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USING A CONNECTVIST MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSE (MOOC) FOR
STAFF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
by
Joel Rodriguez
A dissertation proposal submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
Field of Educational Leadership and Management
at the
DREXEL UNIVERSITY
July 2013
Drexel University
Summer Quarter, 2013
i
Copyright by
Joel Rodriguez 2013
All Rights Reserved
ii
Abstract
USING A CONNECTVIST MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSE (MOOC) FOR STAFF
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Joel Rodriguez
Drexel University, 2013
Chairperson: Joyce Pittman
Human resource professionals are not meeting their employee’s preferences for professional
training and development delivery. This failure has far reaching micro and macro economic
implications in the advancement of product and service innovation, which in the past has driven
the United States to unprecedented wealth. Much of the literature analyzes the effectiveness of
traditional forms of training and development programs such as face-to-face, mentoring, and
coaching. However, there is little research on the use of Connectivism, a theory for 21st century
learning expressed through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), as a model for employee
training and development. The purpose of this mixed methods study is to identify an effective
approach to maximizing employee training and development program outcomes at a large urban
research university in the Northeast. The research questions this study seeks to answer are: How
does student performance learning outcomes compare between a face-to-face workshop and a
Connectivist MOOC? In what ways does community based online instruction, a Connectivist
perspective, enhance faculty and staff training and development?
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The Dissertation Committee for Drexel University
certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation:
USING A CONNECTVIST MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSE (MOOC) FOR
STAFF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Committee:
__________________________________
Joyce Pittman, Supervisor
__________________________________
Ken Mawritz,
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to:
My wife and kids. For allowing me to pursue a life-long goal.
My parents, in-laws, and extended family. For leading by example in work ethic and
scholarly pursuit.
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
Introduction .................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem to be Researched ...............................................4
Purpose and Significance of the Problem ...................................................4
Research Questions Focused on Solutions Finding ....................................7
Conceptual Framework ...............................................................................8
Researcher’s Stances...............................................................................8
Conceptual Framework...........................................................................9
Definitions of Terms.............................................................................11
Significance of the Study...........................................................................11
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations .................................................12
Summary....................................................................................................13
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
Instruction to the Problem .........................................................................15
Professional Development.........................................................................15
Adult Learners .....................................................................................18
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Instructor-led Training...........................................................................................27
Online Learning, Collaborative, and Social Learning..........................27
Connectivism: A Theory for 21st Century Learning .................................30
Massive Open Online Courses ..................................................................40
What is a MOOC? ..............................................................................42
Studies ................................................................................................47
Autonomous Learning ........................................................................47
Conceptual Framework..............................................................................47
Literature Review Summary......................................................................47
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction ...............................................................................................50
Research Design and Rationale ................................................................56
Site and Population....................................................................................57
Population Description .......................................................................59
Site Description ..................................................................................63
Research Methods .....................................................................................66
Surveys ...............................................................................................63
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Observation ...........................................................................................................63
Statistical Data ...................................................................................63
Site Description .....................................................................................................63
Site Description .....................................................................................................63
Conclusion.................................................................................................68
4. References.........................................................................................................69
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Introduction to the Research
In the 20th century, the United States created the world’s wealthiest nation through the
innovation of products and services. Today, innovation in the United States is under pressure
from emerging countries rushing to build wealth in their respective countries (U.S. Department
of Labor, 2012). Organizations in the United States need to foster employee skill development to
keep up with national and international market competitors in the areas of innovation and
creativity. Therefore, employee competence at continuous learning is becoming increasingly
important in organizations (Maurer & Weiss, 2009). The issue is that employee preferences for
training delivery do not reflect the current delivery options (SHRM, 2008) because students’
learning increasingly takes place across various information technologies, external of traditional
classrooms (Dunaway, 2011). Consequently, employers need to reimagine their current training
and development strategies to account for 21st century learners.
This mixed methods case study will examine the impact of a Connectivist Massive Open
Online Course (MOOC) in the training and development of professional staff at a large private
research university. The increased notoriety of MOOCs as a model for 21st century learning
escalates the need for rigorous research into the model. Currently, there is no case study looking
at the use of a Connectivist MOOC as a training delivery model for internal organizational
learning.
The researcher hopes to provide a first look at how offering of a MOOC as a format for
the training and development of faculty and staff provides numerous benefits to the individual,
group, and institution. In doing so, this study looks to influence current training and delivery
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formats being offered by human resource professionals and managers. The research method for
this study is a mixed methods design. The primary sources of data are interviews, observation,
and test scores.
This chapter provides the background and context of the situation, a statement of the
problem, the purpose and significance of this study, and research questions. The chapter
concludes with the conceptual framework, the definitions of the terms used in this paper, the
researcher’s assumptions, and limitations and delimitations of this study.
Statement of the Problem to be Researched
The topic of this study is Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) as a format for
professional staff development. Siemens and Downes of Athabasca University ran the first
MOOC in 2008. Starting in the beginning of 2012, the concept of MOOC exploded onto the
education scene causing a race among organizations to get to market. While the term MOOC is
an acronym clearly defined, the structure of MOOC continues to be defined in different ways by
individual organizations.
MOOCs provide an additional format to current training and development offerings.
MOOC is the testing ground for the theory of Connectivism. Connectivism offers a new learning
theory for a digital age, with four key principles for learning: autonomy, connectedness,
diversity, and openness (Tschofen & Mackness, 2012). The introduction of this new theory into
staff training and development is an attempt to address the study’s research problem, which is
that the United States is losing ground in innovation, therefore a new model for the development
of professional staff must be made available to human resource professionals.
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The United States experienced the most innovative period in its history in the 20th century
(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2012). For example, during this time the country created an
information technology and a biotech sector. This transformed the standard of living for the
people in this country. As America grew, countries like China and Brazil started to function in
the open market creating great wealth. Today, a recent survey found that the majority of
American’s agreeing that the United States in losing its edge in innovation (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 2012). What possible steps can be taken to combat the global competitiveness?
In September of 2009, President Obama outlined a strategy for American innovation,
which has since been updated. In this strategy, he states that America’s future growth and
competitiveness depends on the capacity to be innovative and creative (White House, 2011).
What he is referring to is the economy, which is made up of products and services created by
individuals working in business. Therefore, it is important to recognize the criticalness of the
training and development of individuals working in business as the future economic driver. This
makes human resource professionals an important factor in the future of economic growth
because of their influence on organizational learning.
One of the 2013 trends in training and development is a renewed call for the
improvement of employee skills in critical thinking and creativity, which echoes President
Obama’s call (SHRM, 2012). With this goal of developing a competitive workforce, we must
find the most effective and efficient method for employee training and development.
There are many options for employers seeking to develop employee skills and abilities.
Some include: e-learning, coaching, and shadowing. Do these formats actually provide an
effective and efficient way to develop creativity and innovation in an organizational setting?
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To develop employee creative thinking and product innovation, training and development
programs must account for employee wants and learning styles. According to a 2008 Society for
Human Resource Development (SHRM) report, a major challenge for human resource
professionals is the selection of professional development formats (SHRM, 2008). This same
report shows that more than half of employees participate in professional development, but those
employee preferences for training and development delivery are not being met. Therefore,
human resource professionals need to be presented with new models to accommodate for
employee preferences, which will help resolve selection challenges and attempt to increase
employee satisfaction.
Current and future models of training delivery must account for adult education theory.
Adult learners have different intrinsic motivation than childhood learners (Merriam et al., 2007).
Therefore, it is critical to identify and utilize their motivations in the development of new
delivery models. Knowles (1966) theory of Andragogy is the most widely accepted model for
adult education (Holton, Swanson, Naquin, 2008). The theory contains six principles of adult
education: need to know, self-directed, foundation, orientation, full potential, and internal
motivation (Knowles et al., 1998). These principles, in addition to other adult education learning
theories such as McClusky’s Theory of Margin, Jarvis’s Learning Model, and Illeris’s Three
Dimensions of learning (Snyder, 2009; Merriam et al., 2007) need to align with the training and
delivery methods to produce effective and efficient outcomes.
In addition to alignment with adult learning theory, training and development delivery
formats must take into account employee satisfaction. Current research shows instructor-led
training, one of the most widely used formats (CIPD, 2013; Vadivelu & Klein, 2011), does not
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generate high levels of employee satisfaction (Berger, Topp, Davis, Jones, & Stewart, 2009; Sun,
Tsai, Finger, Chen, & Yeh, 2008).
Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism are theories that were developed prior to
the technology advances of today, and are the most widely used in the construction of
instructional activity (Siemens, 2005). Thus, it is important to recognize the need for a new
learning theory based on 21st century learners. This recognition will allow for the development of
new systems of learning attempting to solve the issue of innovation in the United States and
selection issues for human resource professionals.
Connectivism is a learning theory underpinned by previous learning theory with an
integration of technology. Additional concepts not included in previous models are chaos and
complexity theory, which are often found in the hard sciences. This new theory contains adult
education principles postulated by the major theorists, including Malcolm Knowles. Further,
current research in professional development shows that flexibility, perceived usefulness, self-
regulation, and self-direction are key components in online learning (Berger, Topp, Davis, Jones,
& Stewart, 2009; Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, & Yeh, 2008; Brydges et al., 2012), which are also
fundamental to Connectivism.
The most common expression of Connectivism is MOOCs. Current studies show that
MOOC compliments the shift in learning to the knowledge era (deWaard et al., (2011) and that
students are easily able to shift into a networked learning model (Hogg and Lomicky, 2012). In
addition, autonomy was a major feature of MOOC (Hogg and Lomicky, 2012; Kop, 2011),
which aligns with the fundamentals of adult education theory.
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The need for the economy (businesses and individuals) to innovate provides an
opportunity to investigate the current training and develop practices of employees working in
organizations and propose solutions for current challenges.
Purpose and Significance of the Problem
The purpose of this mixed methods study is to identify an effective approach to
maximizing employee training and development program outcomes at a large urban research
university in the Northeast. Currently, the United States is falling behind other emerging
countries in innovation (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2012). In addition, human resource
professionals are not able to effectively identify professional training formats for employees
(SHRM, 2008). Consequently, employees participating in professional development are not
satisfied with the current offerings.
Students’ learning increasingly takes place across various information technologies,
external to traditional classrooms (Dunaway, 2011). This change in learning demands the
evaluation of new formats for the training and development of creativity and innovation. Thus,
employers need to deploy effective training options for 21st century learners centered on adult
education theory and learner wants and needs.
Current research shows that online training produces the same, or better, outcomes as
face-to-face learning (Yeung, Okamoto, Soar, and Perkins, 2011; Dimeff et al, 2009; Larson and
Sung, 2009; Yang & Lin, 2011), which is highly practiced as a method for training and
development (CIPD, 2013; Vadivelu & Klein, 2011). Hence, human resource professionals need
to focus on what methods are available for learner effectiveness and satisfaction.
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The study is significant to the organization being studied because it will provide human
resource professionals a case study to determine what the best practices are for training and
development. Furthermore, the study will inform human resource professionals at this institution
on this new model for learning. The study looks to fill a gap in the literature on the use of a
Connectivist MOOC for staff professional development. To this point there has been no study
that looks at the use of a Connectivist MOOC specifically for staff professional development.
Therefore, there is no data to support this model’s efficacy in this situation, making it difficult
for colleges and universities to integrate this method of training delivery into a strategic
professional development plan. Essentially, the study results can improve workplace
development efforts for this study’s site.
Research Questions Focused on Solutions Finding
This researcher’s hypothesis is that a Connectivist MOOC addresses employee learning
needs (adult education theory) and is a more effective approach for professional development
than its face-to-face counterpart. The study looks to answer the following research questions:
1. How does student performance learning outcomes compare between a face-to-face
workshop and a Connectivist MOOC?
2. In what ways does community based online instruction, a Connectivist perspective,
enhance faculty and staff training and development?
Conceptual Framework
The setting, the researcher’s philosophical stance, the researcher’s assumptions,
background and experience with the problem, and theories, drives the conceptual framework of
this research study. Hybrid and online learning for-credit courses and programs have been
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offered at the university since 1999. The integration of these formats into training and
development has only recently been accepted practice. Hence, the presentation of MOOC to
training and development will be the first complex networked learning format offering to staff by
the university administration.
Researcher’s stances. The researcher’s philosophical stance aligns with the pragmatist
paradigm. This paradigm provides the flexibility for the use of different research methods in a
single study. Pragmatists have made a compromise on the long-standing arguments of the purist
only researchers. Thus, the researcher looks to utilize all methods of research available to address
the problem statement.
Looking at the research topic through the lens of pragmatism, the researcher has
identified a belief that knowledge comes from the experiences of life and we should embrace
learning events in all forms. Four critical assumptions about adult learners emerged: knowledge
can be enhanced through different pedagogical approaches to learning; adult learners are capable
of participating in a self-directed complex environment; autonomous learning is a preference of
adults; adults seek learning experiences because of a need.
The researcher has nine years of experience in online and hybrid learning in middle
management positions in organizations. In addition, the researcher has been teaching as an online
adjunct since 2007. These experiences have the ability to lead to research bias, due to potential
perceptions about adult learners and personal pedagogical preferences. With that said, the
researcher will use a triangulation approach to data collection. Further, the researcher will
identify a qualified colleague to conduct certain aspects of the study.
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Conceptual framework. Two existing theories frame this research study. Malcolm
Knowles’s theory of andragogy provides a structured explanation of how adults learn. This
theory is the most widely recognized theory in adult education. Second is Connectivism,
developed by George Siemens in 2005. His theory provides a framework to address 21st century
learners. This theory is relatively new and has a number of vocal critics. The researcher believes
that focusing on these two theories to create a learning framework will provide adults high
quality learning experiences.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
Hybrid and online learning for-credit courses and programs have been offered at
Goodwin College since 2000. The integration of these formats into training and development has
not occurred during that time period. Hence, the presentation of MOOC to training and
development will be the first online distributed learning format offering to staff by the college
administration.
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The researcher has great experience in the area of distance education. The researcher’s
work focuses heavily on the development of learning portals, which provides a solid knowledge
base of tools and strategies that drive the distance education experience. In addition, the
researcher has a master’s degree in adult education and worked in career training and
professional development settings using face-to-face, hybrid, and online as delivery methods.
In order to better understand if MOOC is an effective model for training and
development, the researcher will enlist two groups of participants. The first group will
experience a traditional face-to-face course, while the second will participate in the massive open
online course. Content for both courses will be identical, but the delivery mode will be different.
In both groups a pre and post electronic survey will be distributed to collect information about
staff attitudes toward training and development. The researcher will also observe the courses for
participation frequency. Lastly, an exam will be issued to both groups at the end of the course.
The exam scores will be used to conduct statistical analysis looking for any correlation between
test scores and method of delivery.
Definition of Terms
MOOC is a Massive Open Online Course where the participants and course materials are
distributed across the web.
In this study, Network Information Technology is the systems that provide access to
information across the Internet.
In this study, innovation is taking a new idea for a product or service and producing a
result.
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Learning Paradigms are models of the way people learn. An example is Constructivism.
Twenty first century learning is learner driven. This style of learning involves a high
level of digital literacy skills centered on critical thinking, re-mixing and aggregating content,
problem solving, and collaboration.
Hybrid Learning is a learning model where some of the course takes place online and
some in person.
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations
The first assumption is that non-digital natives, those not growing up with technology,
will not fully engage in the MOOC. They will have a more negative attitude toward the training
method than their demographic counterparts in the face-to-face course. Therefore, they will have
lower test scores than those people with the same demographics participating in the face-to-face
course. A second assumption is that employees growing up in the technological age will
participate heavily in the MOOC, have higher test scores, and a better attitude than their
demographic counterparts in the face-to-face course.
One limitation that exists is the current make up of the staff at Goodwin College. There
are more employees who grew up without technology than have grown up with it. Moreover, the
participant age range may not record across all segments and may not reach adequate sample size
levels. Therefore, it could be hard to make generalizations based on this study for some age
groups. A second limitation is the commitment of the participants to engage fully in the courses.
Busy personal and professional lives can cause missed time, which influences the quality of the
study results.
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The main delimitation of the study is that the majority of participants will have advanced
degrees, making the study hard to generalize to non higher education organizations. This is
because the organization participating in this study resides in the higher education sector. The
sector typically values degrees more in the hiring process than private business.
Summary
This chapter provided an introduction to one of the most critical issues with the United
States economy today, innovation. It explained how current employee training and development
practices, which are needed to drive innovation, are not meeting employee needs. The researcher
provides the hypothesis that a Connectivist MOOC is an alternative to current training and
delivery formats that contains the major principles of adult education and 21st century learning.
