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Kachrus Three Concentric Circles andEnglish Teaching Fallacies in EFL andESL ContextsBetsy Hu Xiaoqiong a & Jiang Xianxing ba Foreign Languages College, Three Gorges University , Hubei,Chinab Shenzhen Polytechnic School , Shenzhen, ChinaPublished online: 29 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Betsy Hu Xiaoqiong & Jiang Xianxing (2011) Kachrus Three Concentric Circlesand English Teaching Fallacies in EFL and ESL Contexts, Changing English: Studies in Culture andEducation, 18:2, 219-228, DOI: 10.1080/1358684X.2011.575254

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Kachrus Three Concentric Circles and English Teaching Fallaciesin EFL and ESL Contexts

Betsy Hu Xiaoqionga* and Jiang Xianxingb

aForeign Languages College, Three Gorges University, Hubei, China; bShenzhen PolytechnicSchool, Shenzhen, China

This paper attempts to introduce and explain the famous Three Concentric Cir-cles proposed by Kachru, namely, the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and theExpanding Circle. Based on Kachrus theory, the paper proceeds to discuss fourfallacies in EFL and ESL contexts, which are (1) English learners in the Outerand Expanding Circles learn English essentially to communicate with peoplefrom the Inner Circle; (2) a native speaker model is the only appropriate modelfor all learners of English; (3) all native speakers of English can go to teach inthe Outer and Expanding circles; (4) English is a tool for understanding andteaching American or British cultural values.

Keywords: Kachrus Three Concentric Circles; English teaching fallacies; EFL andESL contexts

1. Introduction

The word English is always associated with people from America, Britain,Canada, Australia and New Zealand, where English is their native language. How-ever, English is now being learned and used worldwide. It is spoken everywhere.Crystal (1997) contends that a conservative estimate of the number of speakers ofEnglish today with a native or native-like command of English would be 670 mil-lion. He says:

If we go to the opposite extreme, and use a criterion of reasonable competence ratherthan native-like uency, we shall end up with a grand total of 1,800 million. Amiddle-of-the-road estimate would be 1,2001,500 million, and this is now com-monly encountered. (Crystal 1997, 61)

Crystal estimated the number of English speakers more than 10 years ago. Thenumber has now surely gone up further as English is increasingly used to communi-cate across international borders. Therefore, it is an established fact that English hasbecome the most important international language today. As we can see from thegures given above, all told, there are over 2 billion people who can make use of itto varying degrees in their everyday lives. As English has become world English,international English, global English or the lingua franca, English should not be

*Corresponding author. Email: huxiaoqiong@yahoo.cn

Changing EnglishAquatic InsectsVol. 18, No. 2, June 2011, 219228

ISSN 1358-684X print/ISSN 1469-3585 online 2011 The editors of Changing EnglishDOI: 10.1080/1358684X.2011.575254http://www.informaworld.com

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the property of the native speakers any more. Instead, it should belong to all thepeople who use it. As McArthur (2004, 5) put it: since 1967, world English hasmeant all English: standard and non-standard, mother-tongue and other tongue, dia-lect, pidgin, creole, lingua franca, and, importantly, such anglo-hybrids asHindlish and Spanglish, . . . world English is both shorthand for English as a worldlanguage and a superordinate term for Australian English, British English, IrishEnglish, Nigerian English, and the like.

Undoubtedly, the force of English in globalization is beginning to have a deepimpact on English language teaching across the globe. We need to rethink some ofour traditional aims and objectives of English teaching.

2. Kachrus Three Concentric Circles

As English is being spoken by such a vast number of people, its varieties areincreasing as well. British English and American English, which have been tradi-tionally regarded as the only two varieties of standard English, are in fact but twoWorld Englishes among many. According to Kachru (1992), World Englishes fallinto three categories (see Figure 1):

1. the Inner Circle, where English is the mother tongue and includes countriessuch as Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Britain and America;

Figure 1. Kachrus Three Concentric Circles (1992, 356).

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2. the Outer Circle, which uses English as an additional institutionalized,ofcial language, though not a mother tongue the countries includeBangladesh, Ghana, India, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Phil-ippines, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Zambia and Zim-babwe. People in these countries can use English uently for virtuallyany type of communication;

3. the Expanding Circle, which refers to English as a foreign language, thecountries being mainly China, Korea, Nepal, Russia, Saudi Arabia and sev-eral in South America.

