january26, 2001 gwp-samtac, santiago chile by …...january26, 2001 gwp-samtac, santiago chile by...
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Flood Management Experiences in the United States
January26, 2001GWP-SAMTAC, Santiago Chile
by Jerome Delli Priscoli Ph.D.
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Context • Federal System: state, local – resistance to Federal interference– limited coordination on water
• Property rights– individualism– free market, private ownership
• Resistance to land use planning– Flood management must integrate
land use
• Lingering culture of primary structural responses
• Tradition of helping the victims– reinforces discontinuity b/w
assistance vs.mitigation, prevention
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History of Flood Plain Management US• 18th and early 20th century Local problem and
small scale structures• Mid 20th century Federal role and large structures• Later 20 the century back to more local and
movement to mix small and large and non structural
• Can track approaches in language e have used:– 1800s flood prevention– early 1900s flood control– mid 1900s flood reduction– latter 1900s flood plain management
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What is Flood Plain Management?• …decision making process that aims to achieve
the wise use of the Nation’s flood plains.• ..a continuous process of making decisions about
whether and how flood plain lands and waters are to be used
• Multiple actors: owners, businesses, officials at all levels, farmers developers, etc.
• Simultaneously present,near future, and long term viability
• Balancing of relative costs and benefits
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What is Wise Use? A Flood?• Wise Use…is any activity or set of activities that is compatible
with both the risks to the natural resources of flood plains and the risk to human resources (life and property)
• Defining a Flood..100 year flood, 1% annual chance flood or base flood, a flood of size that has a 1% chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year.(Properties beyond 1% flood area still at risk)
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Principles of Flood Plain Management in the US
• Major Federal interest but basic responsibility with sate and local governments
• See flood plains in context of total community, regional and national planning and management
• Flood loss reduction seen in larger context of flood plain management - not an objective in itself
• Resource management often focus on resource which may not be entirely in flood plain.
• Benefits and costs interrelated impacts• evaluation of alternative strategies
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The Situation in the US• Over 150,000 square miles (94 million
acres) or 7% of country prone to floods• Almost 10 million households and $390
billion in property are at risk today• Rate of urban growth in flood plain twice
the rest of country• Average annual loss of life from floods
stable• Average annual flood losses rising• Loss of natural flood storage continues
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Situation• Existing programs dampening but not solving
flooding problems in US• Damages incurred far less then damages prevented
by Corps projects alone. • Other programs and regulations are also
preventing and avoiding.• But damages have increased in real dollars and
disaster relief average $3 billion per year and uninsured losses are growing.
• Extreme weather conditions have made a difference (eg. Hurricane Floyd, Upper Miss ‘93, Grand Forks - some worst damage in US history)
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Situation (con.)• Unprotected development in the 100 yr. plain and
continued development just outside the 100 yr.. Plain.
• Those deciding to live and do business in flood plain not paying proportionate costs of the decisions
• Grants and other post flood assistance reduce incentives to take preventative measures.
• 20,000 communities in flood plains, 90% participate in NFIP but less then 20% of occupants buy insurance.