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Chapter 2: Review of Literature
Introduction to the Problem
As stated in chapter one, the purpose of this mixed methods study is to identify a more
effective and efficient approach to faculty and staff training and development programs at a large
research university. This researcher’s hypothesis is that a Connectivist MOOC is a more
effective and efficient method for professional development of faculty and staff than its face-to-
face counterpart. The literature review was conducted to place this study in the existing body of
knowledge and to identify the need for the study. The researcher recognizes a limited amount of
research is available on MOOCs, and no studies have been conducted using MOOC as a
framework for professional development in an organization. This study will examine the use of a
Connectivist MOOC as a pedagogical format for training delivery. The study looks to answer the
following research questions:
1. How does student performance learning outcomes compare between a face-to-face
workshop and a Connectivist MOOC?
2. In what ways does community based online instruction, a Connectivist perspective,
enhance faculty and staff training and development?
This review of the literature will focus on three themes to justify the need for this research study
and to show how the study will add significantly to the field. The three themes are:
1. Professional Development.
2. Connectivism: A Theory for 21st Century Learning.
3. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs).
The first section of this chapter will look at the most widely used models for professional
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development in the context of learning and student satisfaction. In addition, the author will
present relevant adult learning theory to gain a perspective of the learner characteristics before
looking at the research evidence. This section compares and contrasts the different formats to
show the efficacy of the presented models. Absent from the literature is the comparison between
MOOCs and other delivery models. For this study’s purposes generic online learning will be
used to compare against other models because absent is research on massive open online courses.
The second section of this chapter will look at how previous learning theory underpinned
the development of Connectivisim and show the need for this new learning theory in 21st century
training and development practice. It is important to understand the context of how new learning
theory is developed to justify its validity. Kerr identified two purposes for the development of a
new theory: it replaces older theories that have become inferior, and the new theory builds on
older theories without discarding them, because new developments have occurred which the
older theories no longer explain (Kop & Hill, 2008). The Connectivist perspective builds upon
traditional behaviorist, cognitivist-constructivist, and humanist theories of learning making it
important to get a sense of these three theories (Dunaway, 2011). The relatively recent
theoretical accounts of Connectivism (Siemens, 2005, 2006) and connective knowledge
(Downes, 2006) as ways to understand and explore learning in the networked digital age are
timely and particularly useful, both in what they offer and what they question (Bell, 2011).
The third section of this chapter will show the pedagogical perspective of how MOOCs,
which are the testing ground for Connectivism, provide an effective and efficient platform for
21st century learning. Research evidence will make the case for the addition on this model to
current training and development offerings. Current research shows that the way adults learn
(Andragogy) aligns to the theory of Connectivism and Connectivist MOOCs.
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Professional Development
One of the challenges for human resources professionals is the selection of professional
development formats based around the employee wants and needs (SHRM, 2008). Organizations
have many different options for staff training and development programs. This workforce
training is important to equip workers with skills required in the knowledge era, which include
critical thinking and adaptability (Panagiotakopoulos, 2011). A 2008 Society for Human
Resources Development (SHRM) survey showed that nearly half of employees participate in
professional development programming (SHRM, 2008). However, the report goes on to state that
employee preferences for training delivery do reflect the current delivery options, which include
coaching, instructor-led, and knowledge sharing events as the primary methods. How do we
know the traditional training methods being offered to employees are effective models? Do we
need a new model for 21st century training and development?
Adult Learners. Adults have different intrinsic motivations to learn than childhood learners
(Merriam et al., 2007). Therefore, it is important to provide context to the adult learner before
looking at the research data. Before we get into the current training and delivery practices, we
must first take a look at adult education and adult learners, specifically some of the main
theories, which guide adult education practice: Knowles Theory of Andragogy, McClusky’s
Theory of Margin, Jarvis’s Learning Model, and Illeris’s Three Dimensions of learning (Snyder,
2009; Merriam et al., 2007).
Malcolm Knowle’s theory of Andragogy (1966) has stood as the main model for adult
learning (Holton, Swanson, Naquin, 2008). Today, there are six principles of Andragogy
(Knowles et al., 1998). The principles are:
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1. Adults need to know why they need to learn something before the event, activity, or class
(Need to Know).
2. Adults have a self-concept that aligns with a self-directed learning style (Self-Directed).
3. Prior life experience enhances learning situations (Foundation).
4. Adults are ready to learn when presented with a life situation or they need to complete a
task (Orientation).
5. Adults are life-centered and education is the method for reaching full potential.
6. Adult motivation is internal, rather than external (Motivation).
McClusky’s Theory of Margin states that the dramatic changes occurring during post-
adolescence force adults to constantly seek balance between the amount of energy needed and
the amount available (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). The balancing act is visualized as a ratio
between the load of life, which disperses energy, and the power of life, which allows us as
individuals to deal with the load. For example, daily tasks (load) reduce our ability to participate
in learning activity. By streamlining we can add to our life power. Therefore, the more power
one has the more available and likely to participate in learning.
Jarvis’s Learning Model theorizes that all learning begins with the five human sensations of
sound, sight, smell, taste, and touch. Thus, that learning ultimately dependents on our biology
(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). This learning perspective is a focus on the individual’s internal
world not externally. As depicted in figure 1.1, Jarvis’s model begins with an experience that is
not immediately recognizable. Instantaneously the learner brings in life experiences in an attempt
to make sense of the sensation. The learner then experiences emotions, which can create different
types of learning.
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Figure 1.1. The Transformation of the Person Through Experience. Jarvis, 2006.
Illeris’s Three Dimensions of learning focuses on the external relationship of the learner
to the environment and the internal acquisition process. This focus is expressed through the
dimensions of cognition, emotion, and society. The vertical line in figure 1.2 below shows the
external environment, while the horizontal line depicts the individual, or internal.
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Figure 1.2. The Process of Learning. Illeris, 2002.
According to the author, the cognitive dimension is comprised of knowledge and skills and the
emotion dimension involves feelings and motivation, both of which are internal learning
activities. External interaction is the final dimension, which involves people in the learning
process. Illeris believes that learning starts with the one of five stimuli. The five stimuli are:
perception;
transmission;
experience;
imitation;
activity or participation.
The author’s model is similar to Jarvis’s five senses piece of his learning model.
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All four models presented above have overarching themes relating to the training and
development of adults in the workplace, specifically the self-directed nature of adult education,
learner experience, and a focus on task. The models, assumptions, and principles of adult
education theory inform the training and development of adults in an organizational setting and
are critical to the context of this study.
Instructor-led training. Instructor-led training is highly practiced when compared to other
available formats (CIPD, 2013; Vadivelu & Klein, 2011). Further, the levels of instructor-led
training from 2003 (71.97%) to 2008 (70.58%), according to SHRM, remained relatively
unchanged during that time period (Carliner, 2009). This suggests a continued high level of
usage moving forward. Is the continued use of this model the best solution for organizational
training needs?
Yeung, Okamoto, Soar, and Perkins (2011) conducted a systematic literature review
consisting of 172 references of which 18 studies were deemed significant. The researcher’s
compared and contrasted the effectiveness of alternative training methods to an instructor-led
format, which is typically found in basic life support development models. The study found that
there is evidence to support the use of self-directed learning, lay instructors, and brief training.
Further, that no single method for training and development provided evidence of superiority of
the others. Consequently, organizations working in skill development should tailor delivery
options to address learner needs identified in current adult education models and satisfaction
research.
Berger, Topp, Davis, Jones, & Stewart (2009) compared three types of instruction, face-
to-face, web-based training (WBT), and a mix of both, on patient education through mandatory
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continuing professional development training. Researchers analyzed 3000 staff member
proficiency exams and satisfaction surveys. Results show that WBT was as effective as the two
other methods of delivery for competency scores. This supports other research findings about
learning outcomes (Yeung, Okamoto, Soar, and Perkins, 2011). Participants overwhelming
registered for this format due to the flexibility it offered in self-pacing and the 24/7 access. The
data shows that when given the opportunity, employees will select alternatives to face-to-face
sessions.
Dimeff et al (2009) evaluated the efficacy of three training methods for staff skill
development: manual, interactive multimedia online (OLT), and a two-day instructor-led face-to-
face workshop. Results of the study indicate that interactive online training outperforms
instructor-led face-to-face workshops in skills training, which contrasts other research findings
(Yeung, Okamoto, Soar, and Perkins, 2011; Berger, Topp, Davis, Jones, & Stewart, 2009).
Further, participant data shows that students in the OLT needed to reference materials less than
those in the face-to-face training when using newly learned skills. The conclusion drawn from
this data is a higher level of learning for those students taking the online version of the training.
In contrast to previous research (Berger et al, 2009), participants were equally satisfied with the
two training options.
