuram was captured and looted in 1481 AD, which was unprecedented and most terrible in its history. The writer Taba-Taba who lived under the royal patronage of the Sultans has given the historical account of capture of Kanchi in his work called Burhani Maasir, in the following words:

“(While encamped at Malur in the Mysore State), the Sultan (Muhammad II) was informed that at a distance of fifty Farasakhs was a city called Ganja (Kanchi) situated in the centre of the dominion of that malignant one (Narasimha), containing temples which were the wonder of the age, filled with countless concealed treasures and jewels and valuable pearls besides innumerable slave girls. From the rise of Islam up to this time no Muhammadan monarch had set foot on it, no stranger had laid hand on the cheek of that idol temple; and it was suggested that if the Sultan were to send an expedition against it, immense booty and treasure would doubtless be obtained. The Sultan with nearly 10,000 horse made forced marches from that place, and after they had for one day and two nights travelled a long distance through an uneven country, on the morning of the second day which happened to be the 11th of Muharram in the year 886 (12th March, 1481 AD) the Sultan with Nizamulmulk Bahri Khan-i-Azam Adil Khan and 150 special slaves of the Sultan, outstripped the whole army and having surrounded the city of Kanchi, entrapped the people of that city of sinners. Out of a number who had been appointed for the protection of the city and temples, some were put to the sword, whilst others by a thousand stratagems escaped with their lives, and took to flight. The royal troops moment by moment and hour by hour following one another were assembling till a large army was collected under the Sultan's standard. After that, at a sign from the Sultan, the troops took to plundering and devastating. They levelled the city and its temples with the ground and overthrew all the symbols of infidelity and such a quantity of jewels, valuable pearls, slaves and lovely maidens and all kinds of rarities fell into their hands that they were beyond computation"

After a gap of nearly five years the city of Kanchi again went into the fold of Vijayanagar Empire during the reign of Saluva Narasimha (1486 – 1490 AD).

Arcot Nawabs (1692 – 1855 AD)

52

Nawabs of the Carnatic (also referred to as the Nawabs of Arcot), ruled the Carnatic region of South India between about 1690 and 1801. They initially had their capital at Arcot near Vellore city in northern Tamil Nadu. Their rule acquired importance in the history of Tamil Nadu, in which the Mughal Empire in north India gave way to the rising influence of the European powers, eventually culminating in the British Raj. The old province known as the Carnatic, in which Madras (Chennai) was situated, extended from the Krishna river in the present day Andhra Pradesh to the Coleroon in Tamil Nadu. It was bounded on the West by Cuddapah, Salem and Dindigul all of which formed part of the then State of Mysore. The Northern portion was known as the Mughal Carnatic, the Southern the Maharatta Carnatic with the Maharatta frontier fortress being Gingee.

The Nawabdom of the Carnatic was established by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1692 AD. With the Vijayanagara Empire in serious decline, the Nawabdom of the Carnatic controlled a vast territory south of the Krishna river. The Nawab Saadatullah Khan (1710-1732 AD) moved his court from Gingee to Arcot. Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah (1749 - 1795) was freed from his suzerainty and made the independent ruler of the Carnatic by the Mughal emperor in 1765. His rule was long and mostly peaceful. He donated generously to Churches, Temples and Mosques. The temple at Sri Rangam was one which benefited from his generosity.The growing influences of the English and the French and their colonial wars had a huge impact on the Carnatic. Wallajah supported the English against the French and Hyder Ali. As he was heavily indebted to the English financially, he had to surrender much of his territory to the East India Company.

The thirteenth Nawab, Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan (1825–1855), died without issue and the British annexed the Carnatic Nawabdom applying the doctrine of lapse. Ghouse Khan's uncle Azim Jah was created the first Prince of Arcot (Amir-E-Arcot) in 1867 by Queen Victoria, and was given a tax free pension in perpetuity. This privilege continues to be honoured by the Government of India. This status is protected by the Indian Constitution and the family continues to retain its privileges and titles. The current Prince of Arcot Abdul Ali came to the title in July 1994.

Kanchi under Arcot Nawabs-Kanchipuram was ruled by the Arcot Nawabs in early 1700 AD. They built many Mosques and Dargahs in Kanchipuram. There are 9 Mosques in Kanchipuram. Among them the Sunnath Jamath Jummah Mosque near the Sankara Mutt is considered to be the oldest. The Nawab Sathathullah Khan Mosque and Vaikunda Perumal Temple are situated very close to each other.Both the mosque and the Temple share the same tank. It shows the communal harmony in Tamil Nadu and especially in Kanchipuram. The Hameed owliya dargah constructed by the Nawabs has great architectural value.

British Colonization (1750 – 1947)

53

English East India Company - The English East India Company and the French East India Company often entered into conflict in the Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu during most of the time in 18th Century. The French were relative newcomers to India. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 and in 1666 the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb’s permission to trade in India. The French soon setup trading posts in Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast. They occupied Karaikkal in 1739 and Joseph François Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondicherry. In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the British and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two navies along the Coromandel coast. The French led by La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the British.

The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. Both the Nawab of the Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad positions were taken by rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. Chanda Sahib had been made Nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous incumbent, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took possession of it in 1751. The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However the big army posted in Arcot and assisted by the French was defeated by the British. This is known as the famous Battle of Arcot. The Treaty of Paris (1763) formally confirmed Mohammed Ali as the Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this action and the increased British influence that in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a Firman (decree) recognizing the British possessions in southern India.

British Government Control - Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the British Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the Company. The Company's financial position was also bad and it had to apply for a loan from Parliament. Seizing this opportunity, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act) in 1773. The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position of the Governor General. Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.

End of the Company Rule - The discontent in the various districts of the Company territories exploded into what is termed as Sepoy Mutiny in 1857 and reached major war like proportions. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in

54

India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. In consequence of the war, the British Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the government to the Crown.

Direct Rule by the British CrownIn 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years the government was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Britain as important. However, in due course the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy Ripon passed a resolution in 1882, which gave a greater and more real share in local government to the people. Further legislation such as the 1892 Indian councils Act and the 1909 "Minto-Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the Madras Legislative Council. The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. First elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921.

Kanchi under the British Rule - The British coined the name Conjeevaram, the anglicised version of Kanchipuram. Under the British regime, a Collector to the district was appointed for the first time in 1788 AD. The district was further split up into two divisions, Northern and Southern, and was placed under the administration of two Collectors. The Collectors during 1790's were Clerk and Balfour. Lionel Place, the Collector in 1794-1799, created the posts of Sharistadars, who came under the control of the Collector. Clerks were also appointed to assist the Sharistadars. The famous Madurantakam and Uthiramerur tanks were created by Place. Hodgson, who was Head Assistant to Place, succeeded him as the Collector. The place he resided at Kanchipuram is still known in the name of Hodgsonpet. In 1800, Hodgson was succeeded by his Senior Assistant, Greenway. In the nineteenth century, Karunguzhi became the headquarters of the district and it remained so up to 1859 when it was shifted to 'Home Garden' Saidapettai, except for a short spell from 1825-1835 during which Kanchipuram served as the district headquarters. From 1859 to 1968, the Collector's office was located in Saidapettai. During the famous Siege of Arcot, Robert Clive made the Ekambara Nathar temple premises as a military camp. Due to artillery fighting the hits of cannon balls can be seen in the Rajagopuram of the temple. Robert Clive also donated jewels to the Varadaraja Perumal temple.

Saivism

Most of the Saivite mythologies in Kanchipuram revolve around the Ekambara Nathar temple. But there 108 Shiva temples scattered around the town limits of kanchipuram each having its own story. All these have been dealt in detail in the ‘Kanchipuranam’.

55

Parvati’s Penance - In the Kailash, once Goddess Parvati covered the eyes of God Shiva in a joyous mood. But Shiva got angry and made Parvati leave the Kailash to earth and praise him for some time before coming back to him. Goddess Parvati selected the bank of Kambai river to stay. There she made Linga out of sand and started praising it. To test the perseverance of Parvati, Shiva made floods in Kambai river which tended to wash away the sand Linga. Parvati embraced the Linga to save it. Due to this, Shiva melted down and brought back Parvati again to Kailash. The sand Linga then hardened, and as believed by the devotees, it bears the marks of Parvati Devi’s embracing.

Shiva – Parvati Marriage - The holy marriage between God Shiva and Goddess once occured in Kailash. All the Gods and Sages went to the Himalayas to see thee marriage.Due to this, the northern side started to tilt downwards. To equalise the earth's weight between north and south sides, God Shiva ordered Sage Agasthya to go southwards. But the Sage was saddened that he could not see the marriage. Seeing this, Shiva assured Agasthya that he will once again marry Parvati in Kanchi in order to enable the Sage to witness their wedding. Due to this, every year in the Tamil month of Panguni (March - April) the holy wedding of Shiva and Parvati is being done as a festival. Elsewhere in the temple there is a Sannidhi for Sage Agasthya as referred by Pallava King Mahendra Varman I in his drama Matta Vilasa Prahasanam.

Prithvi Kshetram - According to the Saivist belief Kanchi is a Prithvi Kshetram. ‘Prithvi’ means sand. The five elements (Pancha Bhutas) of nature, water, fire, earth, ether and air are the great sources of life sustaining energy. There are five Shiva temples, four in Tamil Nadu and one in Andhra Pradesh, each one preserving and exhibiting the core energy of that particular divine element. Except the Jambukeswarar temple in Tiruchirappalli which is a Appu (water) Kshetram, the remaining four are situated in the ancient Tondaimandalam which is spread between Tirupati in Andhra to Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu. The symbolic interlinking of Prithvi (earth) with Kanchi is manifest in the famous Ekambara Nathar temple where the Lingam (phallus) is made up of sand with the outer metallic shield.