Kachru (1992) holds that the current sociolinguistic prole of English may beviewed in terms of these three circles. The circles represent the spread, the patternsof acquisition, and the functional allocation of English in diverse cultural contexts.The Inner Circle represents the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English.The Outer Circle represents the institutionalized non-native varieties (ESL) in theregions that have passed through extended periods of colonization. If only 10% ofthe population in the Outer Circle use English, it accounts for about 110 millionspeakers. The Expanding Circle includes the regions where varieties of the languageare used essentially in EFL contexts.

From the above circles, we can see that the Inner Circle is the smallest, contain-ing only ve countries, with a total population of 350 million, while the peoplefrom the other two circles far outnumber the people from the inner circle. AsMcArthur put it (2003, 2): India and China apparently already account for at leasthalf a billion users and learners of English, a total that (before seeking to bring inequally soft statistics from elsewhere in Asia) could make the continent, in demo-graphic terms, the heaviest consumer of English in the world and even if this isnot so at the time of writing, it is likely to become so in the not far distant future.Kachru (1992) thinks the term English does not capture this sociolinguistic reality,whereas the term Englishes does.

The wide use of English indicates that the varieties of English have multi-plied. Those who speak English in the Outer and Expanding Circles have theirown local histories, literary traditions, pragmatic contexts and communicativenorms. But the multiple identities of English havent caused consequent changesto English teaching in ESL and EFL contexts. The implications of this sociolin-guistic reality are not recognized, and a number of fallacies are still in existencein ESL and EFL contexts. Regarding the users and uses of English, Kachru(1992, 3578) mentions six fallacies. This paper, based on Kachrus thoughts,attempts to discuss four fallacies in terms of English teaching and learning inESL and EFL contexts.

3. Fallacies in English teaching in ESL and EFL contexts

Fallacy One: English learners in the Outer and Expanding Circles learn Englishessentially to communicate with people from the Inner Circle

In China, if a parent says I want my child to study abroad, it undoubtedly meansthat I want my child to study in a western English-speaking country. For manystudents in the Outer and Expanding Circles, the expression go abroad is synony-mous with going to the WEST. When they were asked about their interest in

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foreign countries, it was usually the US, western European countries and Canadathat were mentioned. Asian, African and Central and South American countries arementioned less often, and when they are, it is after students discuss North Americanand European countries (Matsuda 2002, 4367).

But given the lingua franca status of English, it is clear that much of the worldneeds and uses English for instrumental reasons, such as academic studies, commer-cial pursuits and professional contacts. Therefore, more and more people learnEnglish within the Outer and Expanding Circles to use among themselves. Englishbecomes the main vehicle for interaction among the non-native speakers with dis-tinct linguistic and cultural backgrounds, such as Koreans with Japanese, Chinesewith Vietnamese, Germans with Danish and so on.

A typical example illustrates this phenomenon well. The rst authors university,China Three Gorges University (CTGU), has, in the last ve years, establishedexchange programmes with a number of countries. Every year, some CTGU stu-dents are sent to these exchange universities, and they study there from half a yearto one year. So far, 75 students have experienced study and life in the exchangeuniversities (see Table 1).

From Table 1, we can see that 71 (94.7%) out of the total go to study in theExpanding Circle countries, whilst only four (5.3%) go to America, the Inner Circlecountry.

How relevant, then, are the conventions of British politeness or American informalityto the Japanese and Turks, say, when doing business in English? How relevant aresuch culturally-laden discourse samples as British railway timetables or Americannewspaper advertisements to industrial engineers from Romania and Egypt conductingtechnical research in English? How relevant is the importance of Anglo-American eyecontact, or the socially acceptable distance for conversation as properties of meaning-ful communication to Finnish and Italian academicians exchanging ideas in a profes-sional meeting? (Alptekin 2002)

Since English is so widely spoken by people from different cultural and ethnicbackgrounds, who, then, is the real native speaker of English who can use it accu-rately and appropriately? Paikeday (1985) in his book entitled The Native Speakeris Dead! shows native speakership as a linguistic myth, and argues that its truemeaning is no more nor less than a procient user of a language. If people fromthe Outer and Expanding Circles learn English not necessarily to go to the English-speaking countries, then the norms and standards established by the so-calledReceived Pronunciation and General American should be questioned.