Brydges et al. (2012) used an experimental design to evaluate the effectiveness of
instructor-led learning and self-directed learning. Results from the experimental and control
group found that self-directed learners (SDL) were able to retain more information than their
counterparts three months or more after the training conclusion. The research suggests that active
learning, such as self-directed, should be implemented into medical residency formats for the
long-term retention of critical medical information. Implications for employee training and
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development are that critical information for performance can be facilitated through self-
directed, active learning models. This research study on Connectivist MOOC proposes exactly
what the author’s suggest in their conclusions.
The majority of research shows that instructor-led learning is not more effective than
online learning outcomes. In addition, participant preferences trend toward alternatives to
instructor-led training workshops. Current human resource practitioners need to take into account
student performance measures in the different formats, along with format preferences to make
informed decisions about offering options.
Coaching. Coaching is the art of facilitating the performance, learning and development of
another (Downey, 2003). Coaching is just one form of professional development, which attempts
to bridge the gap between training and the workplace (Taie, 2011). This technique has been
adopted as one of the main formats used by employers (SHRM, 2008).
Longenecker (2010) explored the issue of workplace coaching using a survey design to
identify practices to improve this form of training and development. According the survey results
of more than 219 managers, they find the practice to be beneficial to employee success in the
workplace. In addition, the main challenge managers’ face is time constraints related to the
coaching process, such as providing feedback. 74% of managers believe not enough feedback is
given to improve performance, which is consistent with other research findings (Berg & Karlsen,
2012). Findings to improve the model consisted of a customized coaching approach based on the
individual employee and that employee motivation plays a large role in the effectiveness of this
model.
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Tai (2012) hypothesized that coaching would improve the retention of new skills.
According to the research findings, the coaching model had positive quantitative impact on
scores, based on data analyzed from the assessment tool. This conclusion shows that when a
coaching program is introduced it has an immediate impact on information retention. This
finding confirms the claim by managers in Longenecker’s (2010) study, that coaching improves
employee success in the workplace and confirms additional research on the effectiveness of
coaching (Ellinger, 2003; Hagen, 2012; Hamlin et al., 2006).
Hagen (2012) reviewed the literature to gain insight into how the introduction of
coaching into the managerial process affects the organizational goals and results. The current
research shows the positive impact of coaching on strategy and organization, while she does note
a lack of empirical research on individual and organizational outcomes. As a consequence, there
is no way to definitively state this strategy works to improve these outcomes. To cement
coaching’s place in training and development, the author suggests quazi-experimental and
experimental research should be conducted to determine the models efficacy.
The Chartered Institute of Personal Development (CIPD) conducted survey research of
talent development specialists in the United Kingdom looking for data on current and future
trends. Findings from 1,004 respondents show that coaching is moving down the ranking as one
of the more effective methods for delivery (2013, CIPD). Moving forward the report looks for
coaching to integrate more fully with organizational development and performance management.
In addition, online learning has gained momentum as a preferred format.
It is clear from the research that coaching does provide positive benefits to the workplace,
but also has its drawbacks. A Connectivist MOOC provides networked learning where many
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people can provide insight around different topics. In essence, many people can become mentors
at different times. In this study, the management can work together to provide timely mentoring
as a group instead of individuals. This will assist the issue of time constraints.
Online learning, collaborative, and social learning. E-learning is one of the most commonly
used methods for learning and talent development (CIPD, 2013) and is growing when compared
to other delivery methods in organizational settings. In formal higher education settings, 6.7
million students are taking online courses (Babson Research, 2013). For this study, the efficacy
of online learning is critically important to making the case for using a Connectivist MOOC,
which is primarily online asynchronous learning.
Larson and Sung (2009) compared face-to-face, hybrid, and fully online modes of
instruction to determine if there is a significant difference in performance outcomes. The study
analyzed variance of the test score data to determine performance outcomes. In addition,
observational data from class discussion informs student satisfaction. The study found that there
is no significant difference in student performance between the different modes of instruction.
Furthermore, since there are no differences between the formats other variables, such as course
design, interaction, and motivation may play an important role in learning outcomes more so
than delivery.
Santhanam, Sasidharan, and Webster (2008) used experimental research to test the
hypothesis that early introduction to self-directed learning strategies will increase performance in
an online website development college course. Test results show that interventions to induce
learners into self-directed strategy led to better learning outcomes. Additionally, results show
that levels of self-regulated learning are evident in adults, but e-learning requires a higher level
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of self-regulated learning. Therefore, when designing and developing e-learning environments
for adults, an intervention practice must accompany the design. Adult education theory,
described earlier in this chapter, states that learners have a self-concept. Therefore, designers
must be cognizant of assisting adult learners in reaching the goal of self-directed learning.
Johnson, Hornik, and Salas (2008) investigated the role of social presence, interaction,
and the perceived usefulness of distance education courses. Data was collected from a single
course of 371 participants using perception surveys and interaction data from the learning
management system. Findings show that social presence does play an important factor in e-
learning success. Social presence, in this context, is the ability for users to create and share in an
environment for learning to emerge. Consequently, according to this research, educators should
focus on the inclusion of social learning into the online environment for better learning
outcomes. This research has important implications for online training and development, namely
that the traditional practice of online learning needs to adapt to include an environment of social
sharing and connectivity, proposed in the Connectivist model.
Yang & Lin (2011) examined the effect of online learning on employee learning
achievement through a quazi-experimental research design. In addition, the study sought to
investigate student satisfaction with online learning. Findings from this study show that learning
achievement was similar in the experimental online group to the face-to-face control group.
Additionally, the results yielded no significant satisfaction difference between the two groups.
Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, & Yeh (2008) examined the critical factors influencing learner
satisfaction in e-learning through survey and interviewing. Results from this study show that
computer anxiety, instructor attitude toward e-learning, course quality, perceived usefulness,
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ease of use, and diversity in assessment are the critical factors for success in e-learning. In
addition, participants view flexibility as an important factor in satisfaction. Confidence stands
out as a factor potentially inhibiting course satisfaction. Additional confidence in technology will
provide a better learning experience. Lastly, this research provides insight for institutions
participating in training and development seven areas to focus improvement efforts. This
research supports other studies, which show the importance of flexibility for learner satisfaction
(Berger, Topp, Davis, Jones, & Stewart, 2009).
Ho and Dzeng (2010) tested the effectiveness of e-learning in construction safety and
gaged student satisfaction with this model of delivery. This mixed method study used numerous
data collection techniques including: survey, observation, interviews, and tests. Study results
found that the e-learning mode improves learning effectiveness. In addition, because time is tight
in the construction field, independent learning and repeated learning are necessary for safety
training. Further, that learner satisfaction increases performance. Therefore, the main
implications from the study are that meeting the learners’ needs creates satisfaction, which will
affect the safety practices of employees.
Ke (2010) conducted a mixed methods case study, which examined the nature of
teaching, cognitive, and social presence created by students and instructors. Study results
through observation, artifacts, discussion analysis, and surveys found that instructional design
and some pedagogical preferences are critical prerequisites for adult online learning success.
Teaching presence emerged as one of the critical success factors in adult online learning, which
further supports the literature (Johnson, Hornik, and Salas, 2008). One substantial difference is
the mention of teaching presence to foster community development, which is more aligned with
the Connectivist principles and the adult learning principle of self-directed learning. Additional
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findings suggest that learner satisfaction is tied to having a sense of community. Furthermore,
that adults feeling a sense of community experienced a deeper level of learning. Implications
from this study suggest that open course facilitators need to focus on developing a sense of
community through their own social presence in the learning environment.
Research shows that in certain situations e-learning outperforms instructor-led learning.
Therefore, it is critical to understand the specific training situation in order to provided a high-
quality experience. Evidence suggests that social learning plays an important factor in learning
success. Consequently, instructional systems designers need to include the ability for social
connection and creation into learning environments.
Connectivism: A Theory for 21st Century Learning
It is critical to gain a general understanding of the underpinnings of Connectivism to
validate the model, therefore justifying its use in this study. Behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism are the three broad learning theories most often utilized in the creation of
instructional environments (Siemens, 2005). These three theories developed during a time period
that lacked the technology seen today. Therefore, it is important to propose a new theory for
today’s environment.
The behaviorist theory focuses on external observation and the relationship between
those stimuli and responses that follow (Boghossian, 2006). Knowledge does not depend on
reflection; in fact knowledge is mainly unknowable. What constitutes valid knowledge is
publically observable, and as such, behaviorists believe that the concept of mental states can be
discarded (Freiberg, 1999). Behaviorist theory is a direct contrast to the constructivist learning
theory discussed below.
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According to Cognitivist theories, learning is viewed as making symbolic, mental
constructions involving active mental processing on the part of the learner (Semple, 2000). The
mental processing can be compared to the way computers process and store information for
recall. As we move from behaviorist theory into cognitivist theory, it is relevant to note the
change from focusing on behavior only to the mental processing of data and looking within.