Vaishnavism The Vaishnavite mythologies revolve around the ‘mountain’ inside the Varadaraja Perumal temple in the south-eastern part of the city (Little Kanchipuram) and the ‘cave’ inside the Kamakshi Amman temple in the northern part of the city (Big Kanchipuram). Embedded in several tales linking the foundation of these sites with Vishnu’s incarnations is the theme of the city as a sacred field within which sacrifice takes place. So Kanchi is termed in Vaishnavite tradition as ‘Thyaga Bhoomi’ (land of sacrifice). The initiator of holy sacrifice in these tales are not human beings like a king or a warrior. God Brahma himself is engaged in this ritual practice to have the vision of Supreme God Vishnu. There is similarity in story lines associated with Yathokthkari Perumal temple, Ashta Bhujam Perumal temple, Vilakkoli Perumal temple, Singa Perumal temple and the Varadaraja Perumal temple. God Brahma goes for

56

Yagnam without his consort Saraswati who attempts to disrupt the holy sacrifice. God Vishnu interferes and saves the Yagnam. In the end Saraswati turns submissive. At last, Vishnu appears from the sacrificial fire and gives vision to all. Saktham All the mythologies of Sakthi (Goddess) worship in Kanchi revolve around the Kamakshi Amman temple. As per the Saktham tradition, Kanchipuram is Akasa Kshetram (ether holy place). Moreover Kanchi is one among the 51 Sakthi Pithams spread all over India. According to legend, once Daksha (father of Goddess Parvati) performed a Yagnam with a desire to take revenge on Lord Shiva. Daksha was angry because his daughter Dakshayani also known as Sati had married the 'yogi' God Shiva against his wish. Daksha invited all the deities to the Yagnam except for Shiva and Shakti. The fact that she was not invited did not deter Shakti from attending the Yagnam. She had expressed her desire to attend to Shiva who had tried his best to dissuade her from going. Shiva eventually allowed her to go escorted by his followers.But Shakti, being an uninvited guest, was not given any respect. Furthermore, Daksha insulted Shiva. Shakti was unable to bear her father's insults toward her husband, so Dakshayani (the other name of Shakti meaning the daughter of Daksha) invoked her yogic powers and immolated herself. Enraged at the insult and the injury, Shiva destroyed Daksha’s sacrifice, cut off his head. Still immersed in grief, he picked up the remains of Sati's body, and danced the dance of destruction through the Universe. The other gods intervened to stop this dance, and the Vishnu 's weapon Sudarshana Chakra (the disc) cut through the corpse of Shakti. The various parts of the body fell at several spots all through the Indian subcontinent and formed sites which are known as Shakti Peethas today. At all Shakti Peethas, the Goddess Shakti is accompanied by Lord Bhairava (a manifestation of Lord Shiva) The Kamakshi temple today is at the very centre of the city, with the Ekambaranatha temple to the north-west and the Varadaraja temple to the south-east. It is interesting to note that all the major temples in the city are structured to face the prominent Kamakshi Amman temple. The seated Kamakshi is a noble image, and to her front is the Sri Chakra in which the Mother Goddess is said to reside in her subtle form. Originally Kamakshi was the fierce form of the Supreme Goddess - Ugrasvarupini. It was Adi Shankara who installed the Sri Chakra, which contained the ferocity of the goddess and transformed her into the calm and beautiful Brahmasvarupini. Kamakshi’s residence in her Brahma-Shakti form is in a cave below. She is said to have appeared on earth once to destroy demons, including the notorious Bhandasura. The Tapas Kamakshi (goddess in penance to expiate the sin of having closed the Lord’s eyes) has also been placed in the sanctum sanctorum. Coming out of it, on the left can be seen Kamakshi’s attendant Varahi. To her front is the Santana Stambham indicating the place where King Dasharatha gained the boon of progeny from Goddess Kamakshi. Temple Town Kanchipuram is famously known by this name. Even though we cannot count all the 1000 temples in the town, there are still 108 Shiva temples, 18 Vishnu temples and 2 Jain temples. Temples in kanchipuram are torchbearers of the glorious heritage of the past and repositories of the magnificient art forms that evolved over several centuries. Architectural splendor, sanctification by the hymns

57

of saints, presence of inscriptions, amazing sculptures, age-old festivals are some of the important aspects these temples in Kanchipuram. Temple festivals are held throughout the year and apart from the temple car (ratha) festivals which are held in the months of January, April and May every year. During the festival season the idols in the temples are taken out in procession on their respective vahanas or vehicles. Sacred Soil Ancient religious texts mention seven cities in India as sacred. These seven cities are called as Saptapuri in Sanskrit. ‘Sapta’ means ‘seven’ and ‘Puri’ means ‘town’ . They are Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya, Kasi, Kanchi, Avanthika and Dwaravati. They are called as Mokshapuris – meaning the towns in the soul can be liberated from worldly sins and salvation can be attained. The Garuda Puranam mentions them in the following verse. Ayodhya Mathura Maya Kasi Kañchi Avantika I Puri Dvaravati chaiva saptaita moksadayikah II - Garuda Purana I XVI .14 The Sapta Puri are places of birth of religious and spiritual masters, places where Gods have descended as Avatars (incarnations) such as Ayodhya where god Rama was born, and places considered as Nitya tirthas, naturally endowed, with spiritual powers since ages such as Varanasi and Haridwar. Kanchipuram is known for its Kamakshi Amman Temple dedicated to the Mother goddess. Dwarka represents the place where god Krishna, after leaving Mathura spent 100 years before he left for heaven from here, according to the epic Mahabharata. Mathura is the embodiment of events in the life of Krishna during his childhood and young days. Haridwar with shrines of both Shiva and Vishnu, represents the gateway to Uttarkhand, as the sacred river Ganges emerges from the hills into the plains at this place. Varanasi is the place of salvation as it is strongly believed that death at this place will bring salvation. Ujjain, also known by the ancient name Avanti, has one of the 12 Jyotirlingas installed in the Mahakaleshwar Temple. Each of these cities is also famous for the spectacular melas or fairs held. Haridwar and Ujjain are famous for the Kumbh Mela held once every 12 years. Marriage festival of Kamakshi at Kanchipuram is a special occasion. Krishna Janmashtami ( birth day of Krishna - generally held in August as per Hindu calendar) is a special occasion in Dwarka and Mathura. The seven religious cities are within India's territorial ambit and pilgrimage to these places greatly enhances the unity of the nation, in spite of its linguistic and cultural diversity. The seven sacred urban centers are well connected by road, rail and air transport with the rest of the country. Of the five natural elements such as, air, water, fire, earth and ether, Saivites consider Kanchi as the Prithvi (earth) Kshetram. The followers of Saktham (Goddess religion) revere Kanchi in terms of Aakasam (ether). Vaishnavites consider Kanchi as Thyaga Bhoomi – meaning the place in which God Vishnu appeared from Yagnam (sacrificial fire). Moreover Kanchi is also called Satya Vrata Kshetram – meaning that the residents of Kanchipuram will always speak truth in all circumstances. Yuga is a very longer period as per the Hindu beliefs. There are four such Yugas namely Kirutha Yuga, Thretha Yuga, Dwapara Yuga and Kali Yuga. During the end of each Yuga the universe is destructed and created anew in the starting of the next Yuga. During the period of destruction of the universe God Shiva Who is considered as the first and foremost of the Gods, assumes the holy title of

58

'Kaayaaroganeeswarar' and takes refuge in the sacred place of Kanchi. The Gods to take care of the respective Yugas are also created in this sacred land. When destruction of universe takes place towards the close of every Yuga, Kanchi stands as the last place to get destroyed. During the four Yuga period all the celestials come to Kanchi, establish idols of God (Siva lingams) bearing their holy names (name of the respective celestials) in order to attain salvation. This practice of establishing idols of God (Shiva lingam) and worshipping them has been going on for trillions and trillions of years. Keerthimathi ranks first among the 108 original powerful heirs to the "Original Power Throne". She is none other than the Great Goddess Kamackshi herself. During the Dwapara Yuga Goddess Kamackshi set her divine foot on the sacred land of Kanchi, did penance for several years and gave several things away in charity. Kanchipuram is also bounded on all sides by holy rivers such as Palar, Cheyyar, Kambaiyar, Vegavathi, Manjalaru, Vanniyaru and Kanchiyaru. Among the seven holy cities mentioned above, Kanchi and Kasi are the more holiest. Even among these two Kanchi is the holiest. Because, while dying in Kasi gives salvation for a soul, getting born into Kanchi assures a person of salvation. Not only that, even a person not born in Kanchi, if he or she set foot there, they will get rid of all sins. Planned City According to scholars, Kanchi has a continuous and economically well sustained urban history. The earliest reference to Kanchipuram town form is found in the Sangam literature Perumpanatruppadai. The town of Kanchipuram was surrounded by a fort and moat in the form of a lotus flower. It had wide roads and streets and trees were planted on both sides. Chariots moved freely in the streets. There was a market place on the outskirts of the town. In the first century AD, neither the temple structure nor the rituals were grown to such an extent in order to enable clustering of settlements around the temples. The Vaishnavite Tiruvekka or the Yathokthakari temple was the first temple to be mentioned in literary sources. According to archaeological sources the areas surrounding this temple could be royal palace. The city was developed on the Nanthivartha pattern with 2 or 4 groups of settlements with a temple or the palace as nucleus, linked with straight roads cutting at right angles, it was thus on a cross pattern with palace or Temples as Vista closing and terminal points at the ends of the Rajaveedhi on North and South and Kailasanathar and Vaikunda Perumal temple at the eastern and western ends respectively. Pallava King Narasimha Varman II constructed Manjaneer channel to facilitate drainage outflow. and digged the Sarvathirthakulam for public bath near the Ekambaranthar Temple. Houses came up on raised grounds and with burnt bricks for the first time, and the concept of garden at the backyard, a wide front space in the form of ‘Thinnai’ or Verandah which is the scene in old parts of the city even today. This was to provide good ventilation and for draining of rain water swiftly. Silken Paradise Kanchipuram is famous not only for its temples but also for its traditional silk saris. Kanchi silk weavers possess distinct expertise in making the world renowned, gorgeous, high quality hand-woven silk saris. They are famous for their myriad colors, shine, finishing and matchless beauty. The saris in dazzling colors are available in every imaginable design and variety, which can make the job of selection quite challenging. To compare with other silk saris, the Kanchipuram silk saris are very famous in the world. The