Table 1. Destination of exchange students from China Three Gorges University.

Country Number of exchange students

South Korea 58Denmark 4Austria 2France 7America 4Total 75

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Fallacy Two: A native speaker model is the only appropriate model for all lear-ners of English

This claim has no empirical validity. Kachru (1992) holds that the Inner Circle isonly in a very marginal sense a model provider. In the Outer Circle, the localmodel has been institutionalized, and the educated varieties of such models havealways been used in the classroom, in various interactive contexts. As a matter offact, countries such as India and Singapore have already set up their own modelsand norms of English, which have begun to be accepted and recognized. The con-cept native speaker is not always a valid yardstick for the global uses of English(Christopherson 1988).

English has become an international language. In dening an international lan-guage, Smith (cited in McKay 2003a, 139146) suggests that in the acquisition ofan international language:

a. learners do not need to internalize the cultural norms of native speakers ofthe language, the ownership of an international language becomes denation-alized, and

b. the educational goal of learning the language is to enable learners to commu-nicate their ideas and culture to others.

We believe it is time for English teachers in the Outer and Expanding Circlesto realize the importance and necessity of their own varieties as well as othervarieties of English. They should teach their students knowledge of World Eng-lishes, so that students will not perceive American English and British English asthe only two standard varieties, thereby avoiding stereotypes and prejudicesagainst other English varieties. Teachers, educators and researchers should inte-grate other Englishes into textbooks and other teaching materials and ensure thatthe content of English materials is not limited to the American or British cultures.As Matsuda (2002) put it, when students are exposed to a limited section of theworld, their awareness and understanding of the world also becomes limited. Stu-dents may not desire to further explore those parts of the world they are notfamiliar with.

Confusion or resistance may result from an incomplete presentation of the Eng-lish language. When students are confronted with different types of English users oruses, they may be shocked by varieties that deviate from Inner Circle English.Viewing them as decient, they may lack respect for such varieties and their users.Therefore, the language teaching curriculum must expose students to local culturalcontent and its English variants in various parts of the world.

In the world English context the uniqueness of the native speaker and his/her mother tongue becomes totally irrelevant when we consider the spread ofWorld English. A monolingual speaker of English may actually turn out to beat a disadvantage when attempting to get by in World English. Being monolin-gual, they are likely to be monocultural and carry with them prejudices abouttheir own Anglo cultures (Kirkpatrick 2006). Given the native/non-nativespeaker ratio of 1:2, one can imagine the native speakers predicament when theratio reaches 1:10 in the not-so-distant future, due to the millions of people inAsia, Africa and Latin America eager to learn the language. No longer themodel speaker of World English, the native speaker will probably not retain his/

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her former privileged status as an EFL professional. Being a monolingualspeaker may actually turn out to be a hindrance. However, at present, the Eng-lish teachers employed to teach English in the Outer and Expanding Circles aremainly from the Inner Circle.

Fallacy Three: All native speakers of English can go on to teach in the Outerand Expanding Circles

In many ESL and EFL countries, native speakers of English are frequently givenpreference in English teaching. Although a large number of them are not profes-sional and not well trained, native speakers are often believed to be experts, arebetter paid and command greater respect than their local colleagues. Often theydont know how to teach and have very little knowledge of Asian culture.Nevertheless, it is often believed that having teachers from Inner Circle countriesmakes the teaching programme in a university or school appear to be of better qual-ity. But the reality is that many native-speaking teachers cause a variety of problemsfor their employers. The native speakers reasons for teaching in ESL and EFLcountries may be motivated by the desire to travel, the acquisition of employmentqualications in their own country or an uncertainty about what career to embarkon. The reason most universities or schools hire a foreign face is that the univer-sity/school will look better or more prestigious. As a practical matter, foreign teach-ers dont contribute much to an ESL/EFL programme.