Finally, constructivist theory is based on the fundamental assumption that people create
knowledge from the interaction between their existing knowledge or beliefs and the new ideas or
situations they encounter (Airasian & Walsh, 1997). In education, the theory can be described as
students’ constructing their own learning organically. The theory is widely used in the
development of lesson planning in k-12 environments and higher education curriculum
development.
Kopp and Hill (2008) pose the question do they (the three theories) still meet the needs of
today’s learners, and anticipate the needs of learners of the future? Or, does developments in
digital technology create the need for a new model, which encompasses technology into learning
theory? Siemens points out that a central tent of most learning theories is the focus on the
individual. Consequently, these theories do not take into account the formal and informal social
learning spaces on the Internet today. Behlol and Dad (2010) confirm Siemens point in saying
that Connectivism presents a model that recognizes the shifts in society where learning is no
longer an internal or an individualistic activity.
Connectivism is a framework for understanding learning (Dunaway, 2011). Furthermore,
the Connectivist model posits that learning takes place when learners make connections between
ideas located throughout their personal learning networks, which are composed of numerous
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information resources and technologies. This study will create the space for personal learning
networks to occur within an organizational setting.
It is important to identify a working definition for learning. Driscoll (2000) defines
learning as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential…[which] must
come about as a result of the learner’s experience and interaction with the world”. This definition
of learning associates well with Connectivism because of its focus on interaction in the world.
Connectivism is based on eight principles (Siemens, 2005):
1. Learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions.
2. Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.
3. Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
4. Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.
5. Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.
6. Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
7. Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all Connectivist learning
activities.
8. Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning
of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a
right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information
climate affecting the decision.
The principles of Connectivism are not limited to the online environment (Boitshwarelo, 2011).
However, in this research study the principles will be tested through a massive open online
course.
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The core principles of Connectivism lead to four main activities to enhance learning. The
first, aggregation, is the ability to compile resources from the web into a collection. The second
activity is relation. Relation is bringing in personal experience to the situation through self-
reflection. The third is creation. Creation is the learner developing content through available web
technology such as blogs, podcasts and wikis. Finally, sharing allows participants to contribute to
their personal learning networks. Later in this chapter the four activities will be illustrated
through the MOOC framework.
Musawi (2011) states that Connectivism, a theory based on that knowledge exists in the
world rather than in the head of an individual, integrates previous learning theories (i.e.
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism), social development, and technology to construct
a new learning theory for the digital age. It is important to add that the principles and foundation
of connectivism, while based primarily on the three major theories, also utilize principles from
complexity theory and chaos theory.
Complexity theory is a theory of change, evolution and adaptation, often in the interests of
survival, and often through a combination of cooperation and competition (Morrison, 2006). The
key tenets of the theory are the holistic, non-linear approach. These concepts are not traditionally
found in educational system archetypes, such as behaviorism, but are found in the theory
connectivism.
Chaos theory, developed by Gleick in 1987, started in the sciences and has recently started to
play a role in education. The word chaos is associated with randomness, non-deterministic and
irregular occurrences. Chaos theory attempts to understand the behavior of systems that do not
unfold in a linearly predictable, conventional cause-and-effect manner over time. When viewed
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as a whole, these systems manifest definite patterns and structures (Murphy, 1996). Within
education, the theory touches on the concepts of non-linear and organic learning.
Siemens (2004) characterizes connectivism as a successor to behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism, which is not without criticism. Some of the major criticisms come from the
definition of what is a learning theory provided earlier in this chapter. For example, Kopp and
Hill (2008) state that connectivism does not have a large enough body of empirical research to
support its hypothesis. Additionally, that connectivism is still in its philosophical stages due to
the lack of educational studies. With that said, some researchers have identified connectivism as
a pedagogy rather than a learning theory.
Verhagen (2006) sees connectivism as pedagogy rather than a theory because learners are
continuing to learn in the same manner as before, they are just adapting to the technology.
Likewise, Farkas (2012) calls connectivism a recent pedagogical theory. The researcher is not
interesting in making a case either way in this study, but is merely interested in stating that
criticisms do exist in the research arena on the definition of connectivism. In this study, the
researcher will be using the framework as a pedagogical model for learning.
Massive Open Online Courses
Massive Open Online Courses provide a high quality option for teaching and learning, as
studies below will show. As previously stated by Tschofen and Mackness (2012), MOOCs are
the testing ground for the theory of Connectivism and is the experimental teaching method for
this study. This section introduces the reader to massive open online courses and discusses the
current research through the lens of adult learners.
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What is a MOOC? A MOOC is an online course or event that is open, which to allows for
maximum registration. Anyone can start a MOOC because of the wide availability of web 2.0
technologies. MOOCs can run in wikis, blogs, open learning management systems like Moodle,
or on custom platforms. The main requirement for the platform is the ability to create a network
around a shared topic.
Participants in the MOOC are expected to openly share their expertise, knowledge,
understanding, and ideas, so that knowledge is not only freely distributed across the network, but
also created within the network (Tschofen & Mackness, 2012). The resources come together
from all over the Internet. This makes digital literacy an important capacity for learners due to
the volume of information available on the web.
Inge deWaard et al. (2011) states that self-organization, openness of information flow,
freedom, interconnectedness and collective emergence is all found in MOOCs. Participants’ self-
organize content into categories causing interconnectedness of users. In order for this to be
effective users must participate in resource generation. In addition, Kop (2011) points out that for
MOOCs to be effective people must be able to:
1. Direct their learning.
2. Have the ability to negotiate the web.
3. Be confident and competent in using communication tools.
Studies. The first MOOC course was conducted in 2008, led by Siemens and Downes. Since that
time, few significant studies have been conducted due to the recent emergence of the model.
Fini (2009) examined adults’ attitudes towards networked learning in the CCK08 MOOC.
Study findings showed that participants didn’t care about completing the course and chose easy
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methods for communication. In addition, many of the tool options were pushed aside for more
traditional communication methods. Study limitations included the low number of survey
responses and limited profiles. MOOC retention rates have been a negative focus in publications,
and were an issue within this study. Future research should focus on improving retention rates.
Currently, limited data exists on why participants drop out of MOOCs.
McAuley, Stewart, Siemens, & Cormier (2010) examined the hypothesis that prosperity
depends on a digital system to create wealth. Study findings show that MOOCs embody digital
systems because of their open and co-creative nature. Hence, MOOCs need to be a primary
source of investment for the future of wealth creation in a knowledge-based society. Study
limitations included a gap in significant research. The qualitative data from this study suggests
that there is currently no way to judge the economic impact of MOOCs. Therefore, the business
model at this time does not add to the GDP in real dollars, making it hard to quantify the
economic impact on the macro economy. At the micro level, the development of skills can
provide the potential for career advancement affected family income.
deWaard et al., (2011) examined the hypothesis that the Connectivist massive open
online course (MOOC) format will help to analyze chaos, complexity, and emergence at work in
transforming educational systems. Study findings revealed that MOOCs compliment the shift in
learning to a knowledge era due to advances in social media, computing, and new technologies,
which provides a possible tool for educational enrichment. Furthermore, the technology
integration gave way to an emergence in activities and dialogue. Study limitations included the
limited literature on chaos theory in education and the effects of rapid innovation in technology
on the development of an effective framework to study. Currently, there is no accepted model for
the development and facilitation of massive open online courses. Advances in technology will
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make the identification of a defined complex system difficult. Therefore, models will continue to
evolve and adapt with technology.
Hogg and Lomicky (2012) used an exploratory factor analysis on data collected from 465
post-secondary students in an online course, to identify the four levels of Connectivist theory
(Openness, Diversity, Autonomy, Interactivity) developed by Steven Downes. Study findings
revealed that autonomy and openness were factors in the course, but that other characteristics
had lower levels of presence. In addition, the study found that students were able to easily shift
into a student-centered, or networked model of learning. A negative point of the study is that
instructors failed to engage with students in the online environment, which is cited in a number
of studies as a student complaint (Hogg & Lomicky, 2012; Kop, 2011). Study limitations
included the methodology not aligning with the Connectivist model and the use of convenience
sampling, which may not represent the population. A critical finding of the study is a high
participant comfort level with networked learning, which conflicts with findings from Fini
(2009).
Kop (2011) conducted a mixed methods study on the MOOC course titled PLENK,
which investigated three critical aspects of Connectivist pedagogy including: participant
autonomy, presence, and literacy, in an effort to understand the significance of these variables on
learner success. Study findings revealed that these variables indeed are required for success in
Connectivist MOOC environments. In addition, the study found that the social presence of the
instructor is meaningful to learner engagement and social connectedness. Study limitations
included time constraints on the evaluation of large amounts of quantitative and qualitative data.