59

Kanchipuram Silk Sari is hand-woven with dyed silk yarn with interleaved designs made with 'Zari' - a Silk thread twisted with a thin Silver wire and then gilded with pure Gold. Technically, the silk thread used for weaving Kanchipuram Saris is made up of three single threads twisted together.Woven from pure mulberry silk and have an enviable reputation for texture, lustre, durability and finish. Hence, the Kanchipuram Silk Sari is usually stronger (and more expensive) than its counterparts from Arni, Dharmavaram, etc. However, the designs on the Sari itself are what bring it the fame. The silk weavers of Kanchi settled here more than 400 years ago and have given it the reputation as the producer of the best silk saris in the country. The silk economy of Kanchi is entirely dependent on tourism and the well-established handloom industry. Kanchipuram has thousands of handlooms and skilled weavers that make its silk saris one of the best in the entire world. About 75 percent of Kanchipuram town’s population is dependent on the Silk Sari industry, either directly or indirectly. Yet, the city does not manufacture Silk or any other raw material that goes into its silk saris. The Silk industry is entirely made up of handloom weavers and merchants. Trade Axis Even though many cities emerged in the course of the history of South India, Kanchi maintained its position as a focal point for trade and trade related activities since ancient times. It had trade links with South-East and Far-East Asian countries. The Chinese records identify Kanchi as an important trading centre in the 2nd Century BC. The Chinese writer Pan Kou mentions the existence of trade relations between the country of Houang Tohe (Kanchipuram) and China. The articles that were traded were pearls and precious stones which were exchanged for gold and silver. The two port cities Poduca (Pondicherry) and Sopatma (Marakkanam) mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea can be easily reached from Kanchipuram. These port centers had good trade links with the Mediterranean countries. Apart from sea trade, Satavahana (1st Century AD) coins that were found in the town during excavations indicate vibrant inland trade apart from trade with far away countries. Some evidences even point out that the city was linked to Roman Empire through trade in the early years of the Christian era. The discovery of the rouletted and the other so called Roman pottery in archaeological excavations is an indication of Kanchi’s contact with Ancient Rome. The red conical jars of Rome have been found only in four cities in the whole of India – Kanchipuram, Karaikkadu, Vasavasamudhram and Arikkamedu – all located in North Tamil Nadu. Among these four places, Kanchi yielded maximum number of these jars. Thus, Kanchi is one of the several sites in India, where the Roman pottery (entered the city through nearby coastal towns like Vasavasamudhram)exerted considerable influence on the local ceramic tradition. This indicates the trade contact, but not any close commercial and cultural intercourse between Kanchi and Rome. Kanchipuram was conferred with the special status of ‘Nagaram’. The Tamil word ‘Nagaram or Nagar’ refers to a mercantile settlement and also to its administrative body. Kanchipuram attained this special status in the very early period. In ‘Manimekalai’ the city is referred to as ‘Kanchi Maanagar’. From the point of view of administration the word ‘Nagaram’ also means the assembly which consisted of great and influential men in the city who monitored the routine administration of it. During the Pallava period this assembly was involved in the selection of rulers if any confusion or controversy arises as to the choice kings. An inscription of Pallava

60

King Nandi Varman II found in Kanchipuram mentions that in the year 864 AD, he permitted the traders to set up a market in the city in which articles ranging from camphor to footwear were sold. Weaving and oil pressing were the two major economic activities in Kanchipuram. Some evidences in the late Pallava period indicate production of textiles in Kanchipuram. Four weaving quarters are known to have functioned in Kanchipuram during the reign of Chola King Uttama Cholan. The weavers were known by the name ‘Pattusalins’. The community involved in oil pressing was known by the ‘Sankarapandkyar’. In medieval Kanchipuram they lived in three quarters. According to historians, the world system that emerged in the late 13th Century which had South Asia as its centre had played an important role in commercial innovation during that period. The area including Kanchipuram was a central component of this South Asian mercantile expansion culminating in a unified trade network by the 16th Century. Knowledge Capital Education in ancient and medieval India was mostly religion-oriented. This was the case in Tamil Nadu also. The Pallava, Pandiya and Chola rulers were the stauch followers of Vedic religions. Although there were not many organized institutions of higher learning in the modern context, few institutions served the purpose of propagating religious and administrative learning. Kanchipuram was an ancient centre of higher learning and was the only notable city in South India for this purpose. The other ancient centres of learning that can be compared on par with Kanchi were Nalanda (in Bihar) and Taxila (now in Pakistan). The inscriptional evidences reveal the fact the organized learning institutions were called by the names such as ‘Ghatikas’ and ‘Mutts’. The institution of Ghatika was the unique contribution of Kanchipuram to which princess and nobility from various kingdoms were sent to pursue higher education. Several Pallava Sanskrit inscriptions mention the about Ghatika and the importance given to it by the Pallava kings. The Sanskrit word ‘Ghatika’ has been explained in different ways by various scholars. It was an establishment which comprised groups of holy and learned Brahmanas probably in each case founded by a king; It was a college of learned Brahmanas; It was an institution where students strove after higher knowledge Member who constituted the Ghatikas were Brahmanas who were well versed in Vedas and Vedic scriptures. The Kasakkudi copper plate inscriptions refer to this institution as ‘Ghatikam Bhudevatam’ (meaning the Ghatika of the Devas of the earth). The Velurpalayam grant refers to the Ghatika as ‘Dvijanam Ghatikam’ (meaning the Ghatika of the twice born – that is, the Brahmanas).The members of the Ghatika played a crucial role in the political sphere also. The Tamil inscription in the Vaikuntha Perumal temple in Kanchipuram has recorded the fact that the members of the Ghatika of Kanchi were instrumental in crowning the young Nandi Varman II as the Pallava king as chaos prevailed in Kanchi during the 8th Century AD. There were many political tangles associated with the Ghatika of Kanchi. First, the early Pallava King Skanda Sishya captured the Ghatika from Satya Sena during the 5th Century AD, an opponent of Pallavas. As those who were learning at Ghatikas were also later to take part in the governance of the country, capturing of the Ghatika symbolized transfer of power as far as Kanchi is concerned.

61

According to the Talagunda pillar inscription, Mayura Sarman – a Brahmana and the founder of the Kadamba dynasty in the present day North Karnataka region – joined the Ghatika in Kanchi to learn all the scriptures. Mayura Sarman came to Kanchi, along with his Guru Vira Sarman, not as a beginner but already a well versed person. It proves the high standard of the Kanchi Gathika . But this Mayura Sarman was insulted and drove out of Kanchi by the Pallavas. The reason for which this has happened is not clearly known. This event infuriated Mayura Sarman to resort arms and war. He changed his last name from Sarman to Varman. The Brahmana turned into a Kshatriya (warrior). In the 8th Century, during the reign of Pallava King Nandi Varman II, Chalukya King Vikarmaditya II captured Kanchi. He did not resort to looting and returned all those that belong to the temples in Kanchi. His inscription found in the Kailasa Nathar temple mentions this fact and further adds that any one trying to erase this inscription will enter in to hell like those who killed the members of the Gathika in Kanchi. But no further information is available about the incidence of which the inscription mentions. Religious Centre Kanchipuram was one of the important places in the annals of the history of religion in India. It has the distinction of accommodating the major religions of Ancient India – Saivism, Vaishnavism, Buddhism and Jainism. The leaders and ideologues of these religions chose Kanchi as their head-quarters scholars to set up monasteries, to engage in philosophical debates etc. Even though these religions had uncompromising positions and even showed enmity in standpoints, they coexisted in Kanchi. The city of Kanchi itself was divided into Siva Kanchi, Vishnu Kanchi, Jina Kanchi and Buddha Kanchi. Among these four, the first two divisions are still followed. Saivism – There are five Siva temples in Kanchipuram which were sanctified by the verses of Samayakkuravars, the prominent four among the 63 Nayanmars. They are Aneka Thangapada Eswarar temple, Ekambara Nathar temple, Onakantha Eswarar temple, Tirukkaleeswarar temple and Tirumetrali Eswarar temple. Of these five temples the Ekambara Nathar temple is very old and mythologies knitted around it are unique and popular. Moreover all the four Samayakkuravars sang verses on it. Including these five sanctified temples nearly 108 Saivite temples are spread all over the Kanchi town area – all are old and each one of them having a distinct mythological background. The architectural marvel, Kailasa Nathar temple is a standing example of the development of Saivism in Kanchi. Its creator, the Pallava King Narasimha Varman II presented himself through his inscriptions as a stauch Saivite. Siva Chudamani was one of the titles he bore. The big temples such as, Kachapa Eswarar temple, Kamakshi Amman temple and Kumarakkottam are also strongly rooted in Saivite tradition. Even though Kamakshi Amman temple belongs to the Saktham tradition (Goddess worship) it cannot be separated from Saivism. All the Saivite sects such as Pasupatham, Kalamukham and Kapalikam existed and flourished in Kanchi. The satiric Sanskrit literary work of Pallava King Mahendra Varman presents an excellent picture of trends of Saivism of Kanchi during the 6th Century AD. Even though the king viewed Saivism from the standpoint of a Jainist (Mahendravarman was a follower of Jainism at that time and soon to become a Saivist) there was no prejudice except for satirical comments. The Kapalika sect followed extreme ways to attain salvation – drinking liquor, wearing attractive dresses and enjoying the