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Real Flood Damages 1903 - 1996 (Billions ‘95 $’s)
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Flood Damages per Capita (‘95$’s)
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Real Damages Prevented 1950 - 1996 (Billion ‘95 $’s)
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Damages as % of GNP
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Figure 5Benefits of Federal Projects (Damages Prevented)
Accumulative Corps Expenditures (Principle plus O&M)
Billions of Dollars (Adjusted to 1999 using Construction Cost Index)
$0
$100
$200
$300
$400
$500
$600
$700
$800
Billi
ons
of D
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rs
1928
1931
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Fiscal Year
Accumulative Benefits
Accumulative Expenditures
Annual Benefits
National Flood Damages Suffered
0.0
0.1
0.2
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0.4
0.5
0.6
1903
1907
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f GNP
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History• Much of History written around the Lower Miss - Delta• By 1727 Nouvelle Orleans protected by 4 ft embankment• 1543 DeSoto noted:
– Indians raised mounds by hand and built high where they could
• From 1823 Federal role in water emerges -mostly navigation related with continual debate about flood control role with floods in mid 1800’s to 1917
• Debate in 1800s and early 1900s:– Ellet - mixed high levees, structure and outlets– Humphreys Corps of engineers -levees only– Humphreys wins out for 60 years until 1927 floods
• 1879 Miss river Commission
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History (con.)• Flood Control Act 1917: lower Miss and
Sacramento river• Flood Control notion clashes with utilitarian use
last drop or it is wasted of progressive era• Flood storage and channel maintenance are
complex especially when linked to storage for supply and hydropower needs
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History (con.)• Flood Control Act of 1928: 1927 floods greatest disaster
in US history 700,000 homeless, $250 million in losses– previous 200 yrs. locals spent $300 million in lower
Miss– In single 1928 act Congress authorizes $325 million -
the greatest % of budget for water projects ever in US!– Ellet view of structures comes back– Benefit cost ratio introduced– DOA to work upstream and the Corps down but no
coordination mechanism put in place– Between 1936 -1952 spent $11 billion for flood control
projects and storage: single and mutli- purpose– Idea was to build way out of the problem1954 Watershed and Flood Prevention Act SCS of DOA
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History (con.)• 1940s to 1960’s Broadening views• As early as mid 1800s some realized the problem
was settlement and cultivation in the flood plain• Gilbert White, Harlan Barrows, U of Chicago,
Arthur Maass others develop alternative theory of flood management
• 1953 first first major test by TVA land use and flood control measures
• 1950’s, 60’s move for water resources coordination - WRC and River Basin Org.’s
• 1968 Flood Insurance Act
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History (con.)• 1976 National Program for Flood Plain Management
submitted by the WRC to President• 1979 Revision of Unified National Program
– raise natural and beneficial values of flood plain
• 1986 Revision of Unified National Program– recommend federal support to state and locals– two major NSF studies
• 1993 Upper Miss flood: Galloway Report and 1994 Revisions to President - 3 major recommendations;– Full consideration to all possible alternatives, evacuation, warning,
proofing, natural and artificial storage – full weight to social economic and environmental values in
analysis– more non structural: to reduce vulnerability through use of flood
plain management activities and programs
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Trends• Movements to coastal communities, adjacent to lakes and
rivers• Increased awareness in some parts of country to floods• Reduced ability to fund large capital measures those other
measures such as codes, regulation increasing• Rebalancing from structural to: local planning, regulations,
zoning, multipurpose management• NFIP a primary tool of management and increased
litigation over local government failure to endorse flood plain ordinances
• New awareness on natural functions of wetlands and internalization of EQ values
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Trends• Improved GIS, mapping and science• Balance between public and private rights shifting
to: stronger pubic rights as pubic nuisances costs grow high Courts and legislatures evolving to reflect these concerns
• Less Federal emphasis on structural approaches and more state/local cost sharing in these
• Government payment for disaster assistance increasing
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Institutional Coordination
• Private Sector• Local Communities• States• Federal Agencies
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Resource Protection
Flood Management
in U.S.
DisasterAssistance