This study confirms what other data points to and that is the importance of instructor
participation in MOOC environments (Hogg & Lomicky, 2012). In addition, that digital literacy
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plays a key part of learner success. Future MOOC models need to include these critical aspects
into the learning environment design phase to reach higher learning outcomes and student
satisfaction. Further research needs to be conducted on the efficacy of content creation.
Cowan, Neil, & Winter (2013) investigated faculty instructional trends when moving
from face-to-face to online courses through the lens of Connectivist principles, through surveys,
focus groups, and individual interviews. Study findings revealed that learners in virtual
environments did not use synchronous tools, which in part is due to convenience considerations,
which supports other research findings (Fini, 2009). Study limitations included a small sample
size making the results not generalizable. The implications of this study suggest that limiting the
number of tools available in MOOCs will result in a clearer framework for participants.
Therefore, existing models need to be revised to include streamlining tool sets. Further research
needs to be conducted to include a large sample size.
Mackness, Mak, & Williams (2010) explored the perspectives of learners in the MOOC
CCK08 course through surveys and interviews, focusing on the four Connectivist principles
developed by Downes. Study finding revealed that a defined instructor intervention policy might
be necessary even through networked open learning relies heavily on autonomy. Furthermore,
that complex learning networks may reach the goals of the Connectivist principles, but a course
will provide complications and compromises. This study echoes other data, which shows the
difficulty of reaching high levels of success in all four principles of Connectivism (Hogg and
Lomicky, 2012). Study limitations included a small sample size, which demands a larger
research sample size to confirm the study results. The implications of this study suggest that a
course framework is not the ideal setting for a Connectivist experience. Future research needs to
focus on Connectivism in a complex learning network.
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Kop, Fournier, & Mak (2011) examined how developing technologies, such as MOOCs,
could influence the designs of online learning environments. The researchers used a mixed
methods methodology relying on a variety of data collection techniques such as tracking,
surveying, and virtual ethnography. Study findings show that meaningful learning will occur if
social and teaching presence is part of the learning environment design. In addition, the more
experiences with networked learning (MOOCs) the higher the level of participation. One critical
piece of the research is the idea of confidence. When individuals are technically confident they
are willing to create artifacts. In contrast, participants are likely to just consume when they don’t
understand a topic or the technology.
The limited research on massive open online courses shows the importance of instructor
involvement in the course, which is in direct conflict with the adult learning principle of
autonomy. In addition, adults are able to confidently utilize networked learning as part of
learning design. With the rapid changes in technology, it will be difficult to advance an accepted
Connectivist MOOC model. Models will continually change to adapt to new technological
innovation making it difficult for human resource professionals and trainers to produce courses
centered on Connectivist principles. Instructional designers will become necessary in this
emerging environment.
Autonomous Learning (Self-directed learning). One of the four core structures of
Connectivism is autonomy. Self-directed learning is about individuals taking responsibility for
their own learning. Individuals select content, manage activities, and pursue their own course,
which is influenced by adult learning principles Knowles’s espouses. It is important to
understand how self-directed learning plays a role in current learning practice to justify its
relevance in advancing new models for learning which might include this strategy.
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Bear (2012) used a descriptive research design to describe adult learning strategies using
an online auction website. A sample of 380 Ebay users completed surveys about their learning
experiences. The study found that the participant experience supports the four core assumptions
defined in Knowle’s (1980) andragogy model. The first assumption validated in this study is the
concept of adults needing to know. In this case, adults explored the auction website before any
task was completed. The second assumption is the self-concept. This concept shows adult
learners inner desire to move from dependency to self-determined, which was reflected in the
data analysis. The third assumption is the role of previous experience. Adults bring a lifetime of
experience to the situation, which enhances their experience. The final assumption is a readiness
to learn. This is connected to the learners’ stage in life. The Ebay process had great relevance to
participants in this study. Therefore, it enhanced the learning experience.
The four assumptions provided in the Knowles (1980) model, provides a framework for
adult learning relevant to the concept of self-directed learning. Further, that adult intrinsic
learning styles align with the autonomous, or self-directed learning model. With that said, this is
a critical area for adult learning and needs to be incorporated into training and development
formats moving forward.
Galbraith, Quinney, and Smith (2010) examined a technology challenge course for
librarians through the lens of andragogy and self-directed learning. Survey results found that a
self-directed approach fosters technical skill development for adult participants. In addition, that
this format supports life-long learning in an effective and efficient way. Participants felt that
continuous learning added to their job satisfaction and confidence levels. Implications for this
study include the support of Knowle’s model of adult education and the efficacy of the self-
directed learning approach.
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Nefdt, Koegel, Singer, and Gerber (2012) evaluated 27 parents in a self-directed learning
program to see if behavior changed in parents of kids with autism. Results from questionnaires,
observation, and a parenting stress index found that the introduction of self-directed learning
materials increased parent confidence, therefore learner language ability, as demonstrated
through observation. This study supports the efficacy of self-directed learning as a model for
adult learning. Implications for this study include an effective method for early intervention into
skill acquisition, which is relevant for on boarding into new work positions.
Artis, Boyer, and Edmonson (2012) conducted a meta-analysis on 36 educational studies
through the lens of five educational constructs: academic performance, aspiration, curiosity,
creativity, and life satisfaction. The average age of participants across studies was 33.4 years.
The research found that higher levels of participation in self-directed learning are associated with
higher levels of all five educational constructs. Looking at Knowles model of adult learners, it is
understood that these five educational constructs are similar to adult’s fundamental learning
needs. Consequently, self-directed learning has the ability to positively effect adult learning.
Conceptual Framework
Based on the literature review, a conceptual framework for developing 21-century learning skills
was designed.
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Figure 1.3. A Model for 21st Century Learning. Rodriguez, 2013.
Literature Review Summary
Connectivism is a theory for the digital age, where networked learning is meaningful and
practiced by 21st century learners. Behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist theories provide the
foundation for Connectivist theory, making it a viable alternative. In addition, the theory is
influenced by chaos and complexity theories, which have only recently emerged in the field of
education. Scholars have not agreed on whether Connectivism is a learning theory or a teaching
model due to a lack of academic studies and time considerations.
Employees in organizations currently seek alternative methods for training and
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development to the traditional instructor-led methods. Research evidence supports the notion that
online education provides the same, if not better, learning outcomes than its instructor-led
counterpart. Furthermore, that the flexibility and autonomous learning found in current online
learning practice aligns with some principles of adult education theories. The Connectivist
model, presented in this chapter, provides additional principles to enhance online learning and
the 21st century learner.
Massive online open courses (MOOCs) are the testing ground for the theory of
Connectivism. Limited research exists on MOOCs. Current studies show many effective aspects
of MOOCs for adult learning and the alignment to adult education principles, found in Knowles
Theory of Andragogy. While challenges exist, as identified in current studies, obstacles can be
overcome through the development of a complex system built on sound adult education and
Connectivist principles. Out of these limited studies there is no study where a MOOC is
presented as an organizational training model for professional development. This study will
employ the conceptual framework presented in figure 1.2 as a model for employee training and
development.
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Chapter 3: Research Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to identify an effective process for 21st century training and
development programming centered on innovation and creativity. The researcher has selected a
mixed methods study. Mixed methods research applies both quantitative and qualitative methods
in an effort to gain a more complete picture of the research problem.
The research questions consist of both quantitative and qualitative types due to the
selection of a mixed methods approach, as stated in chapter 1 and above. The research questions
are:
1. How does student performance learning outcomes compare between a face-to-face
workshop and a Connectivist MOOC?
2. In what ways does community based online instruction, a Connectivist perspective,
enhance faculty and staff training and development?
This chapter will describe the methodology for conducting this research study through the
focus on two main areas the research design and rationale and the site and population.
Research Design and Rationale
The researcher will utilize a mixed methods research approach for this study. Mixed
methods research has been described as a “third movement” in the evolution of research
methodology (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). While there is not universal agreement on a
definition for mixed methods (Thomas, 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004), the working
definition for this study is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and mixing qualitative and
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quantitative research methods into a single study (Cresswell, 2008). This method improves the
research because different approaches have both strengths and weaknesses (Johnson &
Christensen, 2008).
The mixed methods design that best fits this study is Triangulation. This design, shown in
figure 1.1 below, allows for the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data at the same
time. Then, the researcher can analyze the data separately and comparing the different sets
looking for supporting or contradicting evidence. Therefore, the design provides the flexibility
and features the researcher needs to answer the research questions.