62

lovely face of the beloved women were considered as paths for this purpose. The Kapalikas - the followers of Kapalikam - pursued a free life without any social bonds. Even though they dreamt about a life full of exotic happiness, they were mostly in poverty and led a life of dependence – but not caring much about the future. Occasionally these Kapalikas –– visited the Ekambara Nathar temple in Kanchipuram. They were termed as Dushta Kapalikas (meaning devilish). The Ekambara Nathar temple was called in earlier days only as ‘Ekambam’ meaning a single shaft. The word ‘Ekamra’ and the mango tree mythology were constructed only later. Vaishnavism – Out of the 108 Divya Desams (Vaishnavite temples or shrines sanctified by the hymns of Azhwars) eighteen are situated in the Kanchipuram town itself. The Yathokthakari Perumal temple was the oldest one and finds reference in the Sangam literature Perumpanatruppadai. Poigai Azhwar, the first and foremost among the twelve Azhwars was born in Kanchipuram. The Divya Prabandham originated from his first Tiruvandhadhi. He also takes credit for being the first person to write Vedic philosophy in Tamil and in poetic form. In this respect, it can be said that the great Vaishnavite tradition of South India was originated in Kanchipuram. The fourth among the twelve Azhwars, Tirumazhisai Azhwar lived in Tiruvekka at Kanchi with his disciple Kanikannan. Ramanujar, who established Vaishnavism as an organized religion and provided the strong philosophical foundation called Visishtadvaita, stayed at Kanchi for learning during his younger days. In Kanchi he was identified by Saint Alavandar as the future leader of Vaishnavism. Vedanta Desikar, one of the great teachers of Vaishnavism was born in Kanchi. He was a great intellectual, philosopher and authored more than 100 texts. During his time he surpassed all opponents of Vaishnavism through debates. Prativati Bayangaram Annam , who wrote the famous ‘Venkatesa Suprabhatham was also born in Kanchi. Tiruvaimozhi written by Nammaznwar which is also known by the name ‘Dravida Veda Sagaram’ was summarized by Nambi Pillai. But for some reasons it was kept incognito. This book was first published as ‘Yatindra Vaishnava Prabhavam’ at Kanchipuram. Sri Bhashyam written by Ramanujar was compiled into a text by Sudarsana Acharya, a disciple of Ramanujar. This text also originated at Kanchi. A doyen of the Vaishnavism, Prativati Bayangaram Annangarachariar was also a native of Kanchi. He has published more than 1000 religious texts. He was the recipient of President’s award and his birth centenary was celebrated all over Tamil Nadu. Jainism - The entry of Jainism in to Tamil Nadu is associated with Chandragupta Maurya’s retirement in Karnataka. It is widely believed that when his kingdom was devastated by a famine, Chandragupta renounced his throne on the advice of his spiritual preceptor Bhadrabahu and travelled to South India. Settling down in Karnataka, he is said to have taken to ‘Sallekhana’ (the Jain ascetic tradition of giving up one’s body by renouncing movement and eating). The place where he stayed became the Shravanabelagola of later times with the erection of the magnificent monolithic statue of Gomateshwara. Jainism entered Kanchipuram not long after Chandragupta’s passing. Though the age of Jainism in Tamil Nadu has not been exactly determined, it presence can be traced back to the Sangam era. The monks belonging to the religion were known as ‘Samanar’ and the householders As ‘Savakar’. Jainism is also known in Tamil Nadu as Samana religion. The monasteries were known as Samana palli (like the Buddhist Vihara) and functioned as organized educational institutions. Kanchipuram, being the capital of the Tondaimandalam was not insulated from this sweep of Jainism all through South India. The Pallava king Simhavishnu, who ruled from Kanchipuram, was a

63

follower of Vaishnavism, but he did not look down upon other religions. His son Mahendravarman I (Seventh Century AD) was drawn to Jainism early in life. The wonderful cave temple at Sittannavasal is attributed to his munificence. Located in the Pudukottai area, the cave has frescoes on Jain spiritual themes like the Samavasarana (divine pavilion) Lake. It is significant that Mahendravarman’s drama, Matta-vilasa-prahasana, which is a satire on the ways of the Pashupatas, the Kapalikas, and the Buddhists, avoids any criticism of Vaishnavism, popular Saivism, or Jainism. Literature has kept alive some of Jainism’s old connections with Tondaimandalam. The author of the Jain epic ‘Chulamani’ is associated with Karvetinagar near Tirupati. At a distance of ten miles from Kanchipuram is Tirupanambur, where the Jain acharya Akalanka lived. He is said to have defeated the Buddhists in a debate in the court of King Himasitala of Kanchi. The eminent Jain commentator Suranandi lived in Tiruparuttikunram. ‘Merumandara Puranam’ is the legend of the two assistants of the thirteenth Tirthankara, Vimalanatha. This narrative in thirteen cantos about the princes Meru and Mandara is attributed to Mallisena Vamana (Fourteenth Century AD) who lived in Kanchipuram. The impressions of his feet and those of his disciple Pushpasena are honoured in the Chandraprabha temple at Tiruparuttikunram in Kanchi. The village of Tiruparuttikunram and the surrounding places are called as Jina Kanchi. Buddhism - The Girnar inscription of Emperor Ashoka in Gujarat and Tamil Sangam literary works like Natrinai and Maduraikkanji have references to Buddhism. The latter work gives description about women going to a Buddhist Vihara for worship. Manimekalai, the epic poem of the later Sangam age elaborately describes the events that take place in Kanchi that are related to Buddhism. The central character of this primarily Buddhist epic is Manimekalai, who was a dancer before but later became a nun. She obtains the Amuda Surabhi (nectar vessel) which produces food without end. This she uses for performing charity. In the course of her travels, she is directed by her grandfather Masattuvan to go to Kanchi, as the city had been devastated by a drought. When she goes there, she finds a temple of Buddha at the very centre of the city: The king builds a garden in honour of Manimekalai’s coming to help his people. Delighted, Manimekalai makes him build a lotus seat for Buddha. She then places the Amuda Surabhi on the lotus seat and welcomes all living beings to gather to be fed. She then meets her spiritual teacher, Aravana Adikal, who instructs her in the Dharma. Her mind illumined, Manimekalai dedicates herself to the ideal life that leads to salvation. There is a place called Arappanancheri, where the sage Aravana Adigal is said to have spent the latter part of his life. Today the place is known as Arapperumchelvi Street (Maid of Great Charity). History records the names of several great Buddhists of Kanchipuram who spread the Dharma all over the world. Buddhaghosha (Fifth Century AD), along with the monks Sumati and Jotipala, lived in Kanchi. Aniruddha, author of Abhidhammatthasangaha, lived in the Mulasoma Vihara. A Pallava king named Buddhavarman apparently built many viharas. Acharya Dharmapala, who entered the Sangha on the eve of his wedding, lived in Patatitta Vihara built by Ashoka near Kanchipuram. He wrote Pali commentaries for some of the Tripitaka texts. He taught at Nalanda University but died young at the age of thirty-two. Ashoka’s closeness to Kanchi has been recorded by Hsuan Tsang, who says that a Buddhist stupa built by him was still standing four centuries later. Deepankara Thero, author of the Pali work Bhujja Madhu, lived in Balatissa Vihara in Kanchi. Ananda Thero of Kanchi was taken by addhamma Jotipala to Burma to spread

64

Buddhism there. There are other revered names associated with Buddha Kanchi: Venudasa, Vajrabodhi, Sariputra Among the most famous Buddhists of ancient Kanchi are Dignaga and Bodhidharma. Hsuan Tsang, who visited Kanchipuram in the 7th Century AD, records that there were one hundred monasteries with ten thousand monks belonging to Theravada Buddhism following Dignaga’s yoga. Dignaga (Fifth Century AD) was a native of Kanchi and was born in Simhavaktra (Seeyamangalam). His Hetuchakra (Wheel of Reason) inaugurated Buddhist philosophical logic. Bodhidharma (Fifth Century AD) was a Brahmana prince of Kanchi who became a Buddhist and was trained in the techniques of meditation by Prajnatara. The areas now included in the Big Kanchipuram were once considered as Buddha Kanchi. Cultural Hub Both the classical and folk arts flourished in Kanchi since ancient times. As far as the classical Bharatanatyam is concerned, the inscriptions found in the walls of the Muktheswarar temple reveal interesting facts. Dharma Mahadevi, the Queen of Pallava King Nandivarman II was instrumental in raising this temple. She made many land grants for this temple. Hence this temple is called as ‘Dharma Maha Devicharam’ in memory of the queen. Apart from these the queen also bestowed the services of 18 classical dancers for regular performance before the deity. The names of all the dancers have been in the temple’s inscriptions. This is important evidence which places Kanchipuram well before Tanjore, in the historical map of dance and music. Kanchipuram can be aptly hailed as the first Music Academy of South India. The famous Bharatanatyam exponent, Balasaraswati, made her debut only in Kanchipuram. She was also the grand daughter of legendary Veenai Dhanammal. The Arangetram of young girl Balasaraswati was scheduled to be conducted in the premises of the small temple called Amanakshi Amman temple. The great Nayana Pillai was present at the Arangetram. Word had gone round in Kancheepuram that the great Dhanam's grand-daughter was to dance at the temple and there was an enormous crowd. But the seven-year-old child betrayed no signs of nervousness and astonished those present with the exactitude of her rhythm and the precision of her movements. "Tremendous" was the word with which the excited Nayana Pillai summed up the evening. Even Chandralekha who successfully attempted changes in the form and content of Bharatanatyam, had her initial training only in Kanchipuram under Guru Ellappa Nattuvanar. In the sphere of classical music also Kanchi served as an important platform for artists. The doyen of Carnatic music, great Nayana Pillai was the native of Kanchipuram. He put the status of Kanchipuram equal to that of Thanjavur as far as the legacy of Carnatic music is concerned. He made many pioneering efforts in music. Along with Jalatarangam Ramanaiah Chettiar he brought to light nearly 400 Kritis of Saint Thyagarajar. These Kritis, which are the gems of South Indian classical music, were kept incognito by some undemocratic persons belonging to the lineage of Thyagaraja’s disciples. For the first time Naina Pillai set to music the verses of Tiruppugazh. As for the rhythm aspect of music is concerned, none could come nearer to Naina Pillai in those days. He taught all he knew to his disciples doing a great service to music. D.K. Pattammal, one among the great women quartet of Carnatic music lived for many years in Kanchipuram and learnt all the nuances of classical music only here.