Red Cross
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Farm Bi ll “Swa mpbuste r”
Federal E merge nc y ManagementAgency establi shed
C orps i nvolveme nt i nflood cont rol (Ri vers andHarbors Ac t 1824)
RESO URCEPROT ECT ION
Ameri can R ed C rossinvolveme nt i ndisa ste r re li ef
SC S authorize d to a ssist i nflood cont rol / conse rvat ionon smal l wa te rsheds
Associ ati on of St ate Fl oodplain Managers
St afford Disa ster Rel ie f Act
NATURALRESO URCE SMANAGEME NT
Nat ional Envi ronment alPolicy Act
C oa sta l B arrie r Re sources Act
USGS beginsflood studies
Soil C onservat ionServic e (SC S)est abli shed
USDA beginsrainfal l/ runoffme asure ments
FL OODCONTROL
B urea u ofR ecl ama ti onest abli shed
Fish and Wil dl ifeServic e e sta bl ished
Nat ional ParkServic eestabli shed
Water R esourc esPlanning Ac tUnif ied N ational P rogram f or
Managing F lood Losse s
Flood Disa ste r Prot ect ion Act
C orps Floodpl ain Manageme ntServic es Progra m
DISASTE RASSIST ANCE
1900
1970
1960
1980
1990
2000
1910
1950
1920
1930
1940
Key Events in the Progression of Floodplain Management
Eme rge nc y FloodC ontro l Funds Act
Flood Contro lAct of 1936
Fl ood ControlAct of 1917
Nat ional FloodIns urance Act
Exec ut ive Order 11988, F loodplain M anage ment
Unif ied N ati onal P rogram for Floodplai nManageme nt revise d
Unif ied N ational P rogram f or Floodpl ainManageme nt revise dWat er R esourc es De ve lopm ent Ac t
U.S. Fore st Servi ceconduct s flood controlrese arch in We st
FL OODPL AIN MANAGE MENT
Nat ional Ocea nic a nd AtmosphericAdminist rat ion establi she d
HUMANRESO URCE SMANAGEME NT
(Modified f rom A Unifi ed National P rogram for F loodplain Management, 1994)
Wat er R esourc es De ve lopm ent Ac tNat ional Weat her Servic e Mode rni zat ion
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Federal Emergency Management AgencyUS Army Corps of EngineersSoil conservation ServiceNational Weather ServiceUS Geological SurveyHousing and Urban DevelopmentSmall Business AdministrationEnvironmental Protection AgencyDepartment of EnergyForest ServiceEconomic Development CommissionDepartment of TransportationPubic Health ServiceBureau of ReclamationUS Fish and Wildlife ServiceBureau of Indian AffairsNational Ocean ServiceNational Park Service
Large Number of Actors Involved:
•No WRC or formal coordinator
•Federal Agencies
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• 1936 Flood Control Act:…non federal interests should (a) provide without
cost toe the US all lands, easements and rights of way necessary for the construction of the projects: (b) hold and save the US free from damages due to the construction works: (c) maintain and operate all the worked after the completion in accordance with regulations prescribed by Sec Army…
• Is a key to Institutional coordination
Cost Sharing: The Start 1936
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Cost Sharing Today• Evolves in Legislation of ‘38, ‘41, ‘74, ‘86, ‘96• Non Feds pay 35% for Flood Control project• LERR & D needs identified: Value set and
credited to non Fed contribution.• Cash of 5% paid by non federal sponsor• Value of LERR & D and 5% cash added: if less
then 35% extra cash paid: if more then 50% non Fed is reimbursed.
• Non Feds pay 50% of separable navigation and recreational costs assigned to project
• Non Feds provide all LERRD’s and perform all related necessary relocations
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Cost Sharing Evolution (con.)• WRDA ‘86:• Non Fed pays 5% of cost of project assigned to
flood control during construction• Non Feds provide all LERRD’s and perform all
related necessary relocations• Non Feds provide that portion of joint costs
assigned for FC• Total contribution on Non Feds will be equal to
25% of FC costs• Non Fed share shall not exceed 50% of FC of
project• Non Feds pay 50% of separable navigation and
recreational costs assigned to project
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Evolution of Cost Sharing for Flood Management
• Many changes: Major changes in WRDA ‘86 and ‘96
• 1938 FCA: eliminates a-b-c requirements for flood control reservoir, channel improvements and LERR to include highway, railway, utility relocation
• 1941 FCA: a-b-c to again include channel projects• 19WRDA ‘74: amended (b) … shall not include
damages due to fault or negligence of the US or its contractors.
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Cost Sharing (con.)• WRDA ‘96 • Changes percentage to 35%• LERR & D needs identified: Value set and
credited to non Fed contribution.• Cash contribution of 5% paid by non federal
sponsor• Value of LERR & D and 5% cash added: if
less then 35% extra cash paid: if more then 50% non Fed is reimbursed.
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Strategies and Tools for Flood Plain Management
• Modify Human Susceptibility to Flood Damage and Disruption
• Modify the Impact of Flooding on Individual and the Community
• Modify Flooding• Preserve and Restore the Natural Resources
Regulations• Increasing Focus on Non Structural Measures:
– reduce or avoid flood damages without significant altering the nature or extent of flooding….