For the quantitative part, the researcher will use a quazi-experimental design. This design
allows for testing two different methods of training and development in a controlled
environment. For the qualitative part, the researcher will use a case study approach. Creswell
(2008) describes case study as a study conducted within a bounded system. The researcher will
use a single site to collect research data.
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Figure 1.1 – Triangulation
Site and Population
Population description. The population to be studied, as mentioned in the introduction
to this chapter, is the faculty, staff, and administration at a large urban research university in the
Northeast. The study’s population consists of approximately 4800 people working full-time at
the university. Individuals have diverse educational backgrounds ranging from high school
diploma to Ph.D. The population consists of ethic diversity across all colleges and schools. Staff,
faculty, and administrative salaries range from 30k to 350k per year. The population of this study
is limited to this single university site.
A representative sample will be selected from the 4800 employees at the university. The
researcher will use a sampling technique known as stratified sampling, which is a type of
probability sampling. Teddlie and Yu (2007) identify this technique as one of five sampling
strategies that can be used effectively in mixed methods research. This technique allows the
researcher to gain a representative sample of the population. The researcher will break the
population into categories, also called strata, according to the characteristics, such as age and
gender. Then, the researcher will randomly select from those categories the participants into the
study. The estimated sample size is one hundred and fifty people.
Site Description. The university is located in a major urban setting in the Northeastern
part of the United States operating a main campus and a number of satellites around the country.
In addition, the university is a national leader in online education. The university boats a top 100
ranking from U.S. News and World Report and is one of the premier employers in the region
having a robust future economic outlook for students, staff, and facility.
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The university hosts more than 20,000 students in more than 70 undergraduate degrees
and 100 graduate degrees. The majority of students come from the United States, but the
university has seen recent growth in international applications because of a targeted marketing
approach in China and other international locations.
Site Access. There are a number of site considerations for the researcher to take into
account. Some were mitigated because the researcher is doing a backyard research study, a study
of the researcher’s current employer. The first consideration is building access. The researcher
will be provided access to an on-site office. Access to the site, when needed, will be made
available through the facilities building manager. A schedule will be provided for the entire
study in order to secure space. This creates a situation where the participants do not need to
travel in order participate in the initial interview or attend the face-to-face sessions. This also
provides an added convenience to the researcher because of close proximity to participants,
offices, and additional facilities.
The second consideration is access to the population. Managers of the participants need
to be informed of the study in advance of employees receiving invitations. This will involve a
face-to-face meeting between the researcher and managers. The researcher will use a lay
summary to describe the study to the managers. The summary is meant for selected participants,
but it contains information that would be beneficial to the management. Once agreements are
reached formal invitations can be sent out to the arranged participants.
The third consideration about the site is cost. Financial feasibility of the study is
especially important when operating in a low budget situation. In this study the cost of
participant travel, facilities, participants, food, and equipment is all being donated in kind by the
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college. The relationship between the researcher and college administration has played a part in
the ease of setup.
Research Methods
Data collection methods. The following three methods will be used to obtain data in this study:
surveys – pre and post surveys;
Observation – online and in-person;
Statistical data – exam.
Surveys. Surveys are used to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors or characteristics of a
population (Creswell, 2008). The researcher will use a cross sectional design, which collects
information from the population at a certain point in time. This particular study looks to capture
the attitudes, beliefs, and opinions of the sample population through a pre-survey and a post-
survey.
Surveys will be sent to participants electronically by email. The researcher’s workplace
has made available Survey Monkey, which allows for the rapid collection of data. In the first part
of the survey the researcher will be collecting background information for classification
purposes, such as age, gender, technology experience, and online class experience. The second
part of the survey presents questions on attitudes about online learning. The estimated time to
complete the pre and post survey is 30 minutes, barring any technical issues.
This study looks to collect the attitudes of the participants on online learning. The
researcher has identified a type of instrument for the collection of attitude called Semantic
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Differential (SD) Scaling. This scaling technique elicits participant stimulation through the
selection of bipolar adjectives at either end of a rating scale.
The researcher will utilize the test-retest method, which is one of the five reliability forms
presented by Creswell (2008). This allows the researcher to review the results from both surveys
looking for a high correlation for each individual. In essence, a high correlation will confirm the
reliability of the survey instrument.
Observation. Observation is watching the behavior of people to look for patterns to
obtain information about the phenomenon, or subject of the study (Johnson & Christensen,
2008). In this study the researcher will perform quantitative observation of the sample
population. Rationale for the selection of this type of method is the need for the collection of
participation frequency data. The data will be collected through video recording of the face-to-
face classes. In the online class, the data collection will come through manually gathering course
statistics.
Johnson and Christensen (2008) provide a list of what observational procedures need
standardized. Table 1.1 below provides a list of what needs standardized, according to Johnson
and Christensen, along with the researcher’s descriptive action plan.
Table 1
Observation Plan Table (Johnson and Christensen, 2008)
Procedural Questions Observational Procedures
Who is observed? Every single participant will be observed in the face-to-face and online settings.
What is observed?
In general, the participation of the participants in the course. Specifically participation means the frequency with which one interacts with the class, through speaking to a small or large group, adding content to the course
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(website links, blogs, and videos).When does the observation take place?
Every session of the face-to-face course will be video captured; meaning that the observation takes place each time the class meets. The online course data will be captured by the learning management system (LMS) for later researcher data analysis. In essence observation is occurring every time the student logs into the course.
Where does the observation take place?
The face-to-face course will be scheduled for the same classroom each time there is a session. The online course participation will occur through the same website and in the same LMS system for the four weeks.
How are the observations to be done?
The face-to-face course will be recorded each time a session is held. The online course will record all course statistics through the LMS tools available to the instructor and administrator.
Quantitative observation instruments are usually more detailed than a qualitative
instrument; this is due to the confirmatory nature of the quantitative paradigm, or model
(Johnson & Christensen, 2008). A number of instruments fall under quantitative observation. For
instance, Sullivan and Glance (2009) provide four types of instruments:
categorical frequency;
performance indicator;
visual diagraming;
tailored.
In this study, the researcher will use a categorical frequency instrument called the Student
On-task and Off-task behaviors instrument, developed by Glickman, C. D., Gordon, S. P., &
Ross-Gordon, J. M. (2007). The researcher will ask permission from the authors’ via email to
adapt the instrument to fit this study. This instrument will define behaviors that can be checked
in short intervals as they occur.
Statistical data - exam. The researcher will use an achievement test, which is designed
to measure the degree of learning that has taken place (Johnson & Christensen, 2008).
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The instructor will issue a test to the students. Next, the instructor will collect the test at
the end of a one-hour period. Finally, the tests will be mailed to the researcher for data analysis.
The names on the test will be coded before the researcher receives the exams.
The exam instrument will consist of a standardized achievement test along with a
teacher-constructed test. The rationale for merging two different types of tests into one exam is
because reliability can’t be easily proven on an instructor created test. In contrast, standardized
tests can conform, through data, reliability. At this time the research has not selected the
standardized instrument.
Data . The following section presents the data analysis procedures.
Table 2
Data Collection Analysis Table
Research Questions Data Collection Method Data Analysis Tools
Qualitative Survey, Observation Descriptive Survey
Monkey
Quantitative Exam, Survey, Observation Central Tendency,
Standard Deviation,
Variance
Excel
Quantitative Data. The quantitative data in this study will be presented using descriptive
statistics. The raw data produced from the test scores and participation rates will be inserted into
Microsoft Excel to produce the following tables and graphs:
measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode);
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frequency table (gender, test score, age);
Variance and standard deviation;
To explore if a relationship exists between two variables, the researcher will use a
correlational statistical analysis. In this analysis, the researcher will predict the outcome of the
relationship between two variables and will then collect and analyze data to inform the research
hypothesis. In this study, the researcher will correlate, or compare, the following variables:
Age/test scores;
Age/participation;
Age/attitude;
Qualitative Data. Creswell’s (2006) six-step qualitative analysis model will facilitate the
qualitative data collection. The six steps are:
1. Organization of the collected data.
2. Reading of the collected data.
3. Coding of the collected data.
4. Describing the collected data.
5. Representing the collected data.
6. Interpreting the collected data.
Stages of Data Collection.
InvitationPhase ISummer 2013
Invite to survey Send email invitation to the population to be studied. Conduct follow up phone calls.
Stages of Data CollectionPhase IIMarch 2014
Pre-survey Sent out to sample population
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April 2014 Online and face-to-face courses (4 weeks)
Observation takes place, test is administered.