65

Old Metropolis Due to its position as a knowledge and commercial centre, Kanchipuram acquired the characteristics of a metropolitan city even in the olden days. The Tamil epic Manimekalai mentions that people belonging to various nationalities gathered in Kanchi. Conversations in many languages were heard in Kanchi. Those engaged in the weaving industry came from different parts of India and settled in Kanchi. Sengunthars are the natives since ancient times whose mother tongue is Tamil; Sainikar speak Kannada; Padma Salliyar speak Telugu; Sourashtras speak Sourashtrian; and the Kathris speak Marathi. During the rule of Cholas, Kanchipuram had separate living quarters for the weavers. The weavers were called ‘Pattusalins’ then. They produced textiles for royal consumption. In the inscriptions their quarters were named as, Karuvulanpadu, Kamsagappadi, Atimanappadi and Eruvalicheri. During the reign Raja Raja Cholan many streets were named after in which the weavers lived. These streets were – Arulmolidevan Peruntheru, Rajarajan Peruntheru, Nigarili Chola Peruntheru and Kuraivaniya Peruntheru. Except the last one, other three bore the title names of King Rajarajan. The civic infrastructure works such as drainage facilities, public bathing facilities were made to accommodate the growing inflow of people from various regions. Ritual Haven From 6th Century AD to 9th Century AD the city of Kanchipuram was under the rule of Pallavas. According to historians the Pallavas were the first Tamil rulers to compete for power on the pan- Indian level who firmly established a style of ritual preeminence. This remained important until the 18th Century. Kanchi became the head-quarters for ritualism in South India. Kanchipuram, the old religious center of South India, from the 3rd century BC played a major role in the political and cultural history of the region. Since the 7th Century AD, Kanchi is also a place of religious pluralism and attracted scholars, ritual experts, ascetics and monks of different faiths such as Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism and Saivism. Today Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakthism are the major faiths which have relevance in the ritual topography of the Kanchipuram. At present many core researches are being undertaken in western universities to analyze the pattern, and socio-historical meaning of rituals followed in the temples of Kanchi. For this purpose three temples have been chosen. Kamakshi Amman temple for Tantric-Saktic practices; Ekambara Nathar temple for Tantric-Saivite practices; and Varadaraja Perumal temple for Pancharatra tradition. Airavateswarar Temple

This small temple can be hardly noticed opposite to the Kachapeswarar temple. Except for a small pathway it is fully locked on all sides by new constructions. It is in a near dilapidated condition. Apart from all these shortcomings this small Pallava monument deserves attention for its beauty.

66

Location :

Opposite to Kachapeswarar temple, near the SSKV Girls Higher Secondary School.

Architecture :

If we proceed inside through the front gate, the sanctum sanctorum with Mandapam>Ardha Mandapam can be seen. This Mandapam has lion figured pillars. Jumping lions can be seen at the outer pilasters.

Sculpture :

At the entrance of the Mandapam>Ardha Mandapam the sculptures of Dwarabalakas are visible. The jumping lions are distinct and somebody riding on them. On the outer walls, the divine figures of Mahishasura Mardhini, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva in Urdhva Thandava posture have been exquisitely carved out.

Mythology :

Indra’s elephant worshipped God Shiva in this temple. Indra was the Lord of the Devas in heaven. When the milky sea was churned by the celestials on one side and by the demons on the other side a divine white elephant appeared. This divine white elephant worshipped the God Shiva in this temple and received a boon which empowered the elephant to carry the great celestial Indra on his bac

Aneka Thangapada Eswarar Temple

67

This temple situated along the path of the famous Kailasa Nathar is one of the five shrines sanctified by the Devaram hymns. In the quiet premises of this temple, the legendary Carnatic music singer, great Naina Pillai was given initial training in his youth by an unknown Yogi about the intricacies of Tala aspects. Until his last days Naina Pillai used to come here for performing Sadhakam - practice.

Location :

Near the SSKV Boys Higher Secondary School. Inside a by lane on the right side of the path proceeding to the Kailasa Nathar temple.

Inscription :

Inscriptions have been found in the north, south and western bases of this temple. They all issued during the reign of Kulothunga I. It is interesting to note that this king took much care to donate lands to this temple neglecting the nearby architectural marvel, Kailasa Nathar temple. He even diverted the lands surrounding Kailasa Nathar temple for the benefit of Aneka Thangapadam.

Hymns :

Saint Sundarar has sung in praise of the deity of this temple. He extols this temple as a place much liked and preferred by God Shiva himself. Further he says that those who praise the God of this temple will live a long life without any fear of Yama.

Mythology :

'Anekatham' means elephant. 'Kavatham' means garden. Here the elephant faced god Vinayakar installed the Shiva Lingam bearing his own name and called it 'Anekabechuran'. In this form he praised God Shiva. Much pleased by his devotion, Shiva appeared before him and told that he had to go Iraniyapuram and destroy the demons Kesi and others. He also had to separate the power called 'Vallabhai'

68

from their bodies and marry it. After this Vinayakar can have the powers to protect his own devotees. God Vinayakar did so and protects his devotees and their good deeds without any hindrance.

Arpakkam - Adi Battarakar Jain Temple Arpakkam was one of the important Jain centres in Thondai Mandalam. Even today, Jains assemble here in large numbers every year during specific occasions. This temple was built for Rishabha Deva - the first of the 24 Tirthankars. Rishabha Deva is also known by names such as, Adhi Natha, Adhi Deva and Adhi Bhattaraka. This temple in Arpakkam village is called as Adhi Bhattaraka Jain temple. Tirthankars means ‘those who have shown the way to salvation from the river of births and deaths. The literal meaning of Tirthankar is 'ford-builder'. Jains compare the process of becoming a pure soul to crossing a swift river, an endeavour requiring patience and care. A ford-builder has already crossed the river and can therefore guide others. The main deity ‘Adhi Natha’ is seen in Yogasana posture inside the sanctum. Location : Arpakkam village is at a distance of 15 kms to south of Kanchipuram. One has to take the eastern route (locally called as 'Keel road') to Uttiramerur from Kanchipuram. By car, this village can be reached with in 15 to 20 minutes of travel. After reaching the Arpakkam junction (called Arpakkam Mandapam), one has to take left to enter into the village. Road conditions are good. Inscription : An inscription of 10th Century AD is found inside this temple. It refers to tax free land and gold grants to the temple. Land grants made to Jain temples were usually termed as ‘Pallichandam’ in the inscriptions. Arpakkam - Adi Kesava Perumal Temple It was originally named as 'Thiru Veera Vinnagar Azhwar Temple' during the Chola period. During the reign of Chola King Rajarajan III the name was changed to 'Kesava Perumal Temple'. At present it is called as 'Adhi Kesava Perumal Temple'. Location : Arpakkam village is at a distance of 15 kms to south of Kanchipuram. One has to take the eastern route (locally called as 'Keel road') to Uttiramerur from Kanchipuram. By car, this village can be reached with in 15 to 20 minutes of travel. After reaching the Arpakkam junction (called Arpakkam Mandapam), one has to take left to enter into the village. Road conditions are good. Inscription : The temple has a Chola period inscription.It refers to the fact that the Queen of Chola King Rajarajan I has gifted lands to the temple for daily worship. This inscription mentions the name of the Queen as 'Kannara Nachi Pidara Nangai alias Sembian Mukkhizhan Adigal'. From this, it is known that the Queen belongs to the royal family some Kannada dynasty. Another inscription found inside the temple mentions that the Queen of Chola King Rajendran II has gifted lands to the temple to burn lights everyday. She had made this gift to the God of this temple for the well being of her father and mother. In this inscription the father of the Queen is named as 'Pallava Rayar Vikrama Kesari'. From this it is known that this Queen belonged to some branch of the erstwhile Pallava lineage. Arpakkam - Tiruvaleeswarar Temple