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Modify Human Susceptibility to Flood Damage and Disruption
• Flood Plain Regulations (Codes and zoning)• Development and Redevelopment Policies• Disaster Preparedness• Disaster Assistance Flood Proofing, Flood
Forecasting and Warning System and Emergency plans– Problems linking evacuation and warning
• Preservation of Natural Resources
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Preserve and Restore Natural Resources and Functions of Flood Plains
• Floodplain, wetland, Coastal Barrier regulations– Federal, State, Local, Reg’s, Zoning
• Development and Redevelopment Policies– land acquisition and open space, relocation,
restoration, habitat preservation, location of service utilities
• Information and Education• Tax adjustments• Administrative measures• Beach Nourishment and Dune Building.
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Modify Flooding• Dams and Reservoirs• Dikes, Levees and Flood walls• Channel Alterations• High Flow Diversions• Land Treatment• On site Detention Shoreline protection• Special Grasses
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Modify the Impact of flooding• Information and education• Flood Insurance• Tax Adjustments• Flood Emergency Measures• Post Flood Recovery
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National Economic Development (NED) Categories of Goods and Services for
Public Water Investments1. Municipal and industrial water supply2. Agricultural floodwater erosion sediment reduction3. Agricultural drainage4. Agricultural irrigation5. Urban flood damage reduction6. Hydropower7. Inland navigation: Commercial & recreational8. Deep draft navigation9. Recreation10. Commercial fishing11. Coastal erosion, storm drainage reduction12. Environmental restoration
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Key Rules for NFIP
• No Development in floodway• No residential living area below
1% flood level• No non-residential development
subject to damage by 1% flood• No rebuilding below 1% if
damage 50% or more of structures value
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NFIP (con.)• Insurance industry participation in WYO program to:
– bring expertise, spread coverage, improve service
• Measures must meet minimum FEMA and include: zoning, subdivisions, building requirements, special purpose ordinances, outreach, education, others
• 1) Emergency Phase– Community applies– FEMA authorizes sale of insurance at reduced coverage– FEMA arranges study– FEMA provides FIRM– Community adopts new ordinances
• 2) Regular Phase– FEMA authorizes additional flood insurance– Community implements– FEMA arranges periodic assistance– Local officials request updated flood maps as needed
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NFIP (con.)
•Replacement costs for residential single family and residentialcondos insured at 80% •Some increased costs of compliance paid
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Policy, Planning and Analytic Approaches for Choosing Strategies and Tools
Analytic ApproachesBCA, Design StandardsHydrologic Analysis
Planning
Policy
Principles and Guidance forWater Resources Planners 1983
Uniform NFPM Prg. ’76,’79,’86,’94Exec Orders, Fed -State - Local Laws
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Principles and Guidance (P & G): US Accounting System for Public Water Investments
• National Economic Development (NED)– beneficial and adverse effects on the national economy in
monetary terms
• Environmental Quality (EQ)– effects of plans on significant environmental resources and
ecological, cultural and esthetic attributes
• Regional Economic Development (RED)– distribution of regional economic activity from each plan in
terms of regional income and employment
• Other Social Effects (OSE)– effects on urban and community impacts, life, health, safety
factors; displacement, long term productivity; energy requirements and energy conservation
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Some Project Level Policies• Without Project Condition• Flood Plain Management: avoid its dev. And focus
is on existing development• Use risk based analytical framework; expected
performance (no minimum) not levels of protection– can more small dams + more residual
• Reflect residual damages • Mitigation of induced flooding• Address minimum flow Evaluate EQ mitigation• No projects for single properties• Include steps of the NFIP: maps, etc.
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Benefits Calculations• Urban
– Inundation Reduction Benefits– Intensification Benefits– Location Benefits– Damages: Physical damages, Income loss,
emergency costs• Agriculture
– Damage Reduction– Intensification– Reduction in damage costs; erosion,
sedimentation, inadequate water supply– Value of increased production of crops– Economic efficiency of increasing
production of crops
NOT CREATING NEW FLOODWAY DEVELOPMENTBenefits cannot exceed the increased flood damage potential in comparing existing activity to the intensified/ changed activity
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Delineate Affected Area
Determine Flood plain
Determine existing flood damages
Estimate otherflood related costs
Estimate futureflood damages
Forecast activitiesin affected area
Estimate potential land use
Allocate land use
Collect market value data
Compute benefits
Urban Flood Damage Benefit Evaluation
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Agricultural Benefit Evaluation Procedure
Identify land use - cropping pattern with and without plan
For land where croppingpattern does
not change with plan
For land where croppingpattern changes with plan
Determine damagereduction benefit
Select method for intensification benefits
Use farm budgetanalysis
Use land value analysis
Determine Total Crop Benefit
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Analytical-Planning Impediments• BCA does not account
for EQ, Social and Distribution effects
• Lack of political process for consensus on EQ value
• Permanent evacuation costs high vs. structural measures
• Exclude benefit of reduction of primary flood damage for evacuation
• Exclude reduction in disaster recovery cost as benefit
• Does not include avoided damages as additional benefits
• Little guidance on location benefits
• Including interest overestimates costs
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Analytical-Planning Impediments (con.)