Data AnalysisPhase IIIApril 2014
Post-survey Sent out to sample population
May 2014 Data analysis Analyze dataChapter 4 Write results chapter of
dissertationSummer 2014 Defend Defend dissertation
Pilot Study – Instrumentation
The researcher will conduct a pilot study to test the instruments to be used in the larger
study. The pilot study will be conducted with five elementary school teachers working in an
urban Northeast setting. The first goal of the pilot is to test the instrumentation. The second goal
of the pilot is to test the proposed study procedures.
Pilot methods. The following methods were used for the pilot study:
A pre and post survey will be created to collect qualitative data on demographics,
learning experiences, professional training and development experiences, and perceptions about
organizational learning. This survey will contain open-ended and close-ended questions.
Participants will select from a multiple-choice list for demographic and characteristic questions.
Open-ended questions will allow participants to respond about their experiences in training and
development situations.
Once the course starts, the researcher will use observation as a method of data collection.
Because the pilot is online, the researcher will have the ability to collect data points through
asynchronous discussions. In addition, the researcher will be able to review participation
frequency through system tools.
vii
An exam will be administered at the end of the pilot to gage learning. This assessment
tool will be emailed to participants similarly to the surveys using Survey Monkey, software to
develop surveys and questionnaires. The exam will
Pilot data collection. Data from the pre and post surveys will be collected using Survey
Monkey. Participants will enter their responses via a link received over email from the
researcher. In addition, the researcher will collect observational data using analytical tools from
the course management system. Lastly, the researcher will administer a end of course exam. This
assessment will be collected using Survey Monkey.
Pilot data analysis. Quantitative data from the pilot will be analyzed using Microsoft
Excel. Qualitative data will be analyzed using NVidia to identify major themes.
Reliability and Validity Procedures
For this mixed methods study, the researcher will use multiple methods for data
collection, or triangulation, which will increase the study’s validity. Triangulation is traditionally
used in qualitative research to confirm validity because of the nature of the method. In addition,
the researcher’s professional background will provide creditability to the study.
To validate the quantitative aspects of the study, the researcher will use the content
validity methods. This effort is designed to provide empirical evidence that the instrumentation is
testing the intended behaviors so that inferences made from the scores are valid. There are four
main aspects to content validity domain definition, domain representation, domain relevance, and
appropriateness of the test construction process (Sireci, 1998). In addition to using this structure,
the researcher will use a subject matter expert to review test specifications and items to ensure
domain standards.
vii
The researcher will utilize the test-retest method, which is one of the five reliability forms
presented by Creswell (2008). Through this method, the researcher will look to examine the
consistency of the participant responses to the instrument.
Ethical Considerations
There are a number of ethical site considerations the researcher will take into account in
this study. Johnson and Christensen (2008) define six key items the American Education
Research Association (AERA) presents as ethical standards. They are:
Obtain informed consent.
Assent and dissent with minors.
Passive vs. active consent.
Deception.
Freedom to withdraw.
Confidentiality, anonymity, and privacy.
The researcher will use those six areas to inform the methodology.
Continuing with ethical requirements, the site requires that an Institutional Review Board
(IRB), which is made up of university faculty members, vet all research proposals. Their goal is
to protect the participants of the study. A clear detailed summary will be provided to the board in
order to gain access to the participants. The researcher will need to provide an informed consent
form to all participants in the study based on the IRB guidelines. The informed consent forms
will inform participants about the confidentiality of this research process. This step is secured
through making the participants anonymous to the researcher. Therefore, no names or identifying
information will be released about individuals participating in the study.
vii
Another consideration to mention is politics. Because the researcher is conducting a
backyard study, there exists the possibility that a gatekeeper requests from the researcher to
change the conclusion or recommendations. The investment in traditional forms of training and
development, the comfort level with existing programming, or not wanting the researcher to gain
prominence are a number of political issues the researcher could potentially face. These concerns
are not abnormal from typical organizational workings, but need to be monitored during and
after the study.
It is important for the researcher to clearly explain philosophical underpinnings that may
affect the study. The researcher believes in the mixing of quantitative and qualitative forms to be
in the interest of philosophical inquiry, a form of questioning knowledge. The weaknesses in
both forms of research can be improved through the mixing of paradigms. Taking a pluralist
position on research allows for scholars to work together on educational problems that one
researcher working alone might not be able to solve.
It is essential in a mixed methods study to select individuals who are representative of the
study but can also help explain the phenomena. The characteristics of the participants can
emerge as the study emerges. The existing, or developing, relationships between the researcher
and participants/gatekeepers, needs to be fostered throughout the study. These relationships will
make for smoother sailing throughout the process. Site considerations can be overcome with
effective planning and relationship building in order for the study to reach its full impact.
Lastly, the researcher has completed the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative
(CITI) training on conducting ethical research. CITI is the premier organization providing
vii
training and development for educational researchers. This training, combined with doctoral
course work, ensures ethical practices are recognized and adhered to in this study’s design.
Summary
In summary, this chapter defined the research methodology for this study. The researcher
will use a mixed methods triangulation model to conduct the study at a large urban university in
the Northeast. The population consists of approximately five thousand employees. The
researcher will use a stratified sampling technique for the selection of participants into the study.
A pilot will precede the study to validate the instrumentation and refine the defined procedures.
Appendix A
Research Synopsis
Introduction
vii
According to a Society for Human Resources Management (2008) report, preferences for
training delivery do reflect the current delivery options. One of the challenges for human
resources professionals is the selection of professional development formats based around the
employee wants and needs (SHRM, 2008).
Statement of the Problem
Current training and development programs do not reflect employee preferences for
delivery mode. Therefore, human resource professionals are not maximizing training programs,
which will result in little movement in terms of innovation and creativity in the United States.
Purpose/Significance of the Problem
The purpose of this mixed methods study is to identify an effective approach to
maximizing training and development program outcomes at a large urban research university in
the Northeast. The study is significant to the organization because it presents a 21st century
learning model for human resource professionals, deans, and managers. To this point there has
been no study that looks at the use of a Connectivist MOOC specifically for staff professional
development. Therefore, there is no data to support this model’s efficacy, making it difficult for
colleges and universities to integrate this method of training delivery into a strategic professional
development plan.
Research Questions
This researcher’s hypothesis is that a Connectivist MOOC addresses employee learning
needs and is a more effective approach for professional development than its face-to-face
counterpart. The study looks to answer the following research questions:
vii
1. How does student performance learning outcomes compare between a face-to-face
workshop and a Connectivist MOOC?
2. In what ways does community based online instruction, a Connectivist perspective,
enhance faculty and staff training and development?
3. What are the participant perceptions about training and delivery formats?
4. What are the participant traits that allow for success in massive open online courses?
Coming into the study, the researcher holds the following assumptions:
Assumption Experience Values BeliefsKnowledge can be enhanced through different pedagogical approaches to learning
Teaching online and face-to-face has shown that students maintain different learning styles
Different formats of online learning provide high outcomes for adult learners
Each learner has a unique learning style
Adult learners are capable of participating in a self-directed complex environment
I have worked on research studies with faculty using complex systems where informal learning has taken place
Connectivism provides the theory to develop a complex environment for learning
Self-directed learning is deeper learning because of the nature of self-directed inquiry
Autonomous learning is a preference of adults
In my experience teaching I have seen this preference. For example, students will use the OWL APA website instead of asking the instructor for a lesson on APA
Autonomous learning events provide a way to enhance life and career.
Adult learners bring a lifetime of experience to the situation, which allows for confidence.
Adults seek learning experiences because of a need
When I need to complete a task I often turn to the Internet to find a video or text documentation to learn how to do something.
Improvement of life/career/health/relationships
Adults learn to try to reach career or personal milestones
It is critical to understand the researcher’s conceptual stance because it underpins the decision
vii
making process for this study.
Conceptual Stance
The researcher’s philosophical stance aligns with the pragmatist paradigm. This paradigm
provides the flexibility for the use of different research methods in a single study.
Pragmatists have made a compromise on the long-standing arguments of the purist only
researchers. Thus, the researcher looks to utilize all methods of research available to address
the problem statement.
Conceptual Framework
Figure 1. The Researcher’s conceptual framework.
Methodology
The researcher will utilize a mixed methods research approach for this study. While there
is not universal agreement on a definition for the mixed methods design (Thomas, 2003; Johnson
& Onwuegbuzie, 2004 ), the working definition for this study is a procedure for collecting,
analyzing, and mixing qualitative and quantitative research methods into a single study
vii
(Cresswell, 2008). This method improves research quality because of the strengths and
weaknesses found in pure qualitative and quantitative approaches (Johnson & Christensen,
2008), which gives the researcher the best chance to successfully answer the research questions.
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