In addition to the reasons mentioned above, native English speakers are stilloverwhelmingly welcomed in the Outer and Expanding Circles as a result of therapid and vast expansion of the English language, in particular in the ExpandingCircle countries. In China, for example, even kindergartens now have Englishcourses. China needs about 100,000 English teachers every year. The number ofChinese English teachers cannot satisfy this need, so a large number of nativespeakers from the Inner Circle are recruited. Most professional and experiencedteachers from native-speaking countries are not willing to teach in developing coun-tries, so those hired are usually young and have no prior teaching experience. Thefollowing two advertisements were posted on the Internet for the recruitment ofnative speakers of English as teachers in China (www.esl-job-china.com):

A school in Hebei, China, looking for a native speaker:

. . . (after introducing the school, foreign teachers work schedule, salary, accommoda-tion, etc.), it is my pleasure to welcome you to teach in our school. However, pleaseprovide us the following:

(1) Your resum.(2) Copy of the rst page of your passport.(3) Copy of your highest degree and teaching certicates, if any.(4) When will you be available to start teaching.(5) One recent colour photo of yours.

Another school in Weifang city, Eastern China, looking for native English-speakingEnglish teachers. The following information is all that the school offers:

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Vacancies: 3Contract length: 1 year

Students: primary schoolsClassroom hours: 20 hours per weekSalary: 45006000 RMB per monthFree well-furnished apartment offeredRound trip airfare providedRequirements:Native English speakersBachelor degrees nished.

This kind of advertisement looks very attractive to those native speakers whohave just graduated from universities and to those who are waiting for job opportu-nities or hope to travel to Asia and gain some work experience for their futurecareers. These foreign experts, having a beautiful dream of going to the east totravel, away from their families for the rst time, very soon nd themselves inawkward situations due to cultural and language shocks. Some of them never nishtheir contracts before eeing back home. The authors university experiences thiskind of problem very often.

The rst author of the paper conducted a survey among 589 Chinese Englishteachers at the tertiary level (Hu Xiaoqiong 2005). One of the questions was howdo you, as a Chinese English teacher, view your own strengths and weaknesses inrelation to native English-speaking teachers? Do you think it is necessary to intro-duce native speakers to your university?

The results show that, in general, Chinese English teachers view their strengthsas easier to communicate with students as we share the same culture; students ndit less difcult to understand our China English and vice versa; sometimes wecan use Chinese in class if something is difcult to explain in English, which savestime; we know English grammar better than native speakers and we can explain itto students more easily; we can be bilingual and help students do translations,which is impossible for native speakers. They view their weaknesses as we cantspeak as accurately, spontaneously and uently as native speakers; they know theirown cultures; foreign teachers can equip students with more up-to-date materials,help them to keep in touch with current affairs, introduce alternative teaching meth-ods and provide the necessary insights into English-speaking cultures. When askedif they think it is necessary to hire native speakers for their country, a total of 309(52.8%) of the teachers supported the idea, giving as reasons that both Chineseteachers and students can improve our English; we can know more about foreigncultures from them; we can make friends with each other and get to know eachothers cultures; we can have the chance to learn different teaching styles. Theremaining 276 (47.2%) rejected the idea, saying that a lot of foreign teachers arenot professional and not well trained. They dont know how to teach and studentscomplain about their poor teaching competence.

As a matter of fact, in the era of World Englishes, non-native English teachersin the Outer and Expanding Circles have more advantages over the native Englishteachers. As Kachru puts it: In reality, the native speakers have an insignicant rolein the global spread and teaching of English. ... They have not passed any examina-tions to verify their prociency in the language, have not achieved the distinction

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of having learned English successfully themselves, and may therefore lack a certainempathy with their learners. Moreover, those who have actually studied thelanguage and achieved hard-won excellence in it may provide a far more construc-tive model for learners to aspire to (Kachru 1992, 356362).

McKay (2003b, 94) contends that native speakers know the destination, but notthe terrain that has to be crossed to get there: they themselves have not travelledthe same route. Non-native speakers, on the other hand, know the target languageas a foreign language. Unfortunately, this is often perceived as a weakness,although it should be accepted and used as an important resource.

We must value teachers according to their professionalism, not their place ofbirth. If local English teachers know, as well as respect, their strengths as non-native speakers, they will not focus only on American and British-oriented cultures.They will attach more importance to the input of other cultures, particularly theinput of their own culture.