• Project by project impedes systematic
• Institution resistance to change
• Non compliance with EO’s
• No coordination between buy out and FDP programs
• Poorest with most serious problems not participating
• Communities w/o vitality resist NSF
• Lower value of poor in flood plain provide less economic justification
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Comparison Flood Depths vs. Location
Minn.
vs.
West Va.
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Benefits of Non Structural Measures
Stage
Dam
age
Flood Warning PreparednessMethods for Quantifying Benefits
“Ad Hoc Method”
Warning shifts stage-damage curve downward
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Flood Warning Preparedness “Day Curve”
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Reduction in D
amages (%
)
Forecast Lead Time (in hours)
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Barriers to Non Structural and Balance• Full accounting of EQ and non monetary social impacts on
NSF is difficult• Procedures used for BCR are based on certain assumptions
that limit non-structural • Emergency flood relief and recovery payments by
Government (FEMA) create incentives against non structural
• FPM not being pursued in comprehensive fashion at all levels of government
• Those who live and work in flood zones not paying proportional cost of the decisions
• National policy on disaster response and assistance not aligned to management: actually still creating incentives for locating in flood plain.
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Barriers to NSFC• Analytical: Benefit Cost Analysis BCA
– Assess aggregate and blind to distribution– Perfect market conditions assumed– Dealing with non-monetized impacts– based on economic return thus may encourage investments in
high risk areas
• Policy: Principles and Guidance P & G and Policy– NED maximization rule biased against EQ -Social Accounts– Bias against broader non traditional benefits of NSF– System not set up to recognize least cost alternative which
may not be the best BCR– Issue for Treasury is cash flow and policy does focus on
minimizing tomorrow's losses
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Overcoming Barriers: Policy Directions
• Sustainability• Nonstructural• Structural• Agricultural Policies• Coastal• Data and Technology• Risk• Repetitive Losses• Property Rights.
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Sustainability
• Move toward likely future conditions to make risk analysis more realistic
• Including disaster resiliency in community planning: – FC measures flood resistant construction storm
water management– community zoning subdivision regulations
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Increase Use of Non structural Measures
• Buyouts (1993 flooding)• Elevating buildings• Buffer zones and Levee set backs• Keep vacated land in pubic ownership• Seeking permanent authority for NSFC• National riparian zone policy • Natural storage capacity• Building codes - International building code
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Increase Use of Non structural Measures
• New construction 1 - 3 feet of freeboard above base flood elevation
• Use confidence levels (90% -95%) for flood peak flows predictions
• No rise flood ways with no surface and velocity impacts
• Record waivers and disallow flood disaster assistance
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Structural• Must integrate structures and NSFC measures in planning• Use water shed or basin wide approach• Estimate useful life of existing FC structures and dam
safety– 200 failures in last 10yrs– 9,200 categorized as high hazard– 35% not inspected since 1990– Rehab estimate = over $1 billion
• New structures should be built to protect beyond the 1% to the 0.2% chance flood - avoid catastrophic floods
• Include failure zones of structures on flood hazard maps
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Structural (con.)• Tie zoning below dams to failure zones• Increase incentives for dam safety program
in states• Deal with small watershed aging dams
– over 10,000 in 2000 watersheds, 160 million acres
– one half over 30 years old• More technical assistance from Federal to
Locals on dams and FPM
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Agriculture Policies• Crop losses often exceed urban losses
– over half of taxpayers damages • Examine prevalence of repeat areas of losses• Institute voluntary permanent Easements
programs like after 1993 floods– should deny subsidies and disaster
payments if refuse permanent easement purchase
• Buffer zones: eg. DOA - Conservation Reserve Program - 150++ feet
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Agriculture (con.)• Levees; stop rebuilding where cost is greater then land
value - reduce Federal subsidy of 80% of costs• Construct levees so no impact on height of 1% flood• Several Crop insurance programs can encourage farmers to
plant in flood plains:– 1999 payments largest in US history at $28 billion– they guarantee 50% of average yield– 60%-65% of insured and uninsured losses paid in 1998– 25% - 35% premium discount for to farmers for buying up
coverage!