69

This is a Chola period temple. Earlier, it was named as 'Kailasamudaya Nayanar Temple'. Now it is famously called as Valeeswarar Temple. Location : Arpakkam village is at a distance of 15 kms to south of Kanchipuram. One has to take the eastern route (locally called as 'Keel road') to Uttiramerur from Kanchipuram. By car, this village can be reached with in 15 to 20 minutes of travel. After reaching the Arpakkam junction (called Arpakkam Mandapam), one has to take left to enter into the village. Road conditions are good. Inscription : The temple has an interesting inscription pertaining to Chola period. It belongs to the 5th regnal year (1168 AD) of King Rajadhi Rajan II. It refers to a significant historical event occurred in Tamil Nadu. King Kulothunga I - the great grandfather of Rajadhi Rajan II conquered the Pandya Kingdom and brought it under the control of mighty Cholas. Anyhow the Pandya kings loyal to Cholas were allowed to rule their country. But after Kulothunga I, Cholas lost control over the Pandyas. About 1166 AD, internal feud arose between Pandya kings Parakrama and Kulasekara. As Kulasekara attacked Madurai, Parakrama Pandya appealed to Sri Lankan King Parakrama Bahu to help him. Before the Lankan help could reach Parakrama , Kulasekara took Madurai and killed Parakarama, his wife and some of his children. But the Lankan King instructed his generals to continue the war until Kulasekara is defeated and the Pandya throne was bestowed upon Virapandya - son of Parakrama Pandya who escaped the massacre. Kulasekara appealed to Chola King Rajadhiraja II for help who sent a large force to his aid. But Kulasekara lost his fight against the Lankan forces. The Lankans successfully installed Virapandya on the throne. Now the Cholas and the Lankans entered into direct conflict. Initially the Lankan forces were successful and occupied some of the southern border areas of Chola Kingdom. To counter the threat posed by Lankans, Rajadhi Raja II approached the Saivite Saint Umapathi Deva - who hailed from Bengal region – for moral support. At the request of the King, the Saint performed 'Aghora Pooja' (hardcore rituals) continuosly for 28 days. After this was over, the Chola general Annan Pallava Rayan led the Chola forces against the Lankans. Tough fight ensued. In the end, Lankans were defeated and their generals Lankapuri Dandanayaka and Jagathvisaya Dandanayaka were beheaded. Without opposition Kulasekara Pandya ascended throne. Rajadhi Rajan II gifted the village of Arpakkam in Thondai Mandalam to Saint Umapathi Deva for his religious service to defeat the Lankans. But Lankan King Parakrama Bahu did not give in. He prepared a big counter offensive against the Cholas. On hearing this, the Cholas induced Srivallabha - a rival of Parakramabahu in Lanka - to make his claim for the throne.

70

To his support the naval forces of Cholas landed in Lanka and attacked and destroyed many places. Sensing defeat in his own country, Parakramabahu at last recognized Kulasekara as the rightful king of the Pandyas, and entered in to an alliance with him against the Cholas. Knowing the treachery of Kulasekara, the Cholas drove him away from throne and at last installed Virapandya as the rightful Pandya king. In this historical context, it is about the 28 days Aghora Pooja of Saint Umapathi Deva and the gift of Arpakkam village to him by Chola King Rajadhi Rajan II, the inscription in the present Shiva temple speaks in detail. Ashta Bhujam Perumal Temple Location :

Near Rangasamy Kulam in Little Kachipuram.

Inscription :

Four inscriptions have been found in this temple. The inscription of Chola King Rajendra I (1034 AD) gives information about land grants to this temple for the purpose of daily pooja and lighting.

Hymns :

It is sanctified by the hymns of Saints Peyazhwar (99th song of Mundram Thiruvandhadhi) and Tirumangai Azhwar (2-8 songs of Periya Thirumozhi and 128th song of Periya Thirumadal).

Mythology : (1) Once God Brahma performed a Yagna without his wife Goddess Saraswati. Angered, Saraswati tried to disturb the Yagna by sending an army of demons. Brahma sought the help of God Vishnu. He killed all the demons. Saraswati then sent Kali. Vishnu controlled Kali in Chithirai Rohini. (There is a Kali temple near this temple to mark this event). Saraswati made one more offence by sending a ferocious snake. It saw Vishnu with eight hands, each one holding a dreadful weapon. Out of fear, the snake instantly surrendered to Vishnu. At the orders of Vishnu the serpent (it is considered to be Shiva) guarded the Yagasala.

71

(2) Once Mahasunda Muni involved himself in a serious penance seeking great powers. Indira, the leader of Devaloham, thought that the Muni was aiming to surpass him. So he made tricks to distract the Muni from his penance. First he sent some Apsaras (heavenly beauties). The Muni did not even made a single look at them. Dejected Indira then sent some elephants and asked them to enjoy themselves right before him. Tempted Mahasunda Muni morphed himself into an elephant to mingle with other elephants. But the positive effects of his previous penance never left him. Mahasunda Muni in elephant form daily worshipped Vishnu. One day, he was caught by a crocodile while he was gathering flowers for God in a pond. Vishnu heard his cries and immediately came to his help. He slewed the crocodile and saved Muni from danger. This is called Gajendra (elephant) Moksham. Azhagiya Manavala Jeeyar Mutt Azhagiya Manavala Jeeyar (1420-1468 AD) was the disciple of Pattar Piran Jeeyar, one of the Ashta Diggajas appointed by Manava Mamunigal. There is an inscription in the Yathokthakari Perumal temple which says that a Mutt was built in Kanchi to accommodate Manavala Mamunigal when he came to the city for the second time in 1420 AD to thoroughly learn the Sri Bhashyam. After him this mutt could have been used by Azhagiya Manaval Jeeyar to look after the Varadaraja Perumal temple affairs such as, proper conduct of worship and festivals. This Jeeyar is supposed to have occupied the position of Koil-Kelvi in Varadar temple during the later half of the 15th Century. The mutt is a beautiful structure with a pillared spacious Thinnai in front of it. Location : Opposite to the eastern entrance to the Varadaraja Perumal temple. Balasaraswati Arangetram Temple

According to the oral history of the temple, mother Amanakshi was a native of Puttur town in Andhra Pradesh. Musicians and dancers of Kanchipuram used to go to Puttur every year to perform during the annual temple festival there. Attracted by their art, Amanakshi followed the music troupe to Kanchipuram. She resided in the place where the temple stands now. The entire street was always busy with music performances and discussions. Amanakshi lived and died at this place in Kanchipuram. Knowing her serious quest for music, the families of artists residing in this area, considered her a goddess and built the present temple for her.

In those days the musicians of Kanchipuram used to worship her every year in a musical way by organising performances in temple premises. It was in this small temple the debut performance of great Bharatanatyam exponent Balasaraswati - just seven years old then - occured in the year 1927. Later on the greatness of her art took her to many countries around the world. But Amanakshi temple will be remembered for ever in history as the starting point of Balasaraswati's dance journey. News spread in Kanchi about the dance Arangetram of Veenai Dhanammal's granddaughter Balasaraswati. Veenai Dhanammal was the grand old lady of Carnatic music and highly respected by all.

72

In the evening the temple's premises was fully occupied by artists and well wishers. 'Laya wizard' Kanchipuram Naina Pillai waa also present among the audience. Balasaraswati's sisters Brinda and Mukta were studying classical music under him then. A small platfrom inside the temple was used as a stage - it can be seen even now. Balasaraswati performed well and got applause from all, including many 'Besh, Besh' from Naina Pillai. At the end of the performance Naina Pillai presented a Sruti box to Balasaraswati. Later in the 1950's when Balasaraswati received honors from the President of India she narrated to her friend about the debut in Kanchipuram and the first prize she got from Naina Pillai. Location :

Senkazhuneer Odai street (Northern Rajaveedhi). Opposite to PTVS higher secondary school.

Brahmadesam - Chandramouli Eswarar Temple

This temple situated on the outskirts of the Brahmadesam village is an architectural beauty. It has a great historical value because it is considered to be the place the great King Rajendra Chola is said to have buried. Rajendra Chola after his historic expedition up to Ganges paid a visit to Kanchipuram and Tondaimandalam. He directly observed the administrative efficiency of his deputies in this northern area of his empire. His wife Veeramaadevi also accompanied him during this visit. They came to Brahmadesam and supposed to have stayed here for some time.

But suddenly he fell ill and died in this village. He was cremated and his mortal remains were buried inside this temple. Hence this is known as a Pallippadai Kovil (memorial temples). Originally this temple was built in sand stone by the King Kempa Varman during 9th Century AD.Kempa Varman belonged to some lineage of Pallavas. But later it was converted to memorial temple during the Chola period. Now this temple is well protected by the Archaelogical Survery of India. But local people do not come here for religious purposes and there are no festivities. Unable to bear the loss of her husband, the Queen Veeramaadevi too gave up her life in the crematory fires of his husband. There is also a memorial for Veeramaadevi in another corner of this village.

Location :

73

The Brahmadesam village is about 25 kilometres to west of Kanchipuram. Along the Chennai - Bangalore national highway one has to stop at a place called Ocheri and take left. The Palar river bed will cross in between. There is no bridge over it but it can be easily crossed in car or motor bike. A village called Pudur has to crossed before reaching Brahmadesam. Then one has to enquire the village people to reach the spot. The temple is situated on the outskirts of the village in the midst of paddy fields.

Architecture :

The original temple was built in sand stone. The stuco work over the sandstone Vimanam of this temple is full of small, beautiful figures with exquisite designs. The Arcahelogical Survey of India found this temple in a dilapidated condition. Through proper conservation measures the temple has been brought back to its original architectural glory. The sanctum of the temple has a Lingam. An Mandapam>Ardha Mandapam and compound wall were later added with granite stone during the Chola period. There is also a Gopuram at the entrance in the north. The space before the Mandapam>Ardha Mandapam in the east indicates that this is a memorial temple.

Inscription :

An inscription in this temple mentions that Rajendra Chola's mortal remains buried here and on his death the Queen Veeramaadevi committed Sati and a drinking water shed was constructed here by his brother-in-law Parakesari Velan. There are lot of inscriptions found on the walls of this temple. They refer to the God of this temple as 'Pondai Peruman Adigal'. The word 'Pondai' refers to palmyra tree. The palmyra tree could have been the Sthala Vriksham (temple tree). Even now many palmyra trees can be seen around the place

Brahmadesam - Queen Veeramaadevi Pallippadai Templ

This temple is situated in another corner of the Brahmadesam village. This site is considered to be the place where the ashes of Queen Veeramaadevi was buried. Her husband, the great King Rajendra Chola died in Brahmadesam due to illness. Unable to bear his death the Queen ended her life by jumping into the crematory fire of Rajendra Chola. Inscriptions reveal that the brother of the Queen, named Parakesari Velan (also called as Madurantaka) constructed a drinking water shed in memory of the souls of Rajendra Chola

74

and Veeramaadevi. There is a water tank behind this temple. The fact mentioned in the inscriptions about the drinking water shed and the tank that can be seen near the temple have some correlation.