Fallacy Four: English is a tool for understanding and teaching American orBritish cultural values

In the multilingual Outer Circle, English is used as an important tool to express andimpart local traditions, conventions and cultural values. In the course of doing so,many linguistic innovations are added to English which reect the unique local cul-tures and the ways of thinking of the local people. Why does this happen? Accord-ing to Kachru (1992), this is due to the non-contextuality of English in relation tothe local and national languages and the use of English in multilingual contexts. Inmany places of the Outer Circle, English is the only language that cuts across lan-guages, and regional and national boundaries. And in its localized variety, Englishis the language of higher education, national and international business, literary cre-ativity and the media.

Some people consider target language-based cultures to be essential in order thatforeign language learners participate fully in the target language culture. The targetlanguage culture and its native speakers are considered to be elements that are cru-cial to the success of the teaching model. It is thought that learners not only acquireaccurate forms of the target language, but also learn how to use these forms insocial situations in the target language setting to convey logically consistent, appro-priate, and effective meanings to the native speakers. In this manner, learning a for-eign language becomes a kind of acculturation, in which one acquires new culturalframes of reference and a new world view, reecting those of the target languageculture and its speakers. Students are required, by their teachers, to learn English sothat they can use English to perform like the native speakers, including their bodylanguage, tune and cultural values. This is simply a Utopian view of English teach-ing (Alptekin 2002, 58).

Fortunately, this situation is beginning to change. More and more people nowbegin to think that they learn English in the hope that they can have easy access tothe outside world and can have more opportunities to introduce their local culturesto the world. McKay (2003a) made a survey of some of the Chilean English teach-ers about the role that culture played in English language teaching in the Chileancontext. One of the questions was Which type of cultural content would you preferto use in your class and why? The three choices given were: (1) Content that dealswith local Chilean places and people; (2) Content that deals primarily with aspects

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of United States or British life and culture; (3) Content that deals with the life andculture of various countries around the world. The majority of teachers preferredcontent that deals with the life and culture of various countries around the world,and to our excitement, there were indeed some teachers preferring content that dealswith local Chilean places and people by saying that it is important to keep alivethe Chilean culture in young people and to reinforce the values of our culture.Those who supported the use of various cultures offered reasons like this may helpstudents feel that they can use English everywhere and in any situation, and stu-dents have a global vision of the world in which they live.

Coincidentally, the rst author of this paper (Hu Xiaoqiong 2005, 301) askedthe Chinese English teachers similar questions, and the answers shared some simi-larities too. Most of the Chinese English teachers attached great importance to mul-ticultural input in their classroom teaching in China, with a particular focus onChinese culture. It is regrettable that, at the moment, this kind of change has notyet found its way into the teaching syllabus or the textbooks.

It is well worth recalling the fact that since the colonized countries obtainedtheir political independence from Great Britain, English in these countries hasbegun to show its differences from the Received Pronunciation and has estab-lished its own localized acknowledged varieties which reect the cultural values,identities and unique ways of thinking of the once colonized people. These peopleeven take much pride in speaking their deviate English, as a Singaporean messen-ger announced at the United Nations: I should hope that when I am speakingabroad my countrymen will have no problem recognizing that I am a Singaporean(Strevens 1992, 39).

4. Conclusion

The Three Concentric Circles have illustrated that English has now become aninternational language. Therefore, English can no longer be linked only with theInner Circle cultures, but must adapt to the Outer and Expanding Circle cultures aswell. Based on this change of perspective, we should abandon the current teachingfallacies. Instead of using the Inner Circle norms and standards to instruct ourteaching syllabus, teaching content and teaching methodology in ESL and EFL,people from the Outer and Expanding Circles should adjust their teaching staff,teaching models and teaching contents to their own varieties of English and to theirunique cultures. As Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) have rightly pointed out: anappropriate pedagogy for the teaching of EIL (English as an international language)depends upon local ELT professionals thinking globally but acting locally.

Notes on contributors

Betsy Hu Xiaoqiong is professor of linguistics in the College of Foreign Languages, ThreeGorges University, China. More than 40 of her papers have been published in a variety ofChinese and international journals. Her interests include applied linguistics, second languageacquisition and cross-cultural communication studies.

Jiang Xianxing is an associate professor of Shenzhen Polytechnic, China. She has had morethan 20 articles published in different journals in China. Her research interests includeEnglish language teaching, teaching ESP (English for Special Purposes) and cross-culturalcommunication studies.

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