• Did not implement 1996 Flood Risk Reduction Program:– lump sum payments to offset Federal outlays on
frequently flooded land– pay 95% of 7 year market value – farmers could still use land way they wanted but no
loans or insurance eon that land..
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Coastal • Existing polices foster rather then discourage construction
on coasts despite 1982 Barriers act• NFIP not working for coastal areas, need:
– integrate coastal areas into NFIP– surcharge on areas subject to erosion– setback requirements
• Shoreline erosion: shift from jetties, sea walls to beach nourishment– expensive and need better cost sharing– consider setbacks and acquisition strategies– increase pubic access to improved beaches
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Data and Technology• No one entity has responsibility for collecting and storing
data about floods, defining floods, or damage!!• # of structures in flood hazard zone not known; need data
on repetitive loss structures• FEMA Improving methods for estimating flood damage• Stream gauge network is shrinking• New modeling that include unsteady flow conditions, levee
breaches, split flows and unstable land forms a debris flow being developed.
• Design manuals updated to include alternatives to structures and bioengineering.
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Risk • Need to improve risk communication:
– 100 yr. becomes 1% or high risk flood– 500 yr. becomes 0.2% or moderate risk flood
• Movement to risk based may mean more structures and away from design to a minimum standard and more structures will be built and increased exposure.
• Structures at 1% flood risk has 25% chance of being flooded during its 30 yr. Mortgagee: a 1% chance that same structure will have a fire - yet almost all have fire insurance and less then 25% have flood insurance.
• Residual risk below structures: Maps need to keep failure zones after structures in place
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Risk - Perceptions• Key to all is linking risk with behavior: active
choice/acceptance of risk versus passive being taken care of
• Engineers argued people felt more secure if see high levee or if see high earth dams versus stronger thin shell concrete
• Risk perception: People living on St. Andraes fault cannot understand how people can live in the Delta exposed to risk: Those in delta cannot understand those living on the fault line!
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Flood Insurance: Repetitive Loss Problem• 2% of policies under NFIP accounted for 32% of
losses and received 38% of pay outs from the National insurance fund.
• 300 high loss repetitive communities, in 35 states, or 1.6% of the 18,700 communities in the NFIP; 31,574 structures are less then 1% of total insured but receive 29% of all NFIP loss payments
• Moving to actuarially based premiums or adjust according to use of mitigation
• Replacement cost better for coastal: Market value for riverine
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Property Rights• Willing seller scenarios is basis
– key is partnership among levels of gov.and people (eg. Charles River in 1970s)
• Denial to rebuild as abridgment of rights– eligibility criteria exists
• Restriction on right to flood fight as abridgment– subject to state and community reg.’s– subject to liability of impacts on others
• National EQ programs as taking– eg. Wetland permitting
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Conclusions• Flood Management is Complex• We have much experience but still trying• We have moved from fear to control to prevention
to management and working with the floods• Structures and non structures must work together.• Changing behavior is critical.• Movement to: Active acceptance of risk and
responsibility vs. passive paternalism • The civic culture and civic infrastructure come
together in flood management: a learning ground for building Democratic civic culture.
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Lessons for GWP• Flood management important part of IWRM - optimal use
but brings complexity– links land to water: upstream to downstream– is a public good (eg.defense) thus offers additional
revenue sources for IWRM projects– help negotiating benefits vs. allocating flows
• Need to link post event reaction policy to anticipation, damage prevention and mitigation policies
• Hard to get benefits to poor if BC analysis is based on property values
• Critical issue is risk– communicating risk and reacting to warnings– active choosing risk versus passive acceptance links to
governance: building civic culture and democracy– From paternalism to informed consent