Location :

The Brahmadesam village is about 25 kilometres to west of Kanchipuram. Along the Chennai - Bangalore national highway one has to stop at a place called Ocheri and take left. The Palar river bed will cross in between. There is no bridge over it but it can be easily crossed in car or motor bike. A village called Pudur has to crossed before reaching Brahmadesam. Upon entering into Brahmadesam village, this site can be located at some distance in the leftern side near an Amman temple.

Buddha Statue - Subbaraya Mudaliar School Ground

This is massive lithic structure. The Buddha seen here is in Yoga Mudra pose. How the statue came into school premises is not known.

Location : Behind SSKV Higher Secondary School for Girls

Buddha Statue in Sivakanchi Police Station Premise This Buddha statue was unearthed near the Ekambara Nathar temple. Later it was put inside the Sivakanchi Police station premises. Noticing its abandoned state, the then Inspector General of Police W.I. Dewaram properly installed it in the year 1992. This statue has a small roof above it and well maintained. Both the hands of the statue are in Yoga Mudra pose. Location : Backside of the Gangaikondan Mandapam in Big Kanchipuram.

Chandra Prabha Jain Temple

75

This temple was constructed in reverence of the Eighth Tirthankara Chandra Prabha. This temple along with the adjacent Trilokya Nathar temple was the standing testimomy of the glory of Jainism in Kanchi. In the 11th Century during the reign of Rajendra Chola this temple is said to have received donations. But the original sources containing the information are lost.

Location :

Tirupparuthikkundram Village.Near the Kanchipuram Collectorate, the road leading to this village can be easily spotted. It is at a distance of 2 kilometers from this landmark.

Architecture :

Even though the construction of this temple is dated back to Pallava period, it no longer exhibits the Pallava architecture. This temple is neither big nor small, but has modest proportions. It has a shrine and small Mandapam in front of it. This shrine was later closed for unknown reasons. The first floor was made a shrine and it houses the image of Tirthankara Chandra Prabha. Subsequent repairs and renovations changed the original style of its architecture. Now it somewhat looks like a modern structure. But Yali (mythical figure having the head of a lion, tusks of an elephant and the tail of a serpent) images at the cardinals of the shrine are reminiscent of the style of Narasimha Varman II.

Mythology :

Chandraprabha was the eighth Jain Tirthankar of the present age Avasarpini – as per the Jain belief. Chandraprabha (also known as Chandraprabhu Swami) was born to King Mahasen Raja and Queen Lakshmana Devi at Chandrapuri in the Ikshvaku clan. Spending a lifetime as a God in Anuttar Vijay dimension he descended into the womb of his Queen Lakshmana. During her pregnancy, one day the queen was looking at the splendors of glowing full-moon. All of a sudden she had a strange desire to drink the glowing streak of moon light. The king cleverly managed to satisfy this strange desire of a pregnant mother. On the thirteenth day of the dark half of the month of Paush the queen gave birth to a healthy son who was fair and glowing like the moon. He was named Chandraprabha (glow of the moon).

76

Chandraprabha was apathetic towards the mundane pleasures and princely grandeur. After he ascended the throne his reign was short lived. He became an ascetic in the prime of his youth and just after three months of acute spiritual practices he became an omniscient. For a considerably long period he continued to enlighten the people and propagate the true religion. When his end approached he went to Sammetshikhar and after a month of long fast and meditation attained Nirvana. According to Jain beliefs, he became a Siddha, a liberated soul which has destroyed al Hameed Owliya Dargah

Dargahs are shrines built over the tombs of revered Islamic Saints called as Owliyas or Oliyullahs. Dargahs exhibit the intricacies of Islamic architecture. At the ground they are square shaped. Above it minars and domes will be built. The lintels and carbels were designed as curvatures - the mark of the Islamic architectural style. The Dargah in Kanchipuram has been built above the grave of the Islamic Saint Hazrat Syed Shah Hameed Owliya Badhusha. The saint is considered to have lived before 650 years. He came to Kanchipuram and settled here continuing his religious service. He was reverred by all sections of the people here as they considered him to be possessing divine grace. Even today, irrespective of religion, caste and other barriers people used to come here and meditate seeking peace and solution to their personal problems. They feel relieved and later come here present Dosas as their Kanikkai.

This south facing Dargah is situated in broad courtyard. It has two gates in the eastern and western sides. There is a beautiful front entrance at the northern Raja Veedhi. This is a separate structure leading a person along the pathway to the Dargah. There is many pillared front portion. Once we enter in to the Dargah we can see the main tomb and two other tombs on both sides of it. The majestic big dome is splendorous if one look at it from inside or outside the Dargah. It is considered to have built during the rule of Nawabs of Arcot in the early years of 18th Century AD. Location :

Near Sankara Mutt. Travel along the northern Raja Veedhi towards east and take left before the Darling Bakery.

Aiyadigal Kadavarkon Nayanar He was one among the sixty three Nayanmars. He was actually a Pallava King who ruled over Kanchipuram. He renounced his crown and devoted himself fully for the service of God Shiva.

77

Category : Saint Religion : Saivism

Dandi

He was a great Sanskrit poet and scholar who adorned the court of Pallava King Narasimha Varman II. He wrote literary works such as ‘Avanti Sundari Katha’ and ‘Avanti Sundari Kathacharam’. These works have many references about Mamallapuram. His Sanskrit grammar work on epics formed the basis for the Tamil work ‘Dandi Alankaram’

Category : Poet

Dantidurgan He ruled for twenty-one years from 735 to 756 AD. He invaded and occupied Kanchipuram in 743 AD. But at last he befriended the Pallava King Nandi Varman II and made him his son-in-law. Dantidurga also helped Nandivarman recover Kanchi by warring against the Chalukyas.

Category : King Dynasty : Rashtrakuta

Dharma Mahadevi She was the wife of Pallava King Nandi Varman II. She was instrumental in erecting the Muktheswarar temple in Kanchipuram. Hence this temple had been named after her and called as ‘Dharma Mahadevicharam’. She gifted 10 Patti of land to this temple for its maintenance.

Category : Queen

Hodgson

78

He was the senior assistant to Lionel Place, the then Kanchipuram district Collector. In 1799 he succeeded him as Collector. The area in which he resided at Kancheepuram is still called as Hodgsonpet in fond memory of him. In 1800, Hodgson was succeeded by his Senior Assistant, Greenway. A part of the wall near the Raja Gopuram of Ekambara Nathar temple in Kanchipuram was rebuilt in 1799 AD by Hodgson which was damaged during the Siege of Arcot in 1751.

Category : Administrator

Rangapathagai She was the Queen of Pallava King Narasimha Varman II. At the entrance of the The Kailasa Nathar temple in Kanchipuram, eight small temple structures can be seen. The third in the right was built by Rangapathagai.

Category : Queen

Robert Clive He was a British officer who established the military and political supremacy of the English East India Company in Bengal. The outcomes of the Battle of Arcot and the Battle of Arni did a great deal to bring Clive greater attention both in India and at home in England. The Siege of Arcot took place on November 14, 1751 in Arcot, near Vellore in Tamilnadu, between the forces of the English East India Company led by Robert Clive and forces of the French East India Company led by Joseph Francois Dupleix. After a 50 day siege, the British were left victorious. It was part of a series of battles that have come to be known as the Carnatic Wars, and which were fought over a period of seven years. In connection with the Siege of Arcot the Ekambara Nathar temple in Kanchipuram was used as a fortress. The main Gopuram has marks of hits by the cannon balls.

Category : Administrator

Tirukkurippu Thonda Nayanar He was one among the sixty three Nayanmars and lived in Kanchipuram. A washerman by profession, he took much delight in cleaning the clothes of the devotees of God Shiva free of cost. As he used to understand the needs of Sivanadiyar just from their unintended gestures, the name 'Tirukkurippu Thondan' was conferred upon him. One day, he found a Shiva devotee waiting to get his cod-pieces washed. Thondar offered himself to wash them. The devotee said: "I have got only two codpieces. One, I am wearing now and other one you have to wash and return to me this evening itself as I have to leave Kanchipuram tonight’. The Thondar gladly accepted and went to the river bank. He washed the cod-piece and put it for drying. Suddenly rains lashed and the cod-piece became

79

wet. His bad luck, the rains did not stop. The devotee came back and asked his cod-piece. The Thondar explained what had happened. Pleading for pardon, he offered to provide the devotee a new cod-piece. But the devotee was adamant and insisted on his own cod-piece. Unable to do anything, Tirukkurippu Thondar went near the washing stone slab and hit his head on it to kill himself. At this instance, Shiva appeared before him and told that he did all these to test his sincerity in serving the devotees. Then Tirukkurippu Thondar attained Mukthi. The Muktheeswarar temple in Kanchipuram is believed to be the place where Tirukkurippu Thondar was born.

Category : Saint Religion : Saivism

Siruthondar

He was one among the sixty three Nayanmars. His original name was Paranjothiyar. He served as a Chief in the army of Pallava King Narasimha Varman I. When the Pallavas invaded Chalukya Kingdom he showed great bravery and valour. While victoriously roaming through the streets of Chalukya capital Vathapi, he found the strange, elephant-faced God Ganapathi and brought it to Tamil Nadu. Thus the God first made his appearance in Tamil region. Praising his great service in the army, the King offered Paranjothiyar a very high position in administration. But he refused and returned to his village Sengattangudi to spend the rest of his life in serving the devotees of God Shiva. He became ‘Siruthondar’.

As per the legend, to test his devotion, one day Shiva came to his village in Bhairava Sanyasi form. These Sanyasis were very crude and rough and tough in nature. They take meat and drink liquor even while praising to God. Hearing the arrival of the Sanyasi to their village, Siruthondar ran to the place where he was sitting. He invited the Sanyasi to have food in his home. Upon agreeing to the condition that Siruthondar will offer anything demanded by him, the Sanyasai followed him home. Knowing well that Siruthondar has a young child – a school going boy – the Sanyasi demanded cooked child meat for dinner. Siruthondar and his wife agreed.

As it was not at all possible and proper to ask others’ children, they decided to use their own child. While the mother took her son into her hands, the father cut him into pieces. Food out of child meat was ready. While serving food, the Sanyasi asked the couple whether they have any child. They told him that they have a son. ‘Then why not ask him to sit along with me to have the dinner’ – said the Sanyasi and told Siruthondar to call his son. Siruthondar came out of the house and called his son by names with tears rolling out of his eyes. What a surprise? From the street end the child ran towards his father and climbed into his hands. With astonishment

80

Siruthondar went inside where the entire family saw Shiva and Parvati appearing before them. All of them prostrated and attained Mukthi.

Category : Saint Religion : Saivism

Vajra Nandi

He headed the Jain Monastery called 'Nandi Sangha' in the Tirupparuthikkundram village near Kanchipuram during the 6th Century AD. By this time King Simha Varman I, first of the later Pallavas, ruled Kanchipuram. According to his Pallan Koil copper plate inscriptions the village Amanserkkai in Perunagar and some lands in Tamar village (present day Damal) were given as Pallichandam (grants to Jain temples were called by this name in Tamil)by the king to Tirupparuthikkundram Vardhamaneeswara Jain temple. This granted was trusted in the hands of Sage Vajra Nandi.

Category : Saint Religion : Jainism

Yagnamurthi He was a great scholar in the philosophy of Advaitam who lived in Andhra Pradesh. Once he came to Kanchipuram in order to counter Saint Ramanujar's Visishtadvaitam - the philosophical base for Vaishnavism. In the premises of Pandava Thoodhu Perumal temple he entered into debate with Ramanujar. Scholarly arguments and counter arguments were going on for days. Initially Yagnamurthi got an upper hand. But in the end Ramanujar won and his philosophy was declared as superior and flawless. Yagnamurthi voluntarily became the disciple of Ramanujar. Using his own title name, 'Emperumanar' Saint Ramanujar gladly called his new disciple 'Arulala Perumal Emperumanar'. He lived near this temple with his followers and spread the path of Vaishnavam.

Category : Saint Religion : Vaishnavism

81

Masi Mahotsavam This annual festival of Kamakshi Amman temple is celebrated during the Tamil month of Masi (February-March). The first part of the festival is celebrated for 12 days. During the morning and evening times, the deity is taken in procession on many Vahanams (vehicles). Second part is Vidayatri Utsavam. It is held for 9 days. So totally the festivities are conducted for 21 days, the longest of festivals in duration among the temples in Kanchipuram. Virushaba Vahanam in the Morning of Day-1 and Velli Ratham (Golden Chariot) in the night of Day-9 are famous. Viswaroopa Darisanam (manifold increase in the size of the deity) is the highlight of this festival. Month : February Spot Name : Kamakshi Amman Temple

Duration : 21 Day(s)

Pari Vettai In the first day of Tamil month Thai, the harvest festival Pongal is celebrated all over Tamil Nadu. The third day Kanum Pongal is celebrated. In the early morning, the deity of Varadaraja Perumal temple goes for Pari Vettai. For this the God travels to a place called ‘Pazhaya Seevarm’ which is 15 kilometers away from Kanchipuram. There is small hill in that place, on which Narasimhar temple is situated. Varadar goes to that temple and further climbs to the Mandapam on the top of the hill. At noon he is given a sacred bath in the Mandapam. In the evening, he again comes to the Narasimhar temple, where both the deities meet each other. After this meeting, Varadhar comes down the hill and goes to Tirumukkoodal village, where the rivers Palaru, Cheyyaru and Vagavati merge. There he goes to the ancient Venkatesa Perumal temple. After some rituals there he returns to Kanchipuram in the night. Month : January Spot Name : Varadaraja Perumal Temple

Duration : 1 Day(s)

Distance

82

Kanchipuram is at a distance of 75 kilometer to the west of Chennai city. Travel By road – Two routes can be taken from Chennai Airport to reach Kanchipuram. One is Airport-Tambaram-Oragadam-Walajabad route. The other is via the Chennai –Bangalore national highway (NH4). By car, one can comfortably reach Kanchipuram in one and a half hour travel. The state owned transport corporation services Chennai-Kanchipuram route with comfortable air-conditioned and regular buses. By train – From Chennai Beach station trains services are operated to Kanchipuram in day and evening times. Travel time is two and a half hours. Stay Affordable and comfortable Three Star hotels, Two Star hotels & Business Class hotels are available in Kanchipuram Weather Kanchipuram has a tropical climate with a uniform temperature and humidity throughout the year. The summers are usually hot and humid with temperature ranging between 21C to 37C. Visitors belonging to colder countries prefer to visit Kanchipuram during the relatively cooler months of September – February.

Adhishthanam The base of a temple. It has several layers or mouldings that developed into various shapes over time. It can be used to identify the period of construction of a temple. Antaralum A small corridor between the Ardha Mandapam and the Mukha Mandapam. Ardha Mandapam It can be termed as half a pavilion. 'Ardha' means 'half'. (1) The antechamber immediately adjoining the Garbha Griha; essentially forming the entrance framework for the main shrine. (2) If the temple unit contains only the Cella and Ardha Mandapam, this will also be called as Mukha Mandapam. (3) A porch leading to the main hall (mandapam) of the temple. The main hall is in front of the shrine, and is used for the assembly of the devotees. (4) It also refers to the enclosed portion in front of a shrine. It is sometimes open, and in some cases closed. Avatar Descent or incarnation Azhwars Vaishnavite saint-poets. The Tamil term 'Azhwar' means 'those who immerse in devotion'. They were ardent devotees of God Vishnu. Twelve Azhwars lived in different places of Tamil Nadu and sang God Vishnu. Their period spans between 600 AD to

83

900 AD. Along with the Saivite Nayanmars, the Azhwars formed part of what is called Bhakti movement in Tamil Nadu. This was a period of social upheavals and great changes in the medieval history of South India. Dasavatar Ten incarnations of God Vishnu. Divya Desam Sacred place for the followers of Vaishnavism. It is usually a temple and the village or place associated with it. A temple is considered as a Divya Desam only if it was sanctified by the verses of Azhwars. Garbha Griham The Sanctum Sanctorum which houses the deity. Gopuram Tower over the entrance of a temple. Jagati The lowermost layer of an Adhisthanam or base of a temple Kaal Tamil word meaning Pillar or pilaster Kapotam The cornice, sometimes also a layer of the base. Typically with a rounded profile and decorated with kudus and a fascia or band. Krishna He is one of the ten Avatars of God Vishnu. Krishna is the most commonly worshipped Gods of the Hindus along with Rama. In the epic Mahabharatha, he played a crucial role in the battle of Kurukshetra and helped the Pandavas defeat the Kauravas. Krishna delivered Bhagwad Gita to Arjuna in battlefield of Kurukshetra. Bhagavad Gita is so sacred to Hindus, as Bible is for Christians and Koran is for Muslims. Krishna is usually depicted as playing the flute indicating spread of the melody of love to people. Kudu Horse shoe shaped ornament of the Kapota. Kumudam The layer of the Adhisthanam above the Jagati. Maha Mandapam Great pillared hall. Mandapam A pillared hall or portico Mayamadham

84

Book of sculpture and architecture Mukha Mandapam Frontal pavilion. If the temple unit contains only the Sanctum Sanctorum and Ardha Mandapam, then this Ardha Mandapam can also be called as Mukha Mandadpam. Pattikai One of the bands of the Adhisthanam Perumal This Tamil word refers to God Vishnu. Pradakshinam Circumambulation of Prakaram by worshippers outside the Sanctum Sanctorum. Prakaram Circumambulatory passage around a temple, sometimes just a corridor, sometimes a large temple courtyard. Larger temples have more than one concentric courtyard Puranam Religious, sacred literary work consisting of ancient tales or legends. Raja Gopuram The great tower at the entrance of a temple, built especially during the Vijayanagar period. Rama One among the ten Avatars of God Vishnu. He was the king of Ayodhya and hero of the epic Ramayana. Rama is one of the most commonly worshipped Gods in Hinduism along with Krishna. He annihilated Ravana, king of Sri Lanka for capturing and imprisoning his wife Sita in Sri Lanka. Sikaram The cupola or dome that forms the roof of a Vimanam. Sthala Puranam Religious literary work describing the history of a sacred place. But it is mostly mythological and non-historical. Sthalam Place, especially a sacred place. Thoon Tamil word meaning Pillar or pilaster Vaishnavism A sub-sect of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or his associated Avatars, principally

85

Rama and Krishna, as the supreme God. Its beliefs and practices are based largely on the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita. The Vaishnavite temples adhere either to Pancharathra Agama or Vaikhanasa Agama for rituals and customs. Vedas Very ancient sacred religious chantings of Hinduism. They are classified into four, namely, Rig, Yajur, Sama and Adharvana Vedas. Vimanam Pyramidal roof with one or more storeys, just above the sanctum sanctorum. Vishnu Supreme God of Vaishnavism, which is a sub-sect of Hindu religion. He is one of the Trimurthi (three Gods) along with Brahma and Shiva. Vishnu is the preserver of the universe, while Brahma is the creator